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4.0 International”. https://www.immae.eu/cours/

!" #

" $ %

& %

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) # * * # %
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+ , + -. / - 0
%

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! / & 2 %,
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/ ! "" 4
# & 5 " # %

6
6 3 3 3 3 3 3

= 3 = 3 = 3 = 3 %
' & = & 3 3 3 %
& = × & & ! " * %

0 $ "
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= %)
×
6

6 & & 8 & − & & 8 & = 227


− −
, / =; :9%7 %
' 6 = = 6 %' 6 = = & #

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=
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= 3? >7 @ = = 2 3>% 2>
) = 33 : :, &/

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A / $ %

B = %

. " = = &, ' %

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A " " / %

C B = %

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3
C B = = %

= = D

= = = = %


' * = & = 3; E %

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F < * $ / &
* 1
F > * % * *
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F = = / % # " %


. $ * *

=2%
< ⇔ <2
= ⇔ =2
> ⇔ >2
+ . 0 < G

C / < G
/ % * / H ≈ 2% 0 / H ≠2
$ $ %
, * / % ,
/ " # * * %
<
↓ ↓ ω ! < G%
= −ω
3
ω≈ 3
& %

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3
3

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= π &3 %
* / &
/ × = × = % / %
− = %

I * < G

J
I * = ⇔& + & − =
J
J
/ H & = & − &

: . * < G

J J
& + & − = ⇔ − + − =
J J

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) 2
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+ &
=2⇔ − =2⇔ = =

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α= "" # & 0 " L2 %

" $ =α × × % [α ] = 7 − %

χ =− "" # & 0 " L2

% " $ = −χ × × %
[χ ] = −
%

+ I!
6 "


= = %' = %

∂ ∂ −
α= = = χ =− =− × = =
∂ ∂ J J

3 6 < !
A "" # * *

) 0 " α= χ = %
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α= = ⇔ = & = & + !& = !&
×

>
" $
χ =− = ⇔− = − & = & + "& = "&
×

= #& × = ⇔ × $& = = & /


$& × × #&
/ / % #& = ⇔ = ×
×
! " = × × = & / - 0

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= = =−
χ

I *

% @
=∂ +∂ =α × × −χ × × % '
∂ ∂
χ ≈2 & $ 0 #
! χ & = : :% 2 − 2 −
%α 4 %' ≈2 =
& * # #

+ I

%
∂ ∂
" = + =
∂ ∂ =2

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