Voltage Stability 17.1 INTRODUCTION Voltage control and stability problems are very much ‘amiliar to the utility industry but are now receiving special attention by every power system analyst and researcher. With growing size alongwith economic and environ- Mental pressures, the possible threat of voltage instability increas t instabili electric is becoming y pronounced in power system networks, In recent years, voltage has been responsible for several major network colla York, France, Florida, Belgium, Sweden and Japan [4, 5]. Research workers, R and D organizations and utilities throughout the world, are busy in understanding, analyzing and developing newer and newer strategies to ‘cope up ace of voltage instability/collapse Voltage stability* covers a wide range of phenomena. Because of this, voltage stability means different things to different engineers. Voltage stability is sometimes also called load stability. The terms voltage instability and voltage collapse are often used interchangeably, The voltage instability is a dynamic Process wherein contrast to rotor angle (synchronous) stability, volt dynamics mainly involves loads and the means for voltage control. Voltage Collapse is also defined as a process by which voltage instability leads (0 very ‘ow voltage profile in a significant part of the system. Voltage instability limit 's not directly correlated to the network maximum power transfer limit. ACIGRE Task Force [25] has proposed the following definitions for voltage Stability. Small-disturbance voltage stability 7 re voltage stable A power system at a given operating state is smeill-distarbance oltag ie if, following any small disturbance, vollages near loads do not change oF =e : 13, Here _ *The problem of voltage stability has already been briefly tackled in Ch. wo itis again discussed in greater details by devoting a full chapter. a ove Analysis Modern Power System 592 | small-di ance voltage close to the pre-disturbance values. The concept of eal a ae stability is related to steady-state stability and can be analy: ig signal (linearised) model of the system, Voltage Stability i if i bjected slem at a givel g Slate is voltage stable if on being su ower System ata given operating st ee he ar fe disturbance, the voltages near loads approach the post-distursance juilibrium values, ‘ . : The concept of voltage stability is related to transient stability ofa eee system. The analysis of voltage stability normally requires simulation of the system modelled by non-linear differential-alyebraic equations. Voltage Collapse Following voltage instability, a power system undergoes voltage collapse if the Post-disturbance equilibrium voltages near loads are below acceptable limits, | Voltage collapse may be total (blackout) or partial. Voltage security is the ability of as zz ystem, not only to operate stably, but j also to remit stable following credible contingencies or load increas I ¢ Although voltage stability involves dynamics, Power flow based static amalysis methods often serve the purpose of quick and approximate analysis, : iy 172 COMPARISON OF ANGLE AND VOLTAGE sTaBiLity (i {ie Broblem of rotor angle (synchronous) Stability (covered in Ch. 12) is well | Pen at Ocutictled Gl. However yas Power system becomin, ! seresaited o” account of econsinic and sco constraint on addition oF tt) ettom fensformers, tansmission lines an allied equip, be j ability has bee 5 pMent, the Voltage insiabilty has become a serious problen Therefore, voltage stabi; ; | Have attracted the aitention of rover anners Worldcat Studies ative area of research, Morldwide and is an | Real power is related to rotor an aT i i le instability. Simi ‘ 5 | Central fo voltege insabilty analyses, Deficivor exon Stee ¥ teaetive power is j : Voltage instability cither locally ce Slobally and any incresee «FONE Heads to | lead tb Yoltage collapse Y increase in loadings may 1 «&,° li) Voltage Stability Studies : = & The woltage stability can be dacs e Studied : ‘ bance and nome SIEM dynamics voltage ene Othe nature of ee | c, or fast phenomenon, > oS NolaRe stability may be regarded a slow &, ' ry Static Voltage Analysis h Load flow analysis po E. Salas See ee ie oe equilibrium values (such as 2 ls D au wer How is a static analysie tool wherein inane eee Mimics is not explicitlyConsidered, Many of the ir NR load flow Study, : tails of : Considered further jn Section 17.5! Amd dy ; Some Counter Measure, Certain (i) g rCuNter Measures tp Void nerator termina] Volt: Age incre, (ii) “increase of g eNerato:; ‘ansforme- Power injection ay (iv) load-end OLTC blocking (V) strategic load shea din, Counter measures Section 17.6, sible) (ii) reactive 8 (ON occurrence of unde to prevent TVollage) Voltage collapse. will taken up in 17.3 REACTIVE POWER FLOW AND VOLTAGE COLLAPSE, Power syste Certain situations in M cause problems in reactiy I lead tc system voltage Collapse. Some of the sitaarons that can oseur on Misted and explained below, G) Long Wer flow Transmission Lines: In power systems, long 1 uncontrolled buses at the receiving Sloring light load or heavy Radial Transmission Line with yol major voltage prok ns of the parallel SHV Mii) es: Ina power system, most of eu a Tine ots &°° Composed of radial transmission lines. Any ss in system reactance, Under line in the network causes an enhancement in system certain conditions ‘he tothe load for a given Power requited by the small increase in [oa (ti) Shortage er delivered by the line(s) increase in reactive power deli ee Crop in voltage, is less thar the ee A ee fc ge drop. In such a ca load for the same voltage dr unstable st Causes the system to reach a volta Ff Local Reactive Pe d cisorganise ower: There may oceur a Sombination of out ¢ localised hat may eaUse ‘Age and maintenance schedule that 8 eee Teactive power shortage leading to voltage control a not be suncosstil ' 19 import reactive Power through long EHY lines will no ol ta j er a considerable Yu Under this condition, the bulk sysiem can suffer a consid drop { 17.4 MATHEMATiCas, FOR MULATION OF VOLTAGE STABILITY PROBLEM Me ! is steady sta The slower forms of Voltage instability are normally analysed a nou. “Snap Pblems using power flo Sthulation as the primary study me > simulated shots” an Cutage or during load build up ate ESHIES these post wer flow base “listurbance power flaws, two other powmethods are often used; PV curves and VQ curves, (Ser also Sec, two methods give steady-state loadability limits whieh are telated to Stability. Conventional load flow programs. ¢ ‘ain be uved: fe approx) analysis. ” imate P-V. curves are useful for conceptual analysis of voltage stability and fe study of radial systems or The mode! that will be employed here to a single line performance. The voltage per judge voltage stability is based on formance of this Simple system ig qualitatively similar to that of a practical system with many Voltage sources, loads and the network of transmission lines, ’ Consider the radial two bus system of Fig. 17.1, as that of This is the same diagram 5.26 except that symbols are simplified. Here E is Vg and Vig Vq and E and V are magnitudes with £ leading V by 4 Line angle = tay" XIR and izi= X : = R+ix Vv P+ia ; Line I M | Load T Fig. 17.1 In terms of P and Q, the system load end voltage can be expressed as (1 (—20xX+E? , 1 2 (2ax — £7)? — 4x*(P* + | 7 2 y (7D It is seen from Eq, (17.1) that V is a double-valued function (ie. a solutions) of P for a particular pf which determines Q in terms of P. . Z ee ch value of pf curves for various values of pf are plotted in Fig. 17.2. ne ce the higher voltage solution indicates stable voltage case, Leaps x Wollage les in the unsuble voliage opeation zone. The chigeove k V.,, (critical) and Py... The locus of Viz;-Praey points for a sh in dotted Line in the figure. Any attempt to increase the load waste 4 reversal of voltage and load. Reducing voltage causes un ihe oa causes to be drawn by the load. In turn the larger reactive s bt de suf velo 1 to dip further. This being unstable operation causes (he *) the eu sr put 9 q Collapre, Tis i also brought out by the fet Uw APES ay Mh, P ” > (0 (roduc! Nes “ <0 and in the lower part (unstable putt) 4); 9‘ ope Sa a be noted here that INS ype vag reducing voltage and vice-versa). It may sy systems Oe Oe If stical 5Y assumed in Fig. 17.2 is constant impedance. IP rhe such that 78 ti Noa are mixed or predominantly constant powst OFS » Cegradation is more and voltage instability accu power limit. hhUY Leet tg ana J Nowe rt can 2 > 09 ptivae 7 upt of “p Fig.17.2 py Surves for varicus power factors AS in the case of single line syst instability occurs above certain tus Condition is indicated by the singular.ty ofthe Jacobian of Load Flow equations and level of voltage instability is a9 essed by the minimum singular value Cenain results that are of significance for voltage Subility are as under * Voltage stability limit is reached when ‘em, in & general power system, volage loading and certain Q injections, This i where complex power at load bas ¥iz = load bus admittance ' 2) ry, lesse stability mas Nearer the magnitude in Eq. (17.2) to unity, ae pel * The loading limit of a transmission line can be determined fe (7 (Sls Vig ha X18 the critical system reactance beyond which voltage stability is lost. It can be expressed as load bus voltege Fear D (174) We b f dered how the PV characteristics with constant load © have so far considered ho » stability of & system. A more mesningful Power factor affect the voltage sta ree ability i the OV cl x lanacteristic Characteristic for certain aspects of volt nd vafiation of bus voltage with respect to which brings out the sensitiv reactiy Consider once again the simple rad sufficiently accurate to assume X ee een 6701 O'tLn is ie. @ = 90" It then follows that EV oon (17.5) Q= cos 8-5Modern Power System Analysis ce Vi - EVcos 5+ OX =0 (17.6, Taking derivative wrt V gives 6 _ Lemos 7 y (177) The OV characteristic on normalized basis (Q/P,,9., WE) for various Values of P/P,.a, are plotted in Fig. 17.3. The system is voltage stable in the region where dQ/dV is positive, while the voltage stability limit is reached at d@/ay = 0 which may also be termed as the critical operating point. Locus of artical points Hf Peoax is the maximum if power transfer atupt 10 —~ 05+ | \ ‘ | 0.75 \ yh + Stable operation Unstable+— PlFrmae = 0.5 ' operation x | i : A -05 + > VE : 0 0.2 06 08 10 fi Fig. 17.3 QV characteristics for the system of Fig. 17.1 for various values of P/Pax- | The limiting value of the reactive power transfer at the limiting stage of ; ay voltage stability is given by | 17, im = Ycos26 cae , oo ; statively apply © The ‘The inferences drawn from the simple radial system qualitatively PD follc practical size system. Other factors that contribute to system oe sy @ are: strength of transmission system, power transfer levels, load Coa pe generator reactive power limits and characteristics of reactive pom sating devices. Other Criteria of Voltage Stability iy | is cit” : 2 age), Using this : @ ay ctiterion: (E=generator voltage; V=load voltage): V s rion, the voltage stability limit is reached when and dP ES se 96192. 2" lasi cos 5 [SE 4 2} sin aw Xxr cos g/ dO ley" | Voltage stability ig achieved when 6 3( 82, 2 Ecos 8 ai )> Flee (short civuiy MYA Of power souee (17.19) (i) & criterion dv Voltage instability occurs when the SYStEM Z is such that vo az 7 or a dt Application of this criterion ives y Gi) Ratio of source stability alue of Z,, '0 load reactance is very important ani for Voltige fhe OLTC transformer at the load ead, indicates the off RoIninal tap ratio of the OLTC transf 17.5 VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYsIS The vol tage stability follow IN (WO aspects, : e measured ” Proximity ty voltage instabitiy: Distance to instability a se eh METS Of shysical quantities, such as Joad ‘evel, real pos Titers spacial intetface, and reactive power reserve. Possible « eactive paver source “ch as a line outage loss of a generating unit or a reactive p BO Bite dae conidoran on ge instability NeChaMiOn of voltage ‘nsiability: How and why does voltuge inst take place? Whar > Wheat are the esate the main factors leading to instability Dee volte Weak sreagy What are the most effective ways fo impr analysis for 3 jen system state involves examiningee Power System Ani _ ‘The static analysis techniques permit examination of a wide range of system conditions and can describe the nature of the problem and give the main contributing factors, Dynamic analysis is useful for detailed. study of specific voltage collapse situations, coordination of protection and controls, and testing ‘of remedial measures. Dynamic simulations further tell us whether and how the steady-state equilibrium point will be reached. Modelling Requirements of Various Power System Components Loads yy ctitical in voltage stability analysis, Detaled Load modelling is ver k area may be required. subtransmission system representation in a yoltage-weal ‘Tnis may include transformer ULTC action, reactive power compensauon, and voltage regulators. It is essential to consider the volta Induction motors should also be modelled. ge and frequency dependence of loads Generators and their excita tion controls nsider the droop characteristics of the AVR, load It is necessary to col stem), AGC, protection and controls should compensation, SVSs (static var sy’ also be modelled appropriately [4] Dynamic Analysis the system model for veltage stability analysis The general structure of Overall system equations may be similar to that for transient stability analysis expressed as k=f%V) 719 and a set of algebraic equations 1(X% Y= ¥w¥ i714) with a set of known initial conditions (Xp, Yo! where X= system State vector V = bus voltage vee:or current injection vector Yu = network node admittance main: f ving att 14) can be solved im Eme domain by employing Equations (17.13) and (17 2 cotmerial integration methods desctioed in CB 12 and poe smnalysis metbods described in Ch. 6. The sty period is of tHe OE cs ve. As the special models. representing the, ‘slow, th *citage collapse have been included, the sates of 9 1 equations is considerably higher 0 1 of as so is also calles synchronizing coettes syotert mint leading t© differents jpodels- Sifine n thal ent as iseStatic Analysig The static @PPIOACh ca frames along the time-dom, isi (17-13) is assumed to be zero, quel to the specific time frame, de algebraic equ; In static ations 4 f alll sy es NE the use of itetic analy tons rege aie Stability js YSIS top i ad by: termined py Mids, buses, Specig) techni ved by Teported in literature Met wes, modal) analysis. f, curves at Selected lo, ave been deyi information from a system-wide problems [13~15], Proximity to Instability Proximity to small-disturbance y load-generation in steps until the Or the load flow & 1) converge. Refs. [16—18} discuss special techniques for detemining the point Of voltage collapse and proximity to volave i stab lity oltage instability is dete: rmined by incteasing System becomes unstable The Continuation Power-flow Analysis The Jacobian matrix becomes Singular at the voltage stability limit, As sn “onventional Joad-flow algorithms may have convergence oe eae Sonditions near the stability limit, The cunts eae i “vercomes this problem by reformulating the bi ects at sera Wellcondianed at all posible Ying coodiom. 3S OT Solution of load-flow problem for both upper an Curve [17]. ; ae ae method of power- af ms age Suited for solving load flow problems wil xe roach ce the better approu suming. Hence the bet 2P iy the method is very slow and ti aa method (NR/EDLF) a © r ind flexible anc alysis is robust af : ae difficulties. Howe’ : sntional al load flow 1 ga convent “S€ Combination of conventional oe LE is solved sing eroud exe “on method. Starting from the base c&s jor successively IneTeNIS Toa is ions f ution Hethod to compute power flow soluti the cost fereafiet, “abl a solution cannot be ohrsinad Tesorted to obtain the load-flow soluti¢ ed exactl Tequired only if solutions are required inks Voltage Stability with HVDC Lin! sn methow IS Normally, ara and pot | for ext" DC) links are used bith voltage direct eurrent* (HVDC) lin nections ; ¢ intercon “ansmission and for asynchronous i 2 © refer : der “For detailed account of HVDC, the T°Modern Power m_ Analysis either a back-to-back rectifierfinverter link or can include tong distance de transmission. Multi-terminal HVDC links are also feastble ‘The technology has come to such a level that HVDC terminals can be connected even at voltage-weak points in power systems. HVDC links may present unfavourable “load” characteristics to the power system as HVDC )-60% of the de power, conyerter consumes reactive power equal (0 5 HVDC-related voltage control (veltage stability and fundamental frequency temporary over voltages) may be studied using a transient stability program, ‘Transient stability is often interrelated with voltage stability. Ref. [2] considers this problem in greater detail 17.6 PREVENTION OF VOLTAGE COLLAPSE (i) Application of reactive power-compensating devices Adequate stability margins should be ensured by proper selection of compensation schemes in terms of their size, ratings and locations. (ii) Controt of network voliage and generator reactive ouiput | utilities in the world such as EDF (France), ENEL (Italy) are developing special schemes for control of network voltages and reactive power. (iii) Coordination of protections/controts Adequate coordination should be easured between equipment protecaons! controls based on dynamic simulation studies. Tripping of equipment t0 avoid an overloaded condition should be the last alternative. Coatrolled system separation and adaptive or intelligent control could also be Used. (iv) Control of Tap changers can be controlled, either locally or centrally, so as to reduce the risk of voltage collapse. Microprocessor-based OLTC controls ofies almost unlimited flexibility for implementing ULTC control strategies °° a5 to take advantage of the load characteristics. ransformer tap changers y 8 (¥) Under voltage load shedding For unplanned or extreme simations, it may be necessary 10 UF undervoltage load-shedding schemes. This is similar to under frequett load shedding, which is a common practice to deal with extreme situaiio® resulting from generation deficiency. Strategic load shedding provides cheapest wy Voltage collapse. Load shedding schemes shou! between faulss, transient voltage dips 4 of preven differentia conditions leading to voltage collapse. (vi) Operators” role pio voltage stability related $? ee Operators must be able to recognise ee and take required remedial actions to prevemt WOlNsS ae si Cor ove sho stu new nay ConsMonitorin, a and 8PProptiate mae 17.7 STATE-OF Ty “THR. CHALLENGES") Futipg mission netwoy and envir; Sate ge Onmental Constraints, Tete networks optimally ele OS¢ to their tog the system operation is also neay v Is increased possibilit, Off-line and on-line tech; when it enters the unstable time control. Energ to economic 8. The tend ability mit. Tyo OPE is Conseq sent ‘Oltage stability tinae neem me 9 of veltage ae bli i 1S Stat State, provide a Management gy. and computer Processed ¢; i : 4 Vatiety of messuneg data, This is helpful to SYSEE operators in taking critical decisions inter alia reactive Power management and control In this fegard automation and spec; the burden of syste system operation Voltage stability analysis and techniques have been pusted forward by Several researchers and several of these are in commercial use as outlined in this chapter. As it is still hot topic, consid to it, operator of good part of 24€ to tae complexity of the le research effert is being devoted . dependent lad model Pai et al. [8) considered an exponential ype rolaee pei prediction and anew index called condition aumber frst ape es find critical gro. ee Eigenvalue analyses has been ee oe ce investigated aspects of fer voltage collapse, Some researchers [2 and their implications on pover bifurcations (local, Hopf, global) and 6 effectively used for contollin {sem voltage stability. FACTS deviws can be efit proper choice of err mic bifurcations and chaos b the occurrence of dynamic bifureatio sae 2 controller gains. based cont oa = eee + Co, has developed a ee gee up sOkyo: ectric Powel - cl] 0 ss coordinated pana capacitor bank switching ant ng of i od to im @ and sizing & pete: HVDC power control is used 10 IAP optimal sting ntact More systematic approach is still require trolls low OP a FACTS devices, The availability of FAC Se iseseatl ie the thermal limit of the lines without jeop Jat be erie tes SEE mpensation close to the load centres and probabisie al coming voltage instability, Better ak techaigues sould be tried. It will be worthwhile de cls {or yd novel can sy ge size systet jo “4Y Of non-linear dynamics of larg nts. sable fF Tog » that cagtive POM aks ‘papplying CM rove stability security. The sis may rei the vol un volege 5 equivale! ‘ W Methods to obtain network equiva ined e central fe uuvtis: ‘AT 5: another approach to ators 10 PP) sist ope “OMI. An expert system [9] could assist OFea Modern Power System Analysis _ generators operate near upf. The design of suitable protective measures in the event of voltage instability is necessary So far, computed PV curves are the most widely used method of estimating voltage security, providing MW margin type indices, Post-disturbance MW or MVAr margins should be translated (0 predisturbance operating limits that operators can monitor. Both control centre and power plant operators should be trained in the basics of voltage stability, For operator training simulator [10] a real-time dynamic model of the power system that interfaces with EMS contrals such as AGC is of great help, Voltage stability is likely to challe fore: utility planners and operators for the nsmission and load area das new t ble future. As load grows eneration become increasingly difficult to build, face the voltage stability challenge. Fortunately, many ¢r planners are working on new analysis methods and an innovative solutions to the voltage stability chall nore and more utilities will tive researchers and Example 17.1 A load bus is composed of induction motor where the nominal reactive pewer is 1 pu. The shunt compensation is X,,. Find the reactive power sensitivity at the bus wrt change in volt Solution [-ve sign denotes inductive reactive power injection] Here. 2 [Drom = 1.0 given] 40. “av Sensitivity increases or decreases with Ky, as well as the magnitude of we age. Say at V=1.0 pu, Ky = 08 Qy. dV 2V Ky 2- 1.6 = 0.4 pu. | Example 17.2 pus 00 Find the capacity of a stati VAR compensator to be installed 1 yee voltage fluctuation. The short circuit eapacty is S000 MYA. 2 5% voltage f Solution For the switching of siti shunt compensator, aAVay, lta, 4Q= TEaCtive Pore, € r Ge. the sine ition Neti: 5, ste © i ee) Then gy. 40 “aeciyy 42 = ays, 9.05 x Soggy = +250 MvaR The capacity of the statie VAR Sompensetor is 4959 MAR. Books |. Chakrabarti, A,, DP. Kothari ind AK Mathepadhyay, er roman, Operon Sid Control ‘of EHV Power Trantnicsion Systems Wires Putlsting. New Delhi, 1995 2. Taylor, CW, Power System Voltage Scabiti ¥, McGraw-Hill, New Youk, 199 3. Nagrath, 1. and D.P. Kothari New Delhi, 1994 4. Kundur, P., Power System Stability and Coniro!, Mol 5. Padiyar, KR, Power System Singapore, 1996. clr on Van and Costas Voumas, Voltage Srabity of Ee Khiwer Int. Series, 1998 Power System Engineering, Tua McGraw Hil woHlL, New York, 1994 Dynames: Stabile and Control, John Wiley 6. Cutsem, Ie Do) ve Collapse”s I ia Voltage Stability 1 7. Concordia, C (E2d.), “Special Issue 0 = Sabi Cali Electrical Power and: Energy Systems, Nol. 15,904 80g! rue ss wih Rte Geen i Power Systems alpase AM Pai, MLA. and M.G.O, Grasly,"Voltage Collp of Elect Machines and and Voltage Dependent Constraints”. Vol. 17, No. 6, 1989, pp 379-390. sung. psd 0 age * CIGRE! Task Force 38-6-01,"Expert Syste sok Contiol”, 1991 eps 1-748 NY 1 "0. “Operator Training Simulator”, EPRI Fined Rer sisal by EMPROS Systems Internations ier Dyna \ itty using Ge “9 49) Xt W and Y Mansour, “Voltage Stabilit 1994, pb ol, TEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol 9. N| Modem Powor System Analy’ ———— + xomhari, “Naltage Stability Enhancement LD Anya and DP. Kotha, © e Sn ig eee 12, Verma, HK pig (1), Vol Reactive Power Loxs Minimize mr Stability of Power 13. TEER, special Pubtioation 90 TH 035% pwet ei rena naa eo srsee Svability Condition a & Power 14. Fatato, NR: Oise se . os Me JERE Trams. Vel, Tanestesion jee ' weet degeel 128 nape Stability Evaluation Using Modal 5. Gan, BL GK M p Kani, “vl i Oe ee ee eee te Reactive Power Margins wrt Yolag ; - y yRS-6, No. 2. Feb 1991, pp 145-156. S seuinuation Power How: A Tool for Steidy ‘ ‘ IEEE PICA Conf. Proc. May 1991. pp 304-311 i 5 and DJ. Hill, Fast Calcu of a Vol Vol. PWRS-7, No. 1. Feb 1992, pp S468 ¢ Ranking based on tow Jacobian”, JIE ok DP. Kothari, “Line Out Minimum Eigen Value of Load and K.K. Saxena, “Oscillatory Stability ‘¢ Contrel Rescheduiling”, Int J. of Electrical Power No. 7, 1999, pp S07-S14. and DP. Kothari, “Line Switching for Alleviating . ¢ Condition taking Bus Voltage Limits into Account ric Power und Energy Svsiem, Vol. 22, No. 3, 2000, pp 213-221 D.P. Kothari and S. Kelapure, “An Efficient Approach to Voliage alysis and Enhancement”, Ini J. of EP and ES, Vol. 22, No. 7, Oct S.C, Chaube and D.P, Kothari, “Reactive Power Optimization using State Stability Index (WSI)", tut J. of Electric Power Components and Systems % LD. SC Chaube and D.P. Kothari, “Line Outage Ranking for Voltage v mas with ( Rescheduling Avoiding Masking”. Int. J. of B® ’ v No. 8 2001, pp 837-84 CIORE Technical Brochure: Modelling of Voltage Electra, No. 147, Apeit 1993, pp TET rE and M.A. Pai, “Hopf bifurcation control in power aywem ith 19, No S M compensators", Electrical Power and Energy Systems, Voh