Cite this article Research Article

Nguyen CO, Dao TVT and Tran TT Paper 2100079

Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains with surcharge preloading of Hiep Phuoc clay. Received 13/05/2021;
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Geotechnical Engineering, Accepted 22/12/2021
https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeen.21.00079
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Geotechnical Engineering

Analysis of prefabricated vertical

drains with surcharge preloading
of Hiep Phuoc clay
Cong-Oanh Nguyen PhD Thi-Thanh Tran PhD
Southern Institute of Water Resources Research, Ho Chi Minh City, Professor, formerly Head of the Foundation and Geotechnical Engineering
Vietnam; formerly Geotechnical/Structural Specialist, TOA Corporation for Division, Southern Institute of Water Resources Research, Ho Chi Minh
Saigon Premier Container Terminal Project, Vietnam (corresponding author: City, Vietnam
nguyencongoanh@yahoo.com)
Thi Van-Tram Dao MEng
Lecturer of Faculty of Civil Engineering, Transport College 3, Ho Chi Minh
City, Vietnam

Finite-difference analysis of soft ground treatment with prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) was performed using a
newly developed consolidation model. The model uses the concept of multi-compression indices and coefficients of
consolidation (CoCs) to investigate the behaviour of a soft ground deposit (pore water pressure dissipation, surface
settlement and sub-layer ground settlement) and to validate the newly developed Consopro finite-difference
procedure. The pre-consolidation pressures of the soft ground deposit were characterised using a combination of
piezocone penetration profiling and constant rate-of-strain (CRS) consolidation tests (0.02%/min) on undisturbed
samples that were retrieved from the Saigon premier container terminal in the south of Vietnam. After comparison of
the back-calculated results with field-observed data, a correlation between the CoCs determined by CRS consolidation
tests and the CoCs from piezocone dissipation tests, which were carried out after soil improvement, was determined.

Keywords: constant rate-of-strain/finite-difference analysis/prefabricated vertical drains/soft clay/surcharge preloading

Notation S settlement (m)

Cc1 compression index at normally consolidated (NC) Si(A) consolidation settlement of sub-layer i within
state for sub-layer i when σc0 , σ 0 , σp0 zone A (m)
Cc2 compression index at NC state for sub-layer i when Si(B) consolidation settlement of sub-layer i within
σ 0 . σp0 zone B (m)
Cr recompression index at over-consolidated (OC) state Si(C) consolidation settlement of sub-layer i within
for sub-layer i zone C (m)
ch horizontal coefficient of consolidation sun undrained shear strength at NC state (kPa)
(CoC) (m2/s) t elapsed time (days)
ch(ap) apparent horizontal CoC t50 time needed for pore water pressure to dissipate
ch(NC) horizontal CoC at NC state (m2/s) by 50%
ch(OC) horizontal CoC at OC state (m2/s) U degree of consolidation (%)
ch(piezo) horizontal CoC by cone penetration test with pore u2 pore pressure at cone shoulder (kPa)
water pressure measurement (m2/s) ub base pore pressure in constant rate-of-strain
cv vertical CoC (m2/s) test (kPa)
cv(NC) vertical CoC at NC state (m2/s) wl liquid limit (%)
cv(OC) vertical CoC at OC state (m2/s) wp plastic limit (%)
De equivalent diameter of unit cell (m) z depth of the investigated ground from
dw diameter of PVD (m) surface (m)
dp0 stress increase (kPa) ε strain of ground (%)
e0 initial void ratio εzz vertical strain of ground (%)
H0 initial thickness of the sub-layer (m) σc0 pre-consolidation pressure (kPa)
hi thickness of sub-layer i (m) σp0 consolidation pressure where compression index
Ir soft soil rigidity index reduces (kPa)
qc cone point resistance (MPa) σv total consolidation stress (kPa)
qNET net cone point resistance (MPa) σv0 total over-burden stress (kPa)
qT corrected cone point resistance (MPa) σv0 effective consolidation stress (kPa)
0
R cone radius σvc vertical pre-consolidation stress (kPa)
0
r radius of unit cell of PVD (m) σv0 effective over-burden stress (kPa)

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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
with surcharge preloading of Hiep Phuoc
clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

1. Introduction consideration of the smear effect and the well resistance in the
analysis of soft clay around vertical drains. Yoshikuni and
1.1 Constant rate-of-strain (CRS) consolidation testing
Nakanado (1974) developed an approximate solution for verti-
First proposed by Crawford (1964), the CRS consolidation
cal drains based on the assumption of free strain. Hansbo
test, which has advantages over the traditional incremental
(1979, 1997, 2011) proposed a consolidation equation based
loading procedure, was then developed by others (Byrne and
on the exponent relation between permeability velocity and
Aoki, 1969; Smith and Wahls, 1969; Wissa et al., 1971).
conductivity. Hansbo (1981) presented an approximation of
However, it has been reported that the pre-consolidation
the consolidation analytical solution considering the smear
pressure determined from incremental loading is more accurate
effect and well resistance based on the assumption of equal
than that determined by the CRS procedure (Korhonen and
strain. Many efforts have also been undertaken to find an
Lojander, 1997; Leroueil et al., 1983a, 1983b).
analytical and numerical solution for multi-layered ground
around vertical drains (Nguyen and Kim, 2019; Nguyen et al.,
Gorman (1976, 1981) proposed strain rates for CRS tests to
2020; Suzuki and Yasuhara, 2004).
ensure that the ratio between the base pore water pressure
(PWP) and total stress (ub/σv) was in the range 3–30% for effec-
Numerical models (Hiep and Chung, 2018; Kumarage and
tive stress larger than the pre-consolidation pressure when carry-
Gnanendran, 2019; Liu and Rowe, 2015) have not considered
ing out the CRS test. Those research results were then adopted
variation of the compression indices, especially the reverse
in the test method (ASTM, 2012). Jia et al. (2010) used strain
S-shape e–log(σ′) pattern normally found for natural soft clays
rates of 0.02%/min and 0.20%/min on 114 undisturbed samples
in Vietnam, but have instead used a single compression index.
of Ariake clay (Japan) and reported that the CRS tests, under a
This can therefore lead to incorrect predictions of ground
strain rate of 0.02%/min, could generate a pre-consolidation
settlement. Moreover, a recently developed finite-element
pressure (σc0 ) and vertical coefficient of consolidation (CoC) (cv)
model (Pham et al., 2019), which includes stress dependency
equivalent to those determined from conventional increment
in the CRS test, proved to be complex and time consuming
loading consolidation tests. Chai et al. (2012) studied the aniso-
in routine design applications. Furthermore, analytical sol-
tropic behaviour of Ariake clay with CRS tests on a series of
utions (Rujikiatkamjorn and Indraratna, 2007, 2015) of conso-
undisturbed samples and found that the ratio between horizon-
lidation problems considering a single value of permeability
tal CoC and vertical CoC ranged from 1.54 to 1.65 for strain
and compression indices for the whole stress range (even in the
rates of 0.02%/min and 0.20%/min, respectively.
smear zone it is linear) cannot be applied to solve the compli-
cated boundary and loading problems that are usually found
Ozer et al. (2012) proposed a semi-empirical method to deter-
in reality, as confirmed by Nguyen et al. (2020).
mine the appropriate strain rate for CRS tests based on incre-
mental loading consolidation test results. Kassim et al. (2016)
Studies on sensitive clays and Singapore marine clay (Bo et al.,
recommended some criteria for selection of the strain rate based
2017; Liu et al., 2013; Nagaraj et al., 1990) have found
on the clay percentage and concluded that a low strain rate
reported that compression indices vary with the stress level.
could create a reasonable vertical CoC. The standardised strain
Therefore, the use of a single value for the compression index
rate was in the range of 35–68% of the clay percentage, or
in the normally consolidated (NC) stress level can lead to an
0.0125–0.1000 mm/min (equivalent to 0.049–0.390%/min). In a
incorrect prediction of soft ground settlement.
study on several CRS tests on soft clays and fibrous peats, Mesri
and Feng (2018) suggested the appropriate strain rate to be
The development of consolidation analysis methods have not
1–10 times the strain rate at the end of primary consolidation so
been widely implemented in the field, where there can be many
that the ratio ub/σv could be ensured to be less than 15%.
changes in ground profiles and loading history. Without
consideration of such changes into the consolidation analyses,
The above studies were performed in attempts to obtain
the field behaviours of the soft ground under the treatment
equivalent pre-consolidation pressures and CoCs from CRS
cannot be assessed.
tests to those derived from conventional incremental loading
consolidation tests in the laboratory. However, field tests have
1.3 Purpose of the current study
not confirmed the appropriate strain rate based on these
The determination of final consolidation settlement is currently
methods and there are not many applications of CRS results
dependent on observational methods (Asaoka, 1978; Thiam-
into the routine design of soft ground consolidation.
Soon et al., 1991) that can be used in very limited conditions
without incorporation of the actual ground conditions and
1.2 Consolidation analysis methods loading history into the calculation. The aim of this study
Many numerical and analytical consolidation models have was to assess the finite-difference procedure developed by the
been researched and developed to simulate the consolidation authors (Nguyen et al., 2020) by the use of piezocone
of soft ground deposits treated by prefabricated vertical drains penetration profiling and CRS consolidation tests under a
(PVDs) and preloading methods. Barron (1948) proposed strain rate of 0.02%/min while incorporating field loading

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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
with surcharge preloading of Hiep Phuoc
clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

history into the consolidation analysis. The finite-difference @εzz @ 2 εzz @ 2 εzz chðOCÞ @εzz
analyses are performed using apparent CoC values (Suzuki 1d: ¼ cvðOCÞ þ chðOCÞ þ
@t @z 2 @r2 r @r
and Nguyen, 2011) and consideration of the variation of
compressibility indices and CoCs in the NC and over-
consolidated (OC) range. Validation of the model was per-   Δt
εi;j;tþΔt ¼ εi;j;t þ cvðOCÞ εi1;j;t  2εi;j;t þ εiþ1;j;t
formed by Nguyen et al. (2020); therefore, the focus of this ðΔzÞ2
paper is the field application of the proposed procedure.   Δt
1e: þ chðOCÞ εi;j1;t  2εi;j;t þ εi;jþ1;t
ðΔrÞ2
2. Consolidation model   Δt
Consolidation analysis for soft ground improvement by means þ chðOCÞ εi;jþ1;t  εi;j1;t
2rΔr
of PVDs assisted with surcharge preloading is performed within
the framework of the finite-difference procedure developed by
the authors at the Southern Institute of Water Resources
0 0
Research in Vietnam (Nguyen, 2015; Nguyen et al., 2020). The 2a: σvc , σv0 þ dp0  σp0
finite-difference code has been patented in the Vietnamese copy-
right department. The unit cell model is shown in Figure 1. The
formulation of the model is based on Equations 1–3.
0
hi Cr σc
2b: SiðBÞ . log 0
0 1 þ e0 σv0
1a: σv0 þ dp0  σvc
0

0 
0
0 
hi Cr σv0 þ dp0 h i Cr σc hi Cc1 σv0 þ dp0
1b: SiðAÞ  log 0 2c: SiðBÞ ¼ log 0 þ log
1 þ e0 σv0 1 þ e0 σv0 1 þ e0 σc0

0 
hi Cr σv0 þ dp0 @εzz @ 2 εzz @ 2 εzz chðNCÞ @εzz
1c: SiðAÞ  log 0 2d: ¼ cvðNCÞ þ c þ
1 þ e0 σv0 @t @z2
hðNCÞ
@r2 r @r

101 102 103

2.4
Vertical drain diameter Layer i: h0i
et nt

Discretisation
e

dw
D

am le

2.0 Cr or Cc (OC)
er
di uiva

Radial: Nri
Eq
Void ratio, e

Vetical: Nvi
1.6
CRS data
Layer 1
1.2 Zone A
Zone B
Zone C
Layer 2
Improved strata, n layers

0.8
σ 'v0

Cc2
σ 'p
σ 'c

Cc1
0.4
(a)
h0i = Nvidh
cv (OC)
103
cv: cm2/day

~10cv (NC)
Layer i
cv (NC)
102
dr Layer n
r = N ri

101

σ'v (kPa) Unit cell model of vertical drain

(b) (c)

Figure 1. Unit cell model of multi-layered ground around a PVD (Nguyen et al., 2020)

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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
with surcharge preloading of Hiep Phuoc
clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

  Δt & Step 4. Profile the soft ground using the CRS, field vane
εi;j;tþΔt ¼ εi;j;t þ cvðNCÞ εi1;j;t  2εi;j;t þ εiþ1;j;t
ðΔzÞ2 and piezocone penetration test results.
  Δt & Step 5. Divide the soft clay deposits into sub-layers used in
2e: þ chðNCÞ εi;j1;t  2εi;j;t þ εi;jþ1;t the consolidation analysis.
ðΔrÞ2
& Step 6. Perform the consolidation analysis using the
  Δt
þ chðNCÞ εi;jþ1;t  εi;j1;t Consopro procedure (Nguyen, 2015). The procedure can
2rΔr
capture multi-loading cases and multi-layer ground strata
in the axisymmetric consolidation analysis; however, it
0 cannot be used in a general three-dimensional
3a: σv0 þ dp0 . σp0
consolidation analysis.
& Step 7. Update the actual loading history based on

0
0 monitoring data during the construction period.
h i Cr σc hi Cc1 σp
3b: SiðCÞ . log 0 þ log 0
1 þ e0 σv0 1 þ e0 σc
3. Soft ground properties and

0
0 consolidation analysis
hi Cr σc hi Cc1 σp
3c: SiðCÞ ¼ log 0 þ log 0 3.1 Description of the site
1 þ e0 σv0 1 þ e0 σc

0  The Saigon premier container terminal (SPCT) is located to
hi Cc2 σv0 þ dp0
þ log the south-east of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The terminal
1 þ e0 σp0
was designed to support transportation through the Soai Rap
River in the Hiep Phuoc industrial zone. The SPCT was con-
structed in 2006–2009 with a 500 m long berthing structure in
@εzz @ 2 εzz @ 2 εzz chðNCÞ @εzz phase 1A and a 40 ha container yard. It was treated by PVDs
3d: ¼ cvðNCÞ þ chðNCÞ þ
@t @z 2 @r2 r @r and surcharge to reduce the post-construction settlement of
the thick Holocene deposit.
  Δt
εi;j;tþΔt ¼ εi;j;t þ cvðNCÞ εi1;j;t  2εi;j;t þ εiþ1;j;t
ðΔzÞ2 Figure 2 shows the layout of the treated sub-zones. The areas
  Δt of phases 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5(1), 1-5(2) and phase 2-2 were
3e: þ chðNCÞ εi;j1;t  2εi;j;t þ εi;jþ1;t
ðΔrÞ2 26 223, 32 373, 26 486, 33 710, 18 331, 12 427 and 35 079 m2,
  Δt respectively. The whole treated area within the bold perimeter
þ chðNCÞ εi;jþ1;t  εi;j1;t was 400 000 m2.
2rΔr

Borehole USD-01, for taking undisturbed samples by the

Equations 1–3 are generalised from typical CRS test results
with a reverse S-shape, as shown in Figure 1. With the use of
the three different compression indices and different values of
the CoCs in NC and OC ranges, this conceptual consolidation
model allows investigation of various cases of soft ground
treatment.
The details of the analysis procedure, incorporating the vari-
ation of ground profiles and loading history (which is normally
different from the original design scheme for each analysis
case), are as follows.
& Step 1. Carry out undisturbed sampling with the
application of a piston sampler. The geotechnical
investigation can be in combination with field vane shear
and piezocone penetration testing.
& Step 2. Perform CRS tests under a rate of 0.02%/min on
undisturbed samples taken in step 1.
& Step 3. Determine the compressibility and consolidation
parameters using CRS test results and piezocone
penetration testing.
piston sampler, was drilled close to the shoreline. Piezocone
penetration and field vane tests had been carried out during
the bidding stage. The monitoring instrumentation consisted of
surface settlement plates, magnetic extensometers, vibrating
wire piezometers and observation wells for the correction of
excess PWP during the ground treatment period. These are
shown in Figure 2.
3.2 Site investigation and characterised parameters
Undisturbed samples were retrieved carefully using a hydraulic
stationary piston sampler and thin-walled tubes. These samples
were taken at a 1.5 m distance to the bottom of the soft
Holocene deposit. The samples were tested by oedometer CRS
consolidation at a rate of 0.02%/min following the Japanese
standard JIS-A1227 (JSA, 2009). The test results are shown in
Figure 3. The whole Holocene deposit was divided into nine
sub-layers. In each sub-layer, the results shown by the thick
curves were chosen to be representative of the layer for the
parameters in the consolidation analyses. It was confirmed
that the pre-consolidation pressure increased with depth for
this case and the vertical CoC (cv) reduced to a constant

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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
with surcharge preloading of Hiep Phuoc
clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

1.1769
(× 106) Ground improvement boundary
North Phase 1-1 Phase boundary
CPTu-01
(26 223 m2)
Soa
i ra Settlement plates (SP)
SP-01 CPTu-02 Phase 1-2 p rive Extensometers (E)
P-01 (32 373 m2)
1.1768 P-01B SP-02 r to Piezometers (P)
E-01 the
OB-01 sea
E-01C E-01B E-01A CPTu-03 Observation wells (OB)
P-01A USD-01
Undisturbed samples (USD-01)
P-01D SP-03 CPTu-04 Phase 1-3
E-02D CPTu tender
E-01D E-02A (26 486 m2)
CPTu-09 P-02D VST tender
1.1767 CPTu-08
E-02C SP-09 P-02A CPTu-05
P-02
E-03A
E-02 SP-04 CPTu-06
P-02C E-02B P-03A
CPTu-10 Phase 1-4
P-02B E-03B E-03 (33 710 m2)
SP-18 CP T u-12b
P-03B SP-05 CPTu-07
1.1766
Northing: m

OB-02 P-03
E-09
P-10 CPTu-12
CPTu-27 CP T u-13 SP-10 CP T u-14 SP-06
SP-19 CPTu-11 E-04 Ph
CPTu-30 (1 ase
CPTu-28 P-04 CP T u-15 8
1.1765 33 1-5
Phase 2-2 1 (1
2 CPTu-29 CP T u-16 m2 )
(35 079 m ) SP-11 )
SP-07
CPTu-39 P-05
1.1764
Ph CPTu-25
(1 as E-05
2 e
42 1-5(
7 2) SP-17
OB-03 m2 SP-08
OB-04 )
1.1763

1.1762
610 000 610 200 610 400 610 600 610 800 611 000
Easting: m
100 km
Scale
)
am
tn
ie
(V
Sa
g
an
Ho

)
am
tn
ie

The site
(V
Sa
ng
uo
Tr

Figure 2. Layout of sub-zones, geotechnical investigation and monitoring instrumentation

value when the effective stress was more significant than pre-
consolidation stress. This phenomenon was investigated in a
study of the effect of strain rate on consolidation properties for
Vietnam clays by Nguyen et al. (2020). The value is designated
as the NC CoC (cv(NC)) as long as the effective stress is higher
than the pre-consolidation pressure. For the Holocene deposit
at the Hiep Phuoc area in Ho Chi Minh City, the CRS test
results also confirmed that the compression indices should not
be considered as a single value when the loading range is
larger than the pre-consolidation pressure, but bi-linear with
slopes Cc1 and Cc2, respectively.
A summary of the physico-mechanical properties of the
Holocene deposit is provided in Figure 4. The bottom of the
soft soil reached a depth of −35.0 m with the natural water
content almost always greater than the liquid limit, as shown
in Figure 4(a). The natural water content is in the range
50–75% for the whole soft clay deposit and decreased over
the depth of the borehole. Figure 4(b) shows the profile of
pre-consolidation pressures determined by CRS consolidation
tests and piezocone penetration compared with the effective
0
over-burden stress (σv0 ). The plot suggests an increase in
pre-consolidation pressure with depth and σc0 . σv0 0
. The

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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
with surcharge preloading of Hiep Phuoc
clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

σ'v: kPa σ 'v: kPa σ 'v: kPa

101 102 103 101 102 103 101 102 103
2.4
Layer 1 Layer 2 5 (–5.4 m) Layer 3
3 (–2.5 m)
2.0
1 (+0.5 m)
Void ratio, e

4 (–4.0 m)
1.6
2 (–0.9 m)
6 (–7.0 m)
1.2
σ'c = 65 kPa

σ'c = 99 kPa

σ'c = 81 kPa
0.8

0.4
103
cv: cm2/day

Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3

102 cv = 35 cm2/day
cv = 15 cm2/day
cv = 40 cm2/day
101

2.4
Layer 4 10 (–13.0 m) 12 (–16.0 m) Layer 6
9 (–11.3 m)
14 (–19.0 m)
2.0 7 (–8.5 m)
13 (–17.5 m)
Void ratio, e

1.6 8 (–10.0 m) 16 (–22.0 m)

11 (–14.5 m)

15 (–20.5 m)
1.2
σ 'c = 110 kPa

σ c' = 170 kPa

σ c' = 226 kPa

0.8
Layer 5
0.4
103
cv: cm2/day

Layer 4 Layer 5 Layer 6

102
cv = 30 cm2/day
cv = 20 cm2/day cv = 20 cm2/day

101

2.4
Layer 7 Layer 8 Layer 9
σ'c = 240 kPa

σ'c = 300 kPa

2.0
18 (–25.0 m)
Void ratio, e

1.6 20 (–28.0 m)
22 (–31.0 m)
17 (–23.5 m)
19 (–26.5 m) 21 (–29.5 m)
1.2
σ'c = 211 kPa

0.8

0.4
103
cv: cm2/day

Layer 7 Layer 8 Layer 9

102
cv = 30 cm2/day
cv = 20 cm2/day
cv = 15 cm2/day
101
Representative sample in sub-layer

Figure 3. Detailed results of CRS consolidation on undisturbed samples

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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
with surcharge preloading of Hiep Phuoc
clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

WL, WP, wc: % σ'c: kPa γ : kN/m3 e0 Cc1, Cc2 and Cr cv: cm2/day OCR
25 50 75 100 0 200 400 10 15 20 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 10 100 1 10
Premilinary fill

0 1
3
5

–10 8
Depth: m

12

–20 15
17

20
–30 22
wc Cc1
Test data
WL σ'v0 without Representative Cc2
filled sand sample for each
WP sub-layer Cr
–40

Figure 4. Physico-mechanical properties of the soil deposit (wc = water content; 1 cm2/day = 1.16  10−9 m2/s)

average natural unit weight (γ) was determined to be
15–16 kN/m3 (Figure 4(c)). The void ratio is 1.40–2.20 and it
tends to decrease with depth (Figure 4(d)). Figure 4(e) shows
the compression indices in both the NC state (Cc1 and Cc2)
and the OC state (Cr). The vertical CoC is 15–60
(  1.16  10−9 m2/s) (1 cm2/day = 1.16  10−9 m2/s); however,
there was found to be a single value of 200 (1.16  10−9 m2/s),
as shown in Figure 4(f). The over-consolidation ratio (OCR)
was found to be greater than unity for the whole deposit
(Figure 4(g)); this confirms that the clayey stratum is lightly
OC in its natural condition.
In a study of field performance at three sites in Vietnam,
Suzuki and Nguyen (2011) reported that the apparent values
of CoCs (including the effects of the smear zone and the well
resistance) could be used in consolidation analyses as simpli-
fied input parameters. Therefore, the apparent values of CoCs
were employed in the validation of the proposed consolidation
model. In addition, variation of the soil profiles among the
sub-zones was considered in the analysis with a change in pre-
consolidation pressures, which were determined by piezocone
penetration testing in each sub-zone. Consolidation analyses
for the SPCT site were performed for four different cases: cases
1 and 2 were with the use of the pre-consolidation pressures
determined from original CRS tests, while cases A1 and A2
were with the pre-consolidation pressures from piezocone pen-
etration profiling. The finite-difference analyses are an exten-
sion of the authors’ previous study to validate the use of CRS
consolidation tests and the newly proposed consolidation
model.
Table 1 provides a summary of the soil parameters derived
from CRS consolidation testing for the soft clay deposit which
was divided into nine sub-layers. Table 1 uses the results from
Figure 4 for the different sub-zones (e.g. phases 1-1, 1-2, 1-3
and 2-2). The parameters were determined for case 1 and
for case 2, which were later used for the consolidation
analysis with the Consopro procedure (Nguyen, 2015; Nguyen
et al., 2020). Further investigations by piezocone penetration
testing at the upstream side for sub-zones phase 1-4 and
phase 1-5 indicated the existence of a stiffer zone for
phase 1-4 and a sand layer of 10–12 m at phase 1-5, as shown
in Figure 5.
Based on the piezocone penetration results shown in
Figure 5(d), the soft clay stratum at phase 2-2 consisted of
seven sub-layers. Moreover, Figure 5(b) shows that the net
cone resistance at phase 1-4 was greater (by 100 kPa) than
that at phase 1-1 and the variation occurred within sub-layers
3 to 5 at CPTu-07 and sub-layers 3 to 4 at CPTu-14
(CPTu = cone penetration test with PWP measurement).
The difference in the pre-consolidation pressure caused by the
difference in net cone resistance was calculated to be
100/(3–30) kPa (following Equation 4), meaning the pre-conso-
lidation pressure was higher than that of case 1; therefore, the
pre-consolidation pressure within sub-layers 3, 4 and 5 of
phase 1-4 was larger than that of phase 1-1 by 30 kPa.
Modification of the pre-consolidation pressures by 30 kPa for
sub-layers 3, 4 and 5 with the use of piezocone penetration
was used to assess the additional consolidation cases (cases A1
and A2).

7
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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
with surcharge preloading of Hiep Phuoc
clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

Table 1. Summary of parameters for finite-difference analysis

cv(NC) cv(OC)

(1.16  10−9 m2/s):

0
Sample Depth: m H0: m σv0 : kPa e0 σc0 : kPa σp0 : kPa Cr Cc1 Cc2 cm2/day
a a
1 3.95 3.00 13.22 1.676 65 (50 ) 400 0.12 0.75 (1.40 ) 0.75 15 150
3 6.95 3.00 28.28 2.195 99 (70a) 250 0.15 1.50 1.00 35 350
5 9.90 5.00 43.18 1.968 81 (111b) 140 0.30 (0.01c) 1.70 (0.30c) 0.90 (0.30c) 38 (500c) 380 (500c)
9 15.8 4.00 73.78 1.966 132 230 0.25 (0.01d) 1.90 (0.60d) 1.00 (0.60d) 30 (500d) 300 (500d)
10 17.45 6.00 82.36 2.020 165 320 0.25 (0.01d) 2.70 (0.60d) 1.00 (0.60d) 17 (500d) 170 (500d)
14 23.45 4.00 114.36 1.854 226 370 0.30 1.90 0.90 19 190
17 27.95 3.00 139.16 1.585 218 450 0.30 1.40 0.75 20 200
19 30.95 3.00 156.52 1.449 251 500 0.25 1.20 0.70 40 400
21 33.95 4.00 174.47 1.372 264 500 0.25 0.90 0.75 30 300

a
Values for SP-18 for case 2 and seven sub-layers; other values are for case 1 in phases 1-1, 1-2, 1-3 and 2-2
b
Values for SP-05 for case A2; other values are for SP-06, SP-11 and E-04 for case A1 in phase 1-4
c
Values for SP-17 in phase 1-5(2) with 5 m thick sand layer
d
Values for SP-07, SP-08 and E-05 in phase 1-5(1) with 10 m thick sand layer

Table 1 shows a summary of the parameters used for
phase 1-4. Settlement plates SP-06 and SP-11 and magnetic
extensometer E-04 were close to CPTu-07, so an increase of
30 kPa was used to adjust the pre-consolidation pressures for
sub-layers 3, 4 and 5. This is designated as case A1, with a
summary of parameters tabulated in Table 1. Case A2, with
modification of pre-consolidation for sub-layers 3 and 4, was
used for settlement plate SP-05, which was close to CPTu-14.
The total number of sub-layers for these two cases used for
phase 1-4 was nine, as shown in Figure 5(b).
From piezocone CPTu-16, Figure 5(c) shows the existence of a
10–12 m sand layer within phase 1-5(1). This sand layer can be
considered as the drainage boundary for the consolidation of
the soft Holocene deposit. The recompression index is 0.01
and compression indices Cc1 and Cc2 are 0.60. The sand layer
has a CoC of 500 (1.16  10−9 m2/s) for both NC and OC
states. Meanwhile, the sand layer was found only within layer
3 for phase 1-5(2), with recompression and compression
indices of 0.01 and 0.30, respectively, and the CoC in both NC
and OC states again 500 (1.16  10−9 m2/s).

qT – σv0: kPa qT – σv0: kPa qT – σv0: kPa qT – σv0: kPa

0 800 1600 0 800 1600 0 800 1600 0 800 1600
5
CPTu-14
CPTu-10
Layer 01
0
CPTu-07 Layer 02
CPTu-16

–5
Soft clay thickness at SP-18

Layer 03
100 kPa CPTu-28
Sand layer

–10 Layer 04
Depth: m

–15 Layer 05
CPTu-10

CPTu-10
–20 Layer 06
CPTu-08
CPTu-30 Layer 07
–25 CPTu-10
Layer 08

–30 Layer 09

CPTu-14 CPTu-30
–35 CPTu-08 CPTu-10 CPTu-16 CPTu-28
CPTu-10 CPTu-07 CPTu-10 CPTu-10

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 5. Net cone resistance at: (a) phase 1-1; (b) phase 1-4; (c) phase 1-5; (d) phase 2-2

8
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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
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clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

A summary of the parameters used for the consolidation drainage material (0.60 m thick) was placed by dumper trucks
analysis at phases 1-5(1) and 1-5(2) is provided in Table 1. and compacted to the required standard density of 95%. A
Furthermore, based on the results in Figure 5, there were only selected fill of 0.40 m was spread before the next 10–12 layers
eight sub-layers to be considered in the consolidation analysis of 0.50 m thick surcharge was also compacted to 95% in
for phases 1-5(1) and 1-5(2). density. PVDs (4 mm thick and 10 mm wide) were driven at a
spacing of 150 cm in a triangular pattern. The toes of the
The pre-consolidation pressure based on the CRS consolida- PVDs should have reached the bottom of the soft Holocene
tion test under a rate of 0.02%/min increased with depth and soil in order to utilise the drainage boundary of the sand
was larger than the effective over-burden pressure, as shown in below this soft soil. To collect the water squeezed out from the
Figure 4(b). The pre-consolidation stress was also calculated soft ground under the surcharge load, water collection sumps
by the net cone point resistance using Equation 4 and was were arranged over the treated areas in a spacing of 100 m by
found to be the same as that reported elsewhere (Agaiby and 100 m. These sumps were connected by perforated PVC pipes
Mayne, 2019; Mayne, 2007): that were wrapped with geotextile. Submerged pumps were
installed in the water collection sumps and their operation was
4: σc0 ¼ 0:33qNET ¼ 0:33ðqT  σ v0 Þ continuous during the treatment period. The start time of
each fill layer was dependent on the construction schedule for
each zone, which was indicated by the monitoring data
where qNET is the net cone point resistance and
shown in Figure 6. Fill elevation and settlement data are both
qT = qc + (1 − a)u2 is the corrected cone point resistance in
plotted Figure 6; phases 1-1, 1-2 and 1-3 were constructed at
which qc is the cone point resistance and u2 is the PWP at the
almost the same start time (120 days after time zero (11 April
cone shoulder.
2006)). The reclamation fill of 1.65 m for these sub-zones was
started from 11 April 2006. The surcharge for phase 2-2 was
As reported by Nguyen et al. (2020), at OCR = 1.0, the
0 constructed at 240 days, while it began at 600 days and
undrained strength ratio (sun =σv0 ) was found to be 0.22 and
720 days for phase 1-4 and phase 1-5. A typical section of the
the undrained strength increases with OCR following the
improved areas is illustrated in Figure 7, which also shows
Shanshep exponent correlation as long as the vertical strain
the arrangement of settlement plates, piezometers and extens-
from zero to the effective over-burden stress is less than 6%.
ometers for monitoring of the treated ground. The settlement
This ratio, which is consistent with the value recommended by
plates were installed at +5.00 m. At the locations of the
Mesri (1975), is later used in the assessment of strength gain
extensometers, one magnetic plate was installed at +5.00 m
for the soft clay deposit at the SPCT site in the south of
and three magnetic spiders were installed at +0.00 m,
Vietnam. However, the Shanshep power was found to be 1.26,
−10.00 m and −20.00 m. Three vibrating wire piezometer tips
which is larger than that reported by Ladd and DeGroot
were installed at the same elevation as the magnetic spiders
(2003). The gain in undrained strength can be determined
because the piezometers installed in the soft ground would
from Equation 5, in which the effective stress Δσv0 is calculated
settle during the treatment period. Concerning the measured
using the Consopro procedure (Nguyen, 2015).
settlement of the magnetic spiders next to the piezometer
transducers, as shown in Figure 7, the settlement of the piezo-
5: Δsun ¼ Δσv0 ðsun =σv0
0
Þ
meters was considered in the calculation of excess PWPs
measured at these piezometers. The total thickness of the soft
ground ranged from 28 m to 35 m depending on the location
3.3 Consolidation analysis of the sub-zones and the results of piezocone penetration
Table 2 shows the initial average top elevation of the soft testing.
ground was +3.00 m, reclamation sand (1.65 m thick) was
hydraulically reclaimed from Soai Rap River and then coarse The horizontal CoC was chosen to be three times the vertical
CoC (i.e. ch(NC) = 3cv(NC)) and the CoC in the OC state was
taken as ten times larger than that at the NC state
Table 2. Construction sequence. The start time of PVD driving (cv(OC) = 10cv(NC)), which has been reported to be sufficient for
was dependent on each zone. The initial ground was +3.00 m
Vietnam clays (Nguyen et al., 2020). The apparent values of
Filling Unit weight: Unit weight the CoCs were first investigated by one of the authors in a pre-
thickness: m kN/m3 underwater: kN/m3
vious study on Vietnam soft clays (Suzuki and Nguyen, 2011)
Initial ground 3.00 — — and it was confirmed that the apparent values are sufficient for
Reclamation sand 1.65 18.00 10.00 consolidation analysis to include both well resistance and
Drainage fill 0.60 20.00 11.00 smear effect. The ground settlement in phases 1-1, 1-2, 1-3,
Selected fill 0.40 20.00 11.00
1-4, 1-5(1), 1-5(2) and 2-2 was different due to the loading
Surcharge 5.00 18.00 10.00
Surcharge 1.00 18.00 10.00 history, the soft clay thickness and parameters of the soft clay
in each zone.

9
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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
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clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

10
Fill elevation: m

4 Phase 1-1
0 Phase 1-2
Phase 1-3
50 Phase 1-4
100 Phase 1-5
Phase 2-2
Settlement: cm

150

200

250

300

350
(t = 0: 11 April 2006)
400
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080
Time: days

Figure 6. Monitoring data and loading history of sub-zones. PVDs driven at a spacing of 150 cm in a triangular pattern

qT: MPa
Surcharge fill and instrumentation 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

10 Settlement plate Surcharge fill

Observation well +5.00 +5.00 10 layers = 5 m
Reclamation and drainage fill (2.65 m)
Sub-layer 1
0 +0.00 +0.00
Sub-layer 2
Chart datum elevation: m

Treated by PVD and Surcharge

Sandy soil at phase1–5

Sub-layer 3
Soft clay of 35 m

–10 Sub-layer 4 –10.00 –10.00

Sub-layer 5

–20 Sub-layer 6 –20.00 –20.00

Piezometer Extensometer
Sub-layer 7
Sub-layer 8
–30 Sub-layer 9

Extensometer Piezometer
Settlement plate Observation well
–40

Figure 7. Typical section of treated sub-zones

Figure 8 shows the data calculated by the newly developed was used in the analysis to assess the ground settlement com-
Consopro procedure (Nguyen, 2015) in comparison with the pared with the field measurement. The calculated and
field settlement data. Within phase 1-1, extensometer E-01C measured settlements were in agreement at the other settlement

10
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 Geotechnical Engineering
plates in this sub-zone and others. It can be concluded from
Figure 8 that the input parameters determined from the CRS
tests on high-quality samples in combination with piezocone
penetration tests were sufficient to estimate the surface settle-
ment observed in the field. The settlements at plates SP-01 and
SP-02 in phase 1-1 were smaller than the other settlements,
which could be due to their positions close to the slope. These
plates were therefore not used in the assessment of the settle-
ment behaviour of the soft ground.
For deeper understanding, the extensometer data were also
compared with the finite-difference analysis results, as shown
in Figure 9(a) for typical extensometer results in phase 1-1.
The settlement at the magnetic plates was corrected by consid-
ering the initial settlement caused before installation of the
magnetic extensometer plates and spiders by pre-surveying
data at the installation points. Based on the comparisons of
layer settlements within the soft ground deposit, it can be con-
cluded that there was good agreement between the calculated
and measured layer settlements for phase 1-1. This result also
indicates that the compression indices in the OC state (Cr) and
in the NC state (Cc1 and Cc2) determined from CRS testing
data at a strain rate of 0.02%/min provided consistent results
for both the total settlement and the sub-layer settlement at
the monitoring location.
The excess PWP was calculated with consideration of the
settlement of the piezometer transducers under consolidation
of the soft ground deposit. The settlement of the sensors was
the same as the measured settlement at the magnetic spiders
installed in the ground before starting the surcharge preload-
ing. Furthermore, the static groundwater level outside the
preloading to eliminate the effect of the surcharge load to
the groundwater head was also used in the calculation of the
excess PWP. The groundwater levels at observation wells
OB-01 to OB-04 were utilised at the appropriate periods for
each surcharge sub-zone. Excess PWPs monitored at the
piezometers in phase 1-1 are compared with the results
from the Consopro procedure in Figure 9(b). Again, there is
good agreement between the field data and the calculated
results.
The strength gain after ground improvement by surcharge pre-
loading was confirmed by field testing (piezocone penetration
and field vane shear tests) for each improved area, as shown in
Figure 10. The results from the finite-difference analysis are
presented in the same plots in order to compare the shear
strength determined before and after the soft ground had been
improved with PVDs and surcharge preloading for phases 1-1,
1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5(1), 1-5(2) and 2-2. For phase 1-3, the strength
gain margin was determined to be 20 kPa based on the field
piezocone and vane shear tests while it was calculated to be in
the range 10–15 kPa. The calculated gain in undrained shear
strength after ground improvement was thus consistent with
the field test data.
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Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
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clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran
On the application of CRS consolidation tests at a strain rate
of 0.02%/min, the back-analysis performed using the finite-
difference procedure Consopro gave very consistent results for
the ground settlement, PWP dissipation and the strength gain
of the soft ground deposit at the SPCT site for various soil
profiles and loading history.
4. Correlation of horizontal CoC
With the finite-difference analysis conducted, the characterised
parameters from CRS consolidation tests were confirmed
to give results consistent with the field monitoring
data. Furthermore, piezocone dissipation tests had been per-
formed at various sub-zones to study the spatial variation of
the CoC within the soft ground after the soil treatment. Each
experiment covered 5 h so that the pore pressure could dissipate
to steady-state values. According to Houlsby and Teh (1988),
the horizontal CoC by piezocone dissipation can be
calculated as:
 2 pffiffiffiffi
T50 R
6: ch50ð piezoÞ ¼ Ir
t50

where T50 = 0.245, R is the cone radius, t50 is the time needed
for PWP to dissipate by 50% and Ir is the soft soil rigidity
index (in the range 25–500). Ir has little effect on the calculated
horizontal CoC and a value of 50 was selected.
Figure 11(a) shows the piezocone test results after ground
treatment for different sub-zones and depths at the SPCT site.
The difference in the maximum PWP (u2max) of each test was
dependent on the depth where the test was carried out: the
deeper the test, the larger u2max. As already mentioned, the
test time was at least 5 h (18 000 s).
Figure 11(b) shows the correlation between horizontal CoC
from piezocone dissipation (ch50( piezo)) and the vertical CoC
from CRS consolidation tests (cv(NC)). Based on the consolida-
tion analysis, the horizontal field CoC was three times as
much as the vertical CoC by the CRS consolidation test
(ch(NC) = 3cv(NC)). The correlation between the horizontal
CoCs from piezocone dissipation and the CRS consolidation
test is plotted in Figure 11(c) and shown in Equation 7b. The
blue lines in Figure 11 indicate the upper and lower bounds of
the range for the correlation.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
chð piezoÞ chð piezoÞ
7a: ¼ 2:67  20:70
cvðNCÞ OCR
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
chð piezoÞ chð piezoÞ
7b: ¼ 0:89  6:90
chðNCÞ OCR
11
 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
with surcharge preloading of Hiep Phuoc
clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

10 Phase 1-1 Phase 1-2

Fill elevation: m

4
0
E-01C SP-03
Settlement: cm

100 SP-09

200

300

400
0 240 480 720 960 1200 0 240 480 720 960 1200

10 Phase 1-3 Phase 1-4

Fill Elevation: m

4
0
SP-04
Settlement: cm

100 E-03 SP-05

E-04
200

300

400
0 240 480 720 960 1200 0 240 480 720 960 1200

10 Phase 1-5 Phase 2-2

Fill Elevation: m

4
0
SP-19
SP-17
Settlement: cm

100 E-05

200

300

400
0 240 480 720 960 1200 0 240 480 720 960 1200
Elapsed time: days

Data at representative settlement plate Consopro without surcharge removal

Data at extensometer Consopro with surcharge removal

Figure 8. Comparison of Consopro results and monitoring data for settlement plates. PVDs driven at a spacing of 150 cm in a triangular
pattern

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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
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clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

10 10
Elevation: m

Elevation: m
8 8
6 6
Phase 1-1: E01and E01C Phase 1-1: P01
4 4
0 120 240 360 480 600 720
0

100 Field monitoring data

Calculated by Consopro
Stotal: cm

200

300

400 E01
E01C +120 cm
500
0
Field monitoring data
S: cm

Calculated by Consopro
100
+30 cm 30
+5 m to 0 m +0 m –3 kPa
200 20
0 10
0 m to –10 m 0
S: cm

100
Excess PWP: kPa

+60 cm 30
–10 m –8 kPa
200 20
0 10
0
S: cm

+20 cm
100
30
–10 m to –20 m –20 m –8 kPa
200 20
0 10
+10 cm 0
S: cm

100 0 120 240 360 480 600 720

Below –20 m Time: days
200 (b)
0 120 240 360 480 600 720
Time: days
(a)

Figure 9. Comparison of Consopro results and monitoring data for (a) extensometers and (b) piezometers in phase 1-1

5.2 Overestimation of CRS tests with a strain rate

5. Discussion
5.1 Modification of model parameters
For large sites, it is normally impossible to construct many
soil investigation boreholes and laboratory tests on undisturbed
samples. This can lead to inaccuracy of consolidation
analysis without the modification of the pre-consolidation
pressure, which is one of the most important parameters
in a consolidation analysis. The consolidation analysis for
the sub-zones of the investigated site with consideration of
the variation of the cone point resistance in detail of each
sub-zone, proves that the derived pre-consolidation pressures
based on a combination of CRS tests and piezocone
profiling can generate sufficient accuracy for consolidation
analysis.
of 0.02%/min
Chai et al. (2018) performed a series of finite-element analyses
for an embankment on soft clay and found that CRS testing
under a strain rate of 0.02%/min can lead to overestimation
of the permeability of a soil sample in an OC state and thus
should not be used determination of the permeability of a soil
layer with OCR > 1.0. This conclusion on the over-estimation
of permeability is dependent on a single value of soil per-
meability, which is a bit different from the approach in the
current research. However, the authors’ studies confirm that
CRS tests under 0.02%/min were appropriate for consolidation
analysis of Vietnamese soft clays with consideration of the
variation of the CoCs in the NC and OC ranges (Nguyen
et al., 2020; Nguyen and Tran, 2015, 2016).

13
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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
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clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

Su: kPa
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
5
CPTu-10 CPTu-12B
CPTu-12 CPTu-14 CPTu-30
CPTu-16
0

–5

–10
Elevation: m

–15
CPTu-13
CPTu-26
–20 CPTu-28

CPTu-13

–25 CPTu-11

CPTu-08
–30

–35
(qT – σv0)/18 (CTu, tender)
(qT – σv0)/12 (P1D, 2 April 2008)
Consopro
VST07 (28 April 2006)
(qT – σv0)/18 (CPTu, tender)
(qT – σv0)/12 (P2, 3 April 2008)
Consopro
VST01 (19 October 2005)
(qT – σv0)/18 (CPTu, tender) (qT – σv0)/18 (CPTu, tender) (qT – σv0)/18 (CPTu, tender) (qT – σv0)/18 (CPTu, tender)
(qT – σv0)/12 (SP04, 20 June 2008) (qT – σv0)/12 (E04, 20 May 2009) (qT – σv0)/12 (P05, 25 February 2009) (qT – σv0)/12 (E09, 20 June 2008)
Consopro Consopro Consopro Consopro
FVT (12 June 2008) FVT (4 May 2009) FVT (08 March 2009) FVT (12 June 2008)
VST02 (16 October 2005) VST02 (16 October 2005) VST10 (13 Apr. 2006) VST11 (2 May 2006)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Figure 10. Strength gain after soil improvement (FVT = field vane test; VST = vane shear test): (a) phase 1-1; (b) phase 1-2; (c) phase 1-3;
(d) phase 1-4; (e) phase 1-5; (f) phase 2-2. Time zero = 11 April 2006

t: s
1 10 100 1000 10 000
900
800
SPCT
700
600
u2: kPa

500
400
300
200
100
0
(a)
60 20
50 SPCT SPCT
16
ch50(piezo)/ch(NC)
ch50(piezo)/cv(NC)

Average Average
40 Upper bound Upper bound
12
30 Lower bound Lower bound
8
20 y = 2.67x – 20.70 y = 0.89x – 6.90
10 R2 = 0.74 4 R2 = 0.74
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
(ch50(CPTU)/OCR)1/2: (cm2/day)1/2 (ch50(CPTU)/OCR)1/2: (cm2/day)1/2
(b) (c)

Figure 11. Correlation between CoCs coefficient by CRS and piezocone tests

14
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 Geotechnical Engineering Analysis of prefabricated vertical drains
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clay
Nguyen, Dao and Tran

5.3 Effect of PVD installation and smear zone 6. Conclusions

The installation of PVDs can create a smear zone around the
& Finite-difference analysis of the consolidation of the SPCT
drains, which causes a reduction in the CoCs of the natural soft
under different soft ground profiles and loading/unloading
ground, resulting in a possible delay in the dwell time during
cases showed that the newly developed model, which
the consolidation process. Theoretical approaches using the
considers multi-compression indices and variation of the
formulas proposed by Barron (1948) and Hansbo (1981) were
CoCs for the consolidation of the soft ground, is valid.
used to estimate ch from the apparent horizontal CoC (ch(ap)).
& A combination of CRS tests under a strain rate of 0.02%/min
and piezocone profiling in routine design can be used for
Equation 8 is approximation of Barron’s formula, in which
determination of the pre-consolidation pressure, is one of the
U(B) is the degree of consolidation, n is the ratio of the
most important parameters in consolidation analysis.
diameter of the effective circle (de) to that of drain well (dw)
& The CoC can be determined from piezocone dissipation
and t is time. This equation is the most popular in the design
tests with acceptable accuracy for consolidation analysis in
of vertical drains, and uses the value of ch(ap).
design practice of soft ground improvement with the use of


8ThðBÞ Equations 7a and 7b.
8a: UðBÞ ¼ 1  exp 
FðBÞ

REFERENCES
chðapÞ Agaiby SS and Mayne PW (2019) CPT evaluation of yield stress profiles
8b: ThðBÞ ¼ 2 t in soils. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
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Asaoka A (1978) Observational procedure of settlement prediction.
Soils and Foundations 18(4): 87–101.


n2 3 ASTM (2012) D4186: Standard test method for one-dimensional
8c: FðBÞ ¼ ln n  consolidation properties of saturated cohesive soils using
n2  1 4
controlled-strain loading. ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, USA.
Barron RA (1948) Consolidation of fine-grained soils by drain wells.
Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers 113(1):
Hansbo (1981) derived an approximation considering the
718–742.
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well resistance is expressed as Equation 9, in which U(H) is investigation on the compressibility of Singapore marine clays.
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the diameter of smear zone (ds) to dw and K is the ratio of the Byrne PM and Aoki Y (1969) The Strain Controlled Consolidation Test.
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8ThðHÞ Ariake clay from three different CRS tests. Geotechnical Testing
9a: UðHÞ ¼ 1  exp  Journal 35(6): 845–853, https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ103848.
FðHÞ
Chai JC, Shen JSL, Liu MD and Yuan DJ (2018) Predicting the
performance of embankments on PVD-improved subsoils.
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ch αcvðNCÞ
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