ECE 5107

Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

Soil Mechanics Review

Dedan KimathiUniversity of Technology

Department of Civil Engineering
Dr. Thuo J. N.

Origin and Nature of Soils

Soils come from Rocks and Rocks come from Soils

Rocks
(Sedimentary, Metamorhpic,
Igneous)
Mechanical and
Chemical Weathering
Compaction, Cementation,
Heat and Pressure
Soils
(Boulder, Gravel, Sand,
Silt, Clay)

Composition of Rocks and Soils

Element Percentage in Earth’s Crust
Oxygen 46 %
Silicon 28 %
Aluminum 7%
Iron 5%
Calcium 4%
Sodium 3%
Potassium 3%
Magnesium 2% 2
 Soil Mechanics

Index Properties Engineering Properties

 Weight-volume relationship Flow Deformation Strength
 Atterberg limit test, PI, LL, PL
Seepage Settlement Stability
 Grain size distribution
Soil Shear Strength
(Sieve and Hydrometer)
Constant and Consolidation Long-term: drained
 Soil classification system
falling head test (Odemeter) test Short-term: undrained
(AASHTO and USCS)
 Compaction (d,max and opt) Direct shear test
Hydraulic e Cr Triaxial compression test
Conductivity K Field test (SPT, Vane shear)
Cc


P’ (log)
3 
s


Cv

Cheap but indirect, need correlation Expansive

but direct and useful

Soil Engineering Property: Flow

Landfill (K↓) Earth Dam and Levee (K↓)

Earth Structure Drainage (K↑)

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Soil Engineering Property: Deformation
Control Settlement and Differential Settlement of Structures

Soil Engineering Property: Strength

Ensure the stability of earth structures

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1.1 Soil Index (Physical) Properties

Weight-Volume Relationships
 Weight-Volume Relationships
Phase Diagram Weight Volume

Wa = 0 Air Va

V v = V a+V w
W = Ww +Ws
Ww Water Vw V = V v +V s

Ws Solids Vs

W Vw
total unit weight :   degree of saturation : S 
V Vv
W Vv
dry unit weight :  d  s porosity : n 
V V
Ws Vv
unit weight of solids :  s  void ratio : e 
Vs Vs
W 9.81 kN/m 3
unit weight of water :  w  w   Ww
Vw 62.4 pcf water content : ω 
Ws
 s sand 2.65
specific gravity of solids : Gs   9
 w clay 2.7 ~ 2.8

Weight-Volume Relationships

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 Atterberg Limit Test
  

  
Solid Semisolid Plastic Semiliquid
State State State State
Increase of
moisture content

Volume of
Soil-water mixture More Clay like LL and PL

PI


SL PL LL moisture content

Soil doesn’t undergo any Soil crumble when rolled into Casagrande’s liquid device
further change in volume a thread of 1/8’’ in diameter (groove closure of 12.7mm at 25 blows)
with loss of moisture

Water can affect the behavior and strength of soil

Plastic Limit Test

Definition: Soil water content when soil is rolled into a thread of 1/8’’
in diameter and soil crumble is observed

(1) Test device; (2) Beginning of Test; (3) thread being rolled; (4) crumbed soil

Blows (log)
 Liquid Limit Test

(a) Liquid limit test device

and grooving tools

(b) grooving tools; (c) soil pat before test; (d) soil pat
after test, 0.5in (12.7mm) closure of the groove

0.5in (12.7mm) closure of the groove

 Liquid Limit test
Definition: Soil groove closure of 12.7mm at blows, which can be
determined using flow curve

Flow Curve

Plasticity Index

Plasticity index is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic
lime of a soil, It is an important index in classifying fine-graded soils.
Plasticity Chart

Plasticity Chart

 C: Clay (above A-Line)

 M: Mud/Silt (below A-Line)
 O: Organic
 H: High Plasticity LL>50
 L: Low Plasticity LL<50

U-Line: PI=0.9(LL-8)
A-Line: PI=0.73(LL-20)
Soil Grain Size Distribution-Sieve Analysis

Percent finer by weight

D60

D30
D10

Particle diameter (mm)- in log scale

A set of sieve for test in the laboratory
Soil Grain Size Distribution Curve

Soil Grain Size Distribution-Sieve Analysis

Coefficient of Gradation, Cc
Percent finer by weight

Poorly graded

Well graded Gap graded Uniformity Coefficient, Cu

Particle diameter (mm)- in log scale

Well Graded
Different types of particle-size distribution curves
Cu  4 and 1  Cc  3 for sand
Cu  6 and 1  C c  3 for gravel
Poor Graded
Not meeting both criteria for
well graded
 Soil Classification
4.75mm 0.075mm
Gravel Sand Silt and Clay
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT)
US Department of Agriculture
(USDA)
American Association of State
Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO)
Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS)

Unified Soil Classification

System (USCS)
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Soil Type First Letter in Second Letter in Designation

Designation
Coarse-Grained G – gravel or S - sand Clean: P – poorly or W – well graded
Dirty: M – silty or C - clayey
Fine-Grained M – silt or C - clay H – high or L – low plasticity
Organic O H – high or L – low plasticity
Peat P T

Soil Classification
 Soil Classification
AASHTO USCS
Same 1. Based on the texture (grain size) and plasticity of soil.
2. Both systems divide the soils into two major categories,
coarse and fine grained, separated by the No. 200 sieve
Difference Definition of fine grained <#200, >35% <#200, >50%
(Good) (Bad)
Boundary between #10 #4
gravel and sand (Good) (Bad)
Description of Soil Less detailed *More Detailed
Properties (Bad) (Good)
Classification of organic No Yes
soil (Bad) (Good)

*Clearly separate the gravelly and sandy soil in USCS system. In the AASHTO system,
in the A-2 group, in particular, contains a large variety of soils.

1.2 Soil Effective Stress

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 Soil Effective Stress

'u

First proposed by Terzaghi (1925)

Soil Effective Stress

The sum of the vertical components of the forces developed
at the points of contact of the solid particles per unit cross-
sectional area of the soil mass.
 Soil Effective Stress

The effective stress is a concept of average stress, not the

real contact stress between the surrounding soil particles.
However, people still can view the effective stress is
approximately the force per unit area carried by the soil
skeleton.

It is the most important concept in the geotechnical

engineering. It has been proofed the effective stress (not
total stress) in a soil mass controls its volume change and
strength. Increasing the effective stress induces soil to move
into a denser state of packing.

Soil Effective Stress

Total Pore water Effective

Stress,  pressure, u Stress, ’
 1.3 Soil Engineering Properties

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Consolidation

Building a house on top of soft marine clay without House crack due to consolidation-induced-
pre-consolidation differential settlement
 Soil Consolidation

To answer following to major questions:

1. What is the settlement subjected to
the applied loading?
2. What is the consolidation time for the
required degree of consolidation?

Soil Consolidation
Initial Setting t=0
LVDT
Reality Model Valve closed

▪ Soil Cylinder

▪Solid Spring
=0
▪Water Water
u=0
’=0
=0
Pressure Gage
 [土壤力學試教:Consolidation觀念]
Soil Consolidation
中央大學第二次面試

1.Loading
t=0+ 2. Water Dissipates 3. Equilibrium
 t>0 t>∞
closed




= = =

u= u< u=0
’=0 ’>0 ’=
=0 >0 >0 33

 u ’

t=0
Beginning of
applying loading
D D D
 u ’

0≤t ≤ ∞
Dissipation of pore
water pressure
D D D
 u ’
t=∞
Completion of
consolidation

D D D
 1-D Consolidation Test

P
Dial gauge
measures h

Porous Stone

Ring
Soil h0

Porous Stone

Odemeter

e-logP’ Curve
Over consolidated Normal consolidated

Cr

Compression index
Cc

Preconsolidation pressure

e  Compression Index  log

e
S  H  H 0
1  e0
Settlement Calculation using e-logP’ Curve

Cr
Case I : 0    c
e  C r log(0  )  log 0 
Cc
C r log(0  )  log 0 
H0
H 
1  e0

Case II : 0    c

0 e  C r log c  log 0   C c log(0  )  log c 

C r log c  log 0   C c log(0  )  log c 

H0
Case I Case II H 
1  e0

Time Rate of Consolidation

Terzaghi (1925) 1-D Consolidation Theory
Assume:
1. The clay-water system is homogeneous
2. Full Saturation
3. Compressibility of water is negligible
4. Compressibility of soil grains is negligible
(but soil grains rearrange)
5. The flow of water is in one direction along
the direction of compression
6. Darcy’s law is valid

Governing Equation
Rate of water outflow - Rate of water inflow= Rate of volume change

u  2u where :
 Cv
t z 2 u : excess pore water pressure at time t
t : consolidation time
z : depth
C v : coefficient of consolidation
(a) Clay layer undergoing consolidation;
(b) flow of water during consolidation
中央大學第二次面試 [土壤力學試教:Consolidation觀念] 大地組助理教授候選人・ 楊國鑫

Comparison
Assumptions Reality
Wide Fill (e.g. Embankment) Different load type
stress increment is uniform stress distribution may be
through depth concerned and varing w/ depth

S=100% S<100%

Flow direction is 1-D Radial Flow

Load applied
Step Loading
instantaneously

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中央大學第二次面試 [土壤力學試教:Consolidation觀念] 大地組助理教授候選人・ 楊國鑫

Estimate the Required Time for Consolidation

Dimensional time factor Length of drainage path
2
Tv H dr
t
Cv
Coefficient of Consolidation
Two-way drainage

Average degree of consolidation, U(%)

 U% 2
One-way drainage

Tv  ( )
4 100

Tv  1.78  0.933 log(100  U %)

One-way drainage

Dimensional time factor, Tv

Variation of average degree of consolidation
with time factor, Tv at u0 constant with depth
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 [土壤力學試教:Consolidation觀念] 大地組助理教授候選人・ 楊國鑫
Soil Shear Strength
中央大學第二次面試

(a) Embankment (b) Retaining Wall

Triaxial Compression
(c) Excavation
Triaxial Extension

Direct Shear

Direct Simple Shear

(d) Pile
Downward Upward

Plane strain Compression

Plane strain Extension

Triaxial Compression under Ko

(e) Footing Triaxial Extension under Ko
Downward Upward

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Suggested by Taiwan Foundation Design Guidelines

Direct Shear Test

Normal force 


Shear Force 


Shear Box
Shear Relative Displacement
Force

 Direct shear test device

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 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Impossible
Shear Strength

Failure
Cohesion
Stable Friction Angle

Normal Stress on Failure Plane

Shear Strength
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope

Effective Normal Stress

43

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 Comments on Direct Shear Test
Advantage: Simple and Economic

Disadvantage:
1. The soil is not allowed to fail along the weakest plane
but is forced to fail along the (horizontal) plane of split
of the shear box.
2. The shear distribution over the shear surface of the
specimen is not uniform

Application:
Used to determine the soil-structure interface friction angle

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Triaxial Compression Test

(a) Apply confining pressure; (b) Apply deviator stress

Modeling soil shear Modeling structural loading

strength increase with
the increase of depth

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 Triaxial Shear tests
 Consolidated-Drained Test (CD Test)
 Consolidated-Undrained Test (CU Test)
 Unconsolidated-Undrained Test (UU Test)
 Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

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Triaxial Compression Test

1st Phase 2nd Phase
Test 3 d Abbreviation Soil Parameter Target Soil

Consolidated- Drained Drained CD (Slow) Effective c’, ’ Frictional soil

Drained

Consolidated- Drained Undrained

CU Total c, 
(Rapid) Cohesive soil
Undrained CU Effective c’, ’
Unconsolidated- Undrained Undrained UU (Quick) Total c, 
Undrained Cohesive soil
most of time Su

Modeling soil shear

strength increase with the
increase of depth
Modeling soil shear strength
changing with time (long and
short term stability)

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 Total and Effective Stress Analyses
Soil Effect of pore water pressure
Analysis
Parameter or groundwater table
Total stress analysis Total c,  Should be Ignored in the design/analysis,
(Short-term stability) most of time Su because the effect of water has been
included in the total stress parameter

Effective stress analysis Effective c’, ’ Should be considered in the design/analysis,

(Long-term stability) because the effect of water has not been
included in the effective stress parameter

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