The following article was published in ASHRAE Journal, October 2004.

© Copyright 2004 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and

Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. It is presented for educational purposes only. This article may not be copied and/or distributed electronically
or in paper form without permission of ASHRAE.

Best Practices the technology is not widespread. This

article addresses the design, construction
and commissioning phases of the UFAD
building project.

For Underfloor
Design Phase: Cooling-Airflow
Calculations
During the design phase, engineers
carefully must determine load calcula-
tions for the building. These will differ

Air Systems
from the calculations for a ceiling-based
air-distribution system.
One difference is the amount of a partic-
ular load that enters the occupied zone. For
a ceiling-based system, the occupied zone
is effectively floor-to-ceiling, because the
space is well-mixed. For UFAD systems,
By Mike Filler the occupied zone is the vertical space from

B
the floor to 6 ft (1.8 m) above the floor.
etween 1995 and 2002, the number of new office build- This means that some loads never enter the
occupied zone. Further, if return-air grilles
ings with raised floors that use underfloor air distribution
are placed close to the building’s perimeter
(UFAD) increased approximately 40%.1 This rapid growth can be wall, convective heat gain occurring there
can be carried into the return air before it
attributed to four potential benefits UFAD offers over traditional has an opportunity to enter the occupied
zone. Both of these factors can reduce the
ceiling-based air distribution: heat load in the occupied zone. Ultimately,
this reduction in space heat gain affects
1. Lower churn costs—allows for fast and refrigeration energy, and the calculation of cooling airflow in direct
and inexpensive reconfiguration of of- 4. Potential to reduce floor-to-ceiling proportion (see Figure 1).
fice space, heights—creates cost savings in struc-
2. Improved IAQ—supplies condi- tural and façade systems. About the Author
Mike Filler is a product marketing engineer,
tioned air directly to the breathing zone, Although UFAD has increased in Engineered Systems Group, YORK International,
3. Lower energy costs—reduces fan popularity, knowledge of how to apply York, Pa.

October 2004 ASHRAE Journal 39

 Return Grill
Ceiling
Unoccupied
Zone
Convective
Energy
Occupied Radiant
Zone Energy
Raised Floor
Supply Airway
Figure 1: Typical loads that do and do not enter the occupied zone.
Another difference is the room-air temperature that is used
for load calculations. With a ceiling-based system, the room-air
temperature is considered to be uniform, floor to ceiling. With
UFAD, there is temperature stratification within the space, with
heat and pollutants concentrated in the upper levels. In fact, ANSI/
ASHRAE Standard 55–2004 allows a vertical temperature varia-
tion of 5.4°F (3°C) between head and ankle levels. (If an all-air
UFAD system is designed for no stratification in the occupied zone,
it will use more airflow, wasting fan energy [see Figure 2]).
Because of stratification, it is recommended that engineers con-
sider using 2–3°F (1–2°C) higher thermostatic temperature for
UFAD systems, compared to overhead distribution.2 This should
have a direct impact on the cooling airflow calculations.
The third airflow-calculation difference concerns the heat
transfer from the warm, occupied zone above, and from the
warm, return airway below in multistory buildings, into the
cool underfloor airway3 (see Figure 3).
This heat transfer and the resulting thermal decay (loss of sup-
ply-air cooling ability) should be counted as part of the airflow
requirement for each zone. The heat transferred from the occupied
zone would be a credit (reduction) for cooling supply airflow quan-
tities. As a rule of thumb, the supply-air temperature should not be
allowed to increase more than 3°F (2°C) from the time it enters the
underfloor airway until it is discharged into the conditioned space
through the furthest terminal. If a greater thermal decay is possible
because of a large floorplate, unlined stub ductwork should be
used to carry the supply air further into the airway.
Design Phase: Variable-Air-Volume
Versus Constant-Air-Volume
Thermal decay is another good reason to specify a variable-
air-volume (VAV) UFAD system. It has been found that the
supply-air temperature is not always uniform in an underfloor
airway, and may change throughout the day. A properly de-
signed VAV/UFAD system is adept at accommodating these
temperature variations.
There is a belief that placing a manually adjustable diffuser
40 ASHRAE Journal
80°F
Return Airway
9 ft
6 ft 76°F
Thermostat
0 ft 72°F
Supply Airway 62°F
Figure 2: Temperature stratification in UFAD-cooled space.
near each occupant will result in greater temperature satisfac-
tion. However, it has been found that most occupants do not
understand that they can control airflow in their workspace, and
that those who do understand typically do not make changes
anyway.4 As a result, engineers may find that automatic VAV
diffusers provide better comfort than manual VAV diffusers.
Design Phase: Ventilation
In any VAV system, ensuring minimum ventilation is always a
concern, because reduced loads could cause supply-air volumes
to fall so far that insufficient ventilation is supplied to the room.
To prevent inadequate ventilation in VAV/UFAD systems, some
manufacturers offer optional collars to serve as a minimum
stop for their dampers. Other manufacturers recommend using
a series fan-powered VAV box that pulls supply air from the
underfloor airway and heats the air as necessary.
Minimum-ventilation requirements may also be met if the
designer takes into account leakage from the underfloor airway
into the conditioned space.
Like the ducts in an overhead system, the underfloor airway
experiences a small amount of air leakage — through diffusers,
raised-floor panels, and power-voice-data (PVD) boxes. This
leakage may meet much, if not all, of the minimum-ventilation
requirement. This will also affect the amount of diffuser airflow
needed to satisfy the space heat gain.
With precise CO2 monitoring of the room, UFAD may also
be able to reduce overall ventilation-air quantities more than
overhead systems. Rather than having to ventilate the entire
floor-to-ceiling space, a UFAD system only requires ventilation
of the occupied zone. A CO2 monitoring system will recognize
when the occupied zone is adequately ventilated, regardless of
the situation above 6 ft (1.8 m).
Design Phase: Leakage Rates
While a small amount of airway leakage is desirable to handle
minimum ventilation requirements, excessive leakage through
the floor panels into the space and other uncontrolled airflow
ashrae.org October 2004
can cause comfort problems and waste energy. For this reason, be those specifically designed for modulating control.
it is important to specify and detail how to ensure a leak-tight As with overhead systems, it is important to take into account
airway. Engineers need to pay especially close attention to the the effect of air velocities on noise. It is recommended that air
intersection of floor slabs with exterior walls and interior shafts velocity entering the supply airway be limited to a maximum
(for elevators and risers) to ensure proper sealing. Also examine of 1,500 fpm (7.6 m/s) to reduce noise. On the other end of the
furred-in columns, stud walls penetrating the raised floor, and noise spectrum, it should be noted that noise levels of UFAD
all penetrations for pipes, ducts, and cables. systems are typically lower than overhead systems. For this
Because the slab will (hopefully) be tightly sealed, thought reason, engineers may want to consider adding sound masking
should be given to flood control. The structural engineer in low-occupancy areas for acoustic privacy.6
should determine whether a flood caused by a broken pipe or The air-handling device will be responsible for providing
the sprinkler system would collapse the slab. If that possibility some or all of the minimum ventilation requirement. So, the
exists, floor drains with pressure valves should be incorporated minimum airflow requirement for each device should be dis-
in the design. played on the mechanical schedule.
Raised-floor leakage rates vary by manufacturer and floor- The air-handling device also should be equipped with some
covering type and layout. During the design phase, specify an sort of reheat capability, so it can handle the higher supply-
airway leak rate no more than the minimum VAV airflow, and air temperatures (SAT)—about 60°F (16°C) versus 55°F
specify a leak test to be performed as part of commissioning. (13°C)—required by these systems without creating a humid-
A marginal UFAD system may ity problem in the occupied spaces.
leak as much as 20% to 25% of the In most cases, it is best to use one
system’s total air volume, but a good primary air-handling unit with a
system typically will leak no more return-air bypass (see Figure 4). The
than 10% to 15%. While even 10% to Heat Heat
typical face-and-bypass arrangement
15% leakage may seem excessive to is not the same as the return-air by-
some, it is important to remember that pass and will result in unacceptably
overhead duct systems leak an aver- high humidity levels. Other, more
age of 20% of their airflow, and that expensive reheat methods include
leakage flows to the return-air airway Heat Heat
modulating hot-gas, run-around heat
and not to the occupied space. pipes, or using as many as three fans
Figure 3: Thermal decay in the supply airway.
(not including a return or relief fan)
Design Phase: Airway Height to supply air to perimeter zones.
It is important to design enough room for and access to the
equipment that needs to be located under the raised-access Design Phase: Control Systems
floor (RAF). Space becomes important when it is time to Controls for an UFAD system are similar to those of an over-
perform routine maintenance or make repairs or adjustments head VAV system, except the SAT is designed for a minimum
to the equipment. of 60° F dry bulb3, and the static pressure (SP) differential pres-
UFAD installations typically use 12- to 18-in. (305 to 457 sure between the airway and the occupied space is nominally
mm) RAF. Laboratory testing has concluded that the minimum designed for 0.05 in. w.g. (0.012 kPa). Some manufacturers may
RAF height is 8 in. (203mm) for uniform air-distribution.5 How- recommend higher airway SP (up to 0.10 in. w.g. [0.025 kPa]).
ever, RAF height is often driven by the height of the underfloor However, this will increase uncontrolled leakage, theoretically
fan terminals (if used) or the size of the floorplate. Underfloor by more than 40%.
fan terminals typically range in height from 8 in. (203 mm) At light loads, the SAT is typically reset upward, and SP
to as much as 16 in. (406 mm) for large cooling-and-heating downward, to prevent overcooling and to maximize free-cool-
units. For larger floorplates, the size of the stub-ductwork (typi- ing (economizer) hours. Night set-back should be minimized
cally limited to 22 in. [559 mm] wide to fit between the RAF to maintain proper building control, and morning warm-up will
pedestals) may pose a height constraint. not work because of the thermal effects of the building slab.
The control sequence also should have the ability to lower
Design Phase: Ductwork and Air Handlers the off-coil temperature, based on the level of underfloor RH,
A UFAD system requires some special consideration of the in order to prevent condensation and maintain comfortable
ductwork. In the room, the return-air intake should be sized humidity levels in the space.
for a maximum of 500 fpm (2.5 m/s) and be located above the Be aware that UFAD components use a number of different types
occupied zone. Air moving any faster will disrupt the stratifica- of controls. By working with component manufacturers, design
tion effect necessary for a properly designed UFAD system. engineers can secure sequences of operation for the diffusers, ac-
Combination fire/smoke/control-zone dampers (FSDs) should tuators and fan-powered units necessary for proper zone control.
October 2004 ASHRAE Journal 41
Construction Phase
During the construction phase, contractors must be aware
that the floor slab, ceiling, walls and column enclosures
are the structure of the supply and return airways, and they
must act to preserve the integrity of the airways. This means
informing all trades of their responsibility with respect to
sealing the airways.
To ensure proper installation and operation of the underfloor
system, here is a typical sequence of interior construction
that takes place only after final design-layout drawings have
been issued.
• Install and finish all fire-rated demising walls.
• Install ceilings and ceiling systems.
• Complete the floor slabs, sealing them as dictated by build-
ing codes and project specifications, and checking to be certain
they are level.
• Mark the RAF pedestal-support-grid layout on the floor
slab, being certain the grid lines match up with the main supply
and branch ductwork.
• Install and prepare all fan-powered units, diffusers, and any
associated ductwork before the RAF is installed.
• Install pressure-control dampers and FSDs, fan-terminal
ductwork, and branch ductwork while the RAF is being installed
to ensure proper room for the ductwork.
• Clean and vacuum the slab before cabling is installed. A
clean airway prevents dust from being blown throughout the
space during startup.
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• Install all wiring systems on the slab and coordinate the
systems with the floor-pedestal marks.
• Set up a workstation to install the UFAD terminals in the
RAF panels, expediting the installation of floor pedestals,
panels, and PVD boxes. Overlay the wiring (preferably plug-
and-play cabling) on the UFAD drawings. Unique tag numbers
are often unnecessary for the UFAD drawings, because typically
only a few types of diffusers and fan terminals are used.
• Install the RAF pedestals and panels, including those with
UFAD terminals and PVD boxes. It is recommended that diffus-
ers or control items not be installed along known partition lines
or under furniture. Install diffusers in the correct orientation on
floor panels and panels in the RAF to ensure airflow patterns
match the drawings.
• In larger floorplates, i.e., when the diffusers are located
within 15 ft (4.6 m) of the supply duct, install the diffusers with
the inlet facing away from the air supply to avoid a velocity ef-
fect from the ductwork. (However, some diffusers have inlets
on all sides and do not allow this.)
• Orient directional grilles to provide the desired airflow pat-
tern. At the perimeter, airflow should be directed along and/or
away from the exterior walls, while grilles in the interior should
create an outwards circular pattern. An outward pattern allows
for the greatest amount of induction and is recommended for
initial installment, even if occupants change the pattern once
the building is in use.
• Construct partition walls on the top of the RAF, covering
October 2004
 Return
Air

High-Efficiency
Filters

Damper
Dampers Supply
Outside Cooling Air
Air Coil
Supply
Fan
Filters

Figure 4: Air-handling unit with return-air bypass.

the floor and any openings or air-distribution terminals to keep

construction debris from entering the floor airway.
• Apply finishes to the walls.
• Remove the covering from the RAF and vacuum.
• Lay carpet on the RAF panels.
• Install furniture. Advertisement formerly in this space.
• Ensure all plug-and-play cable connections are properly
connected and engaged in mating connectors. (This can be ac-
complished earlier, when the RAF is installed, depending on
the sequence of the trades.)
• Vacuum all construction debris in the diffusers. (This is not
necessary if diffuser protective sheets were used earlier.)
• Commission the mechanical systems.

Commissioning Phase
Following the construction phase, the UFAD system is com-
missioned, which should include an airway-leakage test and an
airflow test. Begin by testing each primary supply fan to check
for minimum airflow with all diffusers closed or at the minimum
stop. If uncontrolled leakage (leakage not coming through the
diffusers and not what is expected through the floor) is too high,
the leakage needs to be found and corrected, and the primary
supply fan must be retested. The leakage test itself should be
repeated every few years or after any remodeling that includes
reconfiguring the UFAD system.
An airflow/SP test determines that the system can provide
adequate air to all diffusers. Typically, test one diffuser per zone
and verify that the zone controllers are functioning properly
(based upon the predefined sequence of operation). Balancing
the diffusers is necessary only on ducted diffusers (often used
along the perimeter).

Educate Building Occupants on UFAD

After commissioning, building owners and occupants as-
sume responsibility for the optimal operation of the UFAD
system. The owner or facility manager should secure a complete
set of as-built drawings, establishing the grid system and lo-
October 2004 ASHRAE Journal 43
cating all UFAD components and controls. This grid system
needs to be revised whenever changes are made to the
UFAD system.
It is also important for the owner to train maintenance
people to operate the UFAD system. Begin by providing
them with applicable service manuals that explain the opera-
tion and maintenance of the system, and review the manuals
with them.
Pay special attention to the impact of room-temperature
stratification on comfort and control, as well as the control
functions to reset the RH, supply-air temperature and floor
SP as needed. If applicable, any control options should be
explained, such as providing a pocket digital assistant as a
maintenance tool.
Finally, it is important to inform the building occupants about
the UFAD system. Stress with them the importance of periodi-
cally vacuuming the underfloor airway as well as cleaning up
spills. Explain the benefits of the system to them, including
comfort, improved IAQ, flexibility, and energy efficiency. Point
out the location of the diffusers and the availability of individual
diffusers to meet special needs. Identify the location of ther-
mostats and sensors for individual work areas or zones, their
functions and how to use them, and provide contact information
to register comfort complaints.
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44 ASHRAE Journal ashrae.org
Buildings with UFAD may require more thought during the
design phase, especially when designers are working on their
first building with UFAD. However, if best practices are care-
fully followed and the proper coordination occurs on the UFAD
job, then the process can be smoother, shortening the construc-
tion cycle, ensuring a successful commissioning process, and
ultimately securing the advantages in system flexibility, IAQ,
and energy efficiency that are contributing to the rapid growth
of UFAD.
References
1. Bauman, F. 2003. Underfloor Air Distribution Design Guide.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc.
2. Webster, T., F. Bauman, J. Reese. 2002b. “Underfloor air distribu-
tion: thermal stratification.” ASHRAE Journal, May.
3. YORK International. 1999, “YORK Modular Integrated Termi-
nals: Convection Enhanced Ventilation – Technical Manual.”
4. Webster, T., R. Bannon, D. Lehrer. 2002. “Teledesic Broadband
Center Field Study.” Center for the Built Environment, University of
California, Berkeley. April.
5. Bauman, F., P. Pecora, T. Webster. 1999. “How low can you go?
Air flowperformance of low-height under-floor plenums.” Center for
the Built Environment, University of California, Berkeley. October.
6. Tate. 2003. “Raised Access Floors and Office Acoustics.” Tate
Technical Bulletin #235.
October 2004