1. The following are some problems often associated with data analysis.

Discuss how to
avoid or to reduce these problems:
1. All raw data have some error associated with them.
2. Data from different sources have a different impact on the quality of the
solutions.
3. Data from multiple sources have a different confidence range from each source.
4. Human tendency is to analyze data in hurry and to assume that the analysis is
not only right but also the only right analysis.
Answer:
All raw data have some error associated with them.
One way to reduce the impact of errors in raw data is to conduct a data audit, which involves
checking the accuracy and completeness of the data. This can include validating the data
against known sources, using statistical techniques to identify outliers or inconsistencies, and
comparing the data to external benchmarks. Additionally, collecting multiple sources of data
and using them to validate and cross-check each other can help to identify and correct errors.
Data from different sources have a different impact on the quality of the solutions.
To mitigate this problem, it is important to carefully consider the sources of data being used
and their potential impact on the quality of the analysis. This may involve conducting a
thorough analysis of the data sources to determine their reliability, validity, and potential
biases. In some cases, it may be necessary to use only a subset of the available data sources or
to weight the data sources based on their relative quality.
Data from multiple sources have a different confidence range from each source.
When using data from multiple sources, it is important to consider the confidence range of
each source and to use appropriate statistical techniques to account for the variability in the
data. One approach is to use a weighted average or a Bayesian approach that accounts for the
uncertainty in the data sources. Another option is to perform sensitivity analyses that test the
impact of different assumptions or data sources on the results.
Human tendency is to analyze data in a hurry and to assume that the analysis is not
only right but also the only right analysis.
To avoid hasty or biased analysis, it is important to take the time to carefully consider the
data, including its quality, completeness, and potential biases. This may involve consulting
with colleagues, seeking external reviews, or using automated tools to check the analysis.
Additionally, it is important to be open to alternative interpretations of the data and to
consider multiple perspectives when making decisions based on the analysis. Finally, it may
be helpful to establish clear protocols for data analysis and to follow these protocols
consistently to ensure that the analysis is thorough and unbiased.

2. Data requirements may be dependent upon the type of reservoir study. Identify all
data required for each of the following reservoir study methods:
1. Volumetric
2. Material balance
3. Reservoir simulation.

Answer:
Volumetric Reservoir Study Method:
The volumetric reservoir study method is used to estimate the total volume of hydrocarbons
in a reservoir. The data requirements for this method include:
 Geological data such as maps, cross-sections, and logs to identify the structure of the
reservoir, its thickness, and its porosity.
 Petrophysical data such as well logs, core samples, and formation tests to determine
the reservoir's permeability and fluid saturation.
 Reservoir fluid data such as PVT (pressure-volume-temperature) analysis and fluid
samples to determine the type and properties of the hydrocarbons in the reservoir.
Material Balance Reservoir Study Method:
The material balance reservoir study method is used to estimate the original oil or gas in
place, the current reservoir pressure, and the remaining recoverable hydrocarbons. The data
requirements for this method include:
 Geological and petrophysical data as mentioned above for the volumetric method.
 Production data such as production rates, pressure data, and fluid samples to
determine the reservoir's fluid properties and production behavior over time.
 Injection data such as injection rates, pressure data, and fluid samples to determine the
impact of water or gas injection on the reservoir.
Reservoir Simulation Study Method:
The reservoir simulation study method involves creating a computer model of the reservoir
and simulating its behavior over time. The data requirements for this method include:
 Geological and petrophysical data as mentioned above for the volumetric method.
 Production and injection data as mentioned above for the material balance method.
 Rock and fluid properties such as relative permeability, capillary pressure, and
thermal conductivity to accurately simulate fluid flow in the reservoir.
 Well data such as well trajectories, completion design, and production history to
accurately model the performance of individual wells.
 Surface and facility data such as production equipment and pipelines to accurately
model the entire production system.
It's worth noting that the specific data requirements for each of these methods may vary
depending on the complexity of the reservoir and the objectives of the study. Additionally,
data quality and accuracy are critical for all three methods, and a lack of high-quality data can
significantly impact the accuracy of the results.

3. Data requirements may be dependent upon the type or stage of reservoir

development or recovery method being applied. Identify all data required for each of
the following cases:
1. Reservoir study of a newly discovered field
2. Reservoir study of a mature field
3. Reservoir study of an old field
4. Reservoir study of a field being developed with EOR methods.
Note: The basis for data collection should answer the following questions:
a. Are the data necessary (what are we going to do with the data)?
b. What are the benefits of those data?
Answer:
Reservoir Study of a Newly Discovered Field:
When studying a newly discovered field, the primary objective is to understand the size and
potential of the hydrocarbon reserves. The data requirements for this stage of reservoir
development may include:
a. Exploration Data:
 Geological data such as seismic surveys, surface geology, and geophysical logs to
identify the structure, depth, and thickness of the reservoir.
 Petrophysical data such as well logs and core samples to determine the porosity,
permeability, and fluid saturation of the reservoir.
 Reservoir fluid data such as PVT analysis and fluid samples to determine the type and
properties of the hydrocarbons in the reservoir.
b. Drilling Data:
 Well data such as well logs, drill stem tests, and open-hole logs to further refine the
understanding of the reservoir properties.
 Production data such as flow rates, pressure data, and fluid samples to determine the
initial reservoir performance.
The benefits of collecting these data are to determine the size and potential of the
hydrocarbon reserves, identify drilling locations and well trajectories, and design the
development plan for the field.

Reservoir Study of a Mature Field:

When studying a mature field, the objective is to optimize the production of hydrocarbons
and extend the life of the field. The data requirements for this stage of reservoir development
may include:
a. Production Data:
 Production data such as production rates, pressure data, and fluid samples to
determine the reservoir's fluid properties and production behavior over time.
 Injection data such as injection rates, pressure data, and fluid samples to determine the
impact of water or gas injection on the reservoir.
b. Reservoir Monitoring Data:
 Reservoir monitoring data such as downhole pressure and temperature data, fluid
levels, and production profiles to monitor the performance of the reservoir over time.
The benefits of collecting these data are to optimize the production of hydrocarbons, extend
the life of the field, and minimize operational costs.

Reservoir Study of an Old Field:

When studying an old field, the objective is to assess the remaining recoverable hydrocarbons
and the feasibility of additional production. The data requirements for this stage of reservoir
development may include:
a. Production and Injection Data:
 Production data such as production rates, pressure data, and fluid samples to
determine the remaining recoverable hydrocarbons.
  Injection data such as injection rates, pressure data, and fluid samples to determine the
impact of water or gas injection on the reservoir.
b. Reservoir Monitoring Data:
 Reservoir monitoring data such as downhole pressure and temperature data, fluid
levels, and production profiles to assess the remaining potential of the reservoir.
The benefits of collecting these data are to determine the remaining recoverable hydrocarbons
and assess the feasibility of additional production.

Reservoir Study of a Field Being Developed with EOR Methods:

When studying a field being developed with enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods, the
objective is to optimize the EOR method and maximize the recovery of hydrocarbons. The
data requirements for this stage of reservoir development may include:
a. EOR Specific Data:
Data specific to the EOR method being used, such as injection and production rates, pressure
data, and fluid samples to optimize the EOR method.
b. Reservoir Monitoring Data:
Reservoir monitoring data such as downhole pressure and temperature data, fluid levels, and
production profiles to monitor the performance of the reservoir with the EOR method.
The benefits of collecting these data are to optimize the EOR method and maximize the
recovery of hydrocarbons.

In all cases, the data requirements should be driven by the objectives of the study and the
benefits of the data in achieving those objectives. The data should be carefully collected,
analyzed, and interpreted to provide accurate and reliable information for decision

4. Several reservoir data could be inferred from multiple sources. Identify sources, if
any, of the following properties:
1. Porosity
 Porosity can be inferred from several sources such as:
 Core samples: Porosity can be measured directly from core samples extracted from
the reservoir rock.
 Well logs: Porosity can be inferred from well logs such as neutron, density, and sonic
logs that measure the properties of the surrounding rock.
 Seismic data: Seismic data can provide indirect measurements of porosity through the
use of inversion techniques and rock physics models.
2. Permeability
 Permeability can be inferred from several sources such as:
 Core samples: Permeability can be measured directly from core samples extracted
from the reservoir rock.
 Well tests: Permeability can be estimated from well tests such as pressure transient
analysis and well interference tests that measure the flow of fluids in the reservoir.
 Well logs: Permeability can be inferred from well logs such as induction and acoustic
logs that measure the properties of the surrounding rock.
3. Relative Permeability
 Relative permeability can be inferred from several sources such as:
  Core samples: Relative permeability can be measured directly from core samples
extracted from the reservoir rock.
 Well tests: Relative permeability can be estimated from well tests such as production
and injection tests that measure the flow of fluids in the reservoir.
4. Reservoir Geometry (Area, Thickness):
Reservoir geometry can be inferred from several sources such as:
 Seismic data: Seismic data can provide information on the shape and size of the
reservoir through the use of structural mapping and horizon interpretation.
 Well logs: Well logs can provide information on the thickness of the reservoir and its
boundaries by identifying changes in lithology and porosity.
 Geological maps: Geological maps can provide information on the surface expression
of the reservoir and its boundaries.
5. Saturations
Saturations can be inferred from several sources such as:
 Core samples: Saturations can be measured directly from core samples extracted from
the reservoir rock.
 Well logs: Saturations can be inferred from well logs such as nuclear magnetic
resonance and resistivity logs that measure the properties of the surrounding rock.
 Fluid samples: Saturations can be estimated from fluid samples extracted from the
reservoir.
6. Reservoir boundaries
Reservoir boundaries can be inferred from several sources such as:
 Seismic data: Seismic data can provide information on the location and shape of the
reservoir boundaries through the use of structural mapping and horizon interpretation.
 Well logs: Well logs can provide information on the lithology and properties of the
surrounding rock, which can be used to identify changes in the reservoir boundaries.
 Geological maps: Geological maps can provide information on the surface expression
of the reservoir and its boundaries.
In all cases, the inferred properties should be carefully analyzed and validated to ensure that
they are accurate and reliable. The use of multiple sources and techniques can help to
improve the accuracy of the inferred properties.

5. An approach to data acquisition and analysis program proposed by Raza (1992)

consists of 4 (four) steps:
1. Data planning
2. Data collection
3. Data analysis and reduction
4. Data synthesis.
Discuss each of those steps in a sense of practical manner

Answer:
Data planning: This step involves identifying the objectives of the data analysis and
determining the necessary data to achieve those objectives. Practical considerations at this
stage include deciding what data to collect, where to collect it from, and how to collect it. It's
also important to establish a clear plan for the entire data acquisition and analysis process,
including timelines, roles and responsibilities, and any potential challenges or risks.
Data collection: In this step, the actual data is gathered according to the plan established in
step 1. Practical considerations here include selecting appropriate tools and methods for
collecting data, ensuring that data is collected in a consistent and reliable manner, and taking
steps to ensure the data is accurate and complete. Depending on the type and source of data,
this step could involve surveys, interviews, observation, experimentation, or other methods.

Data analysis and reduction: Once the data has been collected, it needs to be analyzed and
reduced to make it more manageable and meaningful. Practical considerations at this stage
include selecting appropriate analytical techniques, such as statistical analysis or qualitative
coding, and using software tools to support the analysis. It's also important to clean and
preprocess the data to ensure its accuracy and completeness, and to identify and address any
outliers or anomalies that could affect the analysis.

Data synthesis: The final step is to synthesize the results of the data analysis into a coherent
and actionable set of findings. Practical considerations here include presenting the results in a
clear and understandable way, such as through data visualizations or reports, and making
recommendations or taking actions based on the findings. It's also important to consider how
the results will be used and communicated to stakeholders, and to ensure that any limitations
or uncertainties in the data are acknowledged and addressed.

Overall, a practical approach to data acquisition and analysis involves careful planning,
attention to detail during data collection, robust analysis techniques, and clear communication
of results. By following these four steps, researchers and analysts can ensure that their data is
of high quality and that their findings are meaningful and actionable.

6. Most reservoir data are acquired from multiple sources. How can we ensure that all
data are consistent and convergence so that they are useful in describing a reservoir

Answer:
Ensuring data consistency and convergence is an essential aspect of reservoir
characterization, as it allows for a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the
reservoir. Here are some practical ways to ensure data consistency and convergence:
Develop a data management plan: A data management plan should be developed before
data acquisition begins. This plan should identify all data sources and the formats of data that
will be collected. The plan should also detail how data will be collected, processed, and
quality-checked to ensure consistency.
Use standardized data formats and protocols: Standardization of data formats and
protocols across all data sources can help to minimize inconsistencies and discrepancies. It's
important to establish a standardized nomenclature for all parameters and variables used in
reservoir characterization to ensure that all data are interpreted consistently.
Perform quality control checks: Quality control checks can help to identify and address
inconsistencies or errors in the data. These checks should be performed throughout the data
acquisition and analysis process to ensure that all data are consistent and reliable.
Use multiple data analysis methods: Multiple data analysis methods should be used to
ensure that the data converge to a consistent interpretation. This can include comparing and
contrasting data from different sources and analyzing the data using different analytical
methods. Multiple interpretations should be evaluated to ensure that they converge to a
consistent understanding of the reservoir.
Involve multiple experts: It's important to involve multiple experts in the reservoir
characterization process, including geologists, geophysicists, petrophysicists, and reservoir
engineers. These experts should work collaboratively to ensure that all data are analyzed and
interpreted in a consistent and convergent manner.

In summary, ensuring data consistency and convergence requires a well-defined data

management plan, standardized data formats and protocols, quality control checks, multiple
data analysis methods, and involving multiple experts. By following these practical steps,
reservoir analysts can ensure that all data are useful in describing the reservoir and can
provide an accurate representation of the subsurface conditions.

7. Related to Exercise 6, discuss the consistency of data acquired from the following
data sources:
• Core vs. Log
• EOS and Correlations vs. PVT Lab
• Depositional environment vs. Geological maps
• Well Test Analysis vs. Faults and reservoir boundaries

Answer:
To ensure the consistency and convergence of data acquired from multiple sources for
describing a reservoir, it is essential to validate and integrate the data to account for
uncertainties and biases. Here are some ways to ensure consistency for the following data
sources:
• Core vs. Log: Cores and logs provide different information about the reservoir, and their
interpretation should converge. The core analysis should validate the log data and vice versa,
making sure that the facies and porosity models match. The core and log data should be
calibrated using porosity-permeability relationships, and the core data should be used to
validate the formation tops and define the petrophysical parameters.
• EOS and Correlations vs. PVT Lab: Equations of state (EOS) and correlations provide an
estimate of the fluid properties, while PVT (pressure-volume-temperature) lab measurements
provide accurate fluid properties. The PVT lab measurements should be used to validate and
calibrate the EOS and correlations to ensure consistency in fluid property predictions.
• Depositional environment vs. Geological maps: Depositional environment models and
geological maps provide information about the reservoir's sedimentary facies distribution and
structural elements. Depositional environment models should be validated using core data,
and geological maps should be validated using seismic data. Integration of the two data
sources can help ensure consistency and convergence of the facies distribution and structural
elements.
• Well Test Analysis vs. Faults and reservoir boundaries: Well test analysis provides
information about reservoir properties, while faults and reservoir boundaries affect the flow
of fluids. The well test analysis should be used to validate and calibrate the reservoir model,
while the faults and reservoir boundaries should be validated using seismic data. Integration
of well test analysis and seismic data can help ensure consistency and convergence of the
reservoir model.

In summary, consistency and convergence of data acquired from multiple sources for
describing a reservoir can be ensured by validating and integrating the data from different
sources. By doing so, we can create a reliable and accurate reservoir model, which can help
in efficient and effective reservoir management.

8. In general, a data acquisition and analysis program requires planning, justifying,

prioritizing, and timing.
Describe all data that can be acquired during the following stages of reservoir
development:
1. Exploration
2. Discovery
3. Delineation
4. Primary development
5. Secondary development
6. Tertiary development

Answer:
Exploration:
During the exploration stage of reservoir development, the following data can be acquired:
 Seismic data: Seismic data can be used to create a preliminary structural and
stratigraphic map of the subsurface and identify potential hydrocarbon reservoirs.
 Gravity and magnetic surveys: These surveys can be used to identify subsurface
geological structures that may contain hydrocarbons.
 Geochemical surveys: These surveys can help identify the presence of hydrocarbons
and their quality in surface rocks and soils.
 Surface and subsurface geology: Information on surface and subsurface geology can
be obtained through field mapping, drilling, and sampling.
 Satellite imagery: Satellite imagery can be used to identify potential hydrocarbon
seepage on the surface of the earth.
Discovery:
Once a hydrocarbon reservoir is discovered, the following data can be acquired:
 Core samples: Core samples can be taken from the reservoir to provide detailed
information on the reservoir's petrophysical properties, such as porosity and
permeability.
 Logging data: Logging data can be used to identify and quantify the hydrocarbon-
bearing zones within the reservoir.
 PVT analysis: PVT (pressure-volume-temperature) analysis can be used to determine
the fluid properties of the hydrocarbons in the reservoir, such as viscosity and density.
 Well testing: Well testing can be used to determine the productivity and reservoir
characteristics of the newly discovered reservoir.
Delineation:
During the delineation stage, the following data can be acquired:
  More drilling and sampling: Additional drilling and sampling can be done to further
delineate the size and boundaries of the reservoir and to provide more accurate
information on the reservoir's properties.
 Seismic surveys: More detailed seismic surveys can be carried out to provide a better
understanding of the reservoir's structure and properties.
 3D reservoir modeling: A 3D reservoir model can be created using all available data
to better understand the spatial distribution of the reservoir and its properties.
Primary Development:
During the primary development stage, the following data can be acquired:
 Production data: Production data can be used to evaluate the reservoir's productivity
and provide information for optimizing production.
 Pressure data: Pressure data can be used to evaluate reservoir performance and
identify any changes in the reservoir's pressure over time.
 Reservoir modeling: Reservoir modeling can be used to predict future reservoir
performance and optimize well placement and production.
Secondary Development:
During the secondary development stage, the following data can be acquired:
 Injection data: Injection data can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of secondary
recovery techniques such as water or gas injection.
 Seismic monitoring: Seismic monitoring can be used to evaluate changes in the
reservoir's structure and properties due to secondary recovery operations.
Tertiary Development:
During the tertiary development stage, the following data can be acquired:
 Advanced recovery techniques: Advanced recovery techniques, such as enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) methods, can be used to extract remaining hydrocarbons from the
reservoir.
 Monitoring data: Monitoring data can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the
EOR methods and to optimize their use. This data can include production data,
injection data, pressure data, and seismic monitoring data.
In summary, data acquisition and analysis is a critical component of reservoir development
and requires planning, justifying, prioritizing, and timing. The type of data that can be
acquired during each stage of reservoir development varies and is dependent on the specific
objectives and goals of each stage.

9. There are uncertainties in fluid property data. These include:

1. Uncertainties associated with lab analysis
2. Uncertainties in representative of samples (fluid sampling)
3. Uncertainties due to variations in fluid properties over a field
4. Uncertainties associated with process description.
Discuss ways how to reduce these uncertainties

Answer:
Uncertainties associated with lab analysis:
To reduce uncertainties associated with lab analysis, it is important to ensure that lab
procedures are standardized and follow established industry best practices. Additionally, it is
important to perform quality control checks on lab results, such as running duplicates and
standards, and comparing results to previous analyses. Finally, using multiple labs to cross-
check and compare results can help to identify any potential issues with lab procedures.

Uncertainties in representative of samples (fluid sampling):

To reduce uncertainties in fluid sampling, it is important to ensure that sampling is performed
using best practices and industry standards. This includes using proper equipment and
techniques to avoid contamination and selecting representative samples from the reservoir.
Additionally, it is important to obtain a sufficient number of samples to ensure that the results
are statistically significant and to reduce the impact of outliers.

Uncertainties due to variations in fluid properties over a field:

To reduce uncertainties due to variations in fluid properties over a field, it is important to
perform extensive data analysis and modeling. This can include using data from well tests,
production history, and reservoir simulation to build a more accurate understanding of the
reservoir's properties and behavior. Additionally, using data analytics and machine learning
techniques to identify patterns and trends can help to refine reservoir models and reduce
uncertainties.

Uncertainties associated with process description:

To reduce uncertainties associated with process description, it is important to use best
practices and industry standards when modeling the reservoir and designing production
processes. This includes using appropriate correlations and equations of state to accurately
describe fluid behavior and considering all factors that can affect the production process, such
as well completion design, fluid handling, and surface facilities. Additionally, it is important
to perform sensitivity analyses and to test different scenarios to identify potential issues and
improve the accuracy of the model.

In summary, reducing uncertainties in fluid property data requires a comprehensive and

systematic approach that includes best practices, quality control checks, extensive data
analysis, and modeling. By using multiple techniques and sources of information, and
validating results against previous analyses, it is possible to build a more accurate
understanding of the reservoir and reduce uncertainties in fluid property data.

10. Based on their role in describing a reservoir, reservoir data may be categorized into
two types:
1. Static data, which correspond to a description of a reservoir. Sources for these data
include geology,
geophysics, geochemistry, and petrophysics data.
2. Dynamic data, which correspond to the behavior of a reservoir. Sources for these
data include
fluids, geomechanics, tracers, production logs (flowmeter), well tests, and production
data.
Identify all data (i.e. reservoir parameters) that can be acquired from all those sources.

Answer:
Here are the reservoir parameters that can be acquired from the different sources:
Static data:
 Geology: lithology, facies, porosity, permeability, mineralogy, diagenesis,
stratigraphy, structural geology
 Geophysics: seismic data, gravity, magnetic data
 Geochemistry: rock and fluid properties, isotopic analysis
 Petrophysics: well logs (gamma ray, resistivity, density, neutron, sonic), core analysis
(porosity, permeability, grain size, wettability)
Dynamic data:
 Fluids: composition, density, viscosity, compressibility, phase behavior, reservoir
pressure, temperature
 Geomechanics: stress, strain, rock properties, fractures
 Tracers: injection of a known quantity of a fluid or gas to track its movement within
the reservoir
 Production logs (flowmeter): measurement of fluid flow rate and pressure along the
wellbore
 Well tests: measurement of pressure and flow rate to determine reservoir properties
(permeability, skin factor, drainage area, reserves)
 Production data: fluid composition, production rate, cumulative production, well
performance, pressure changes
Acquiring and analyzing both static and dynamic data is crucial to accurately characterize
and understand a reservoir, as it allows for a comprehensive understanding of the reservoir's
behavior and properties.

11. It is sometimes necessary to acquire and use reservoir data from a neighboring
reservoir or field. Discuss about this method and situations that we may do this
technique.

Answer:
Acquiring and using reservoir data from a neighboring reservoir or field can be a valuable
tool in reservoir characterization, especially when data within the target reservoir or field is
limited or incomplete. This approach can provide a broader understanding of the geological,
geophysical, and petrophysical characteristics of the region, which can be useful for
predicting reservoir properties and optimizing production strategies. There are several
situations in which acquiring and using data from a neighboring reservoir or field can be
useful:

Data scarcity: When data within the target reservoir or field is limited, data from a
neighboring reservoir or field can provide additional information and improve the
understanding of the subsurface. This can be particularly useful for small, isolated reservoirs
or fields.

Reservoir continuity: In some cases, a reservoir may extend beyond the boundaries of a
single field or may be connected to other fields through a shared aquifer. Acquiring and using
data from neighboring fields can help to understand the extent and continuity of the reservoir
and its properties.
Analogous reservoirs: Sometimes, a neighboring reservoir or field may have similar
geological, geophysical, and petrophysical characteristics to the target reservoir. By using
data from the analogous reservoir, it is possible to infer the properties of the target reservoir,
which can be useful for making production decisions.

Comparative analysis: Comparing the behavior of neighboring reservoirs or fields can

provide insight into the factors that influence reservoir behavior and production. This
approach can be useful for optimizing production strategies and identifying opportunities for
improving recovery.

However, it is important to exercise caution when using data from a neighboring reservoir or
field, as there may be differences in geological and geophysical properties that could lead to
inaccurate predictions. Therefore, it is important to carefully evaluate the similarities and
differences between the target and neighboring reservoirs or fields, and to use the data as a
supplement to, rather than a replacement for, data acquired directly from the target reservoir
or field.

12. Depending on the reservoir management approach used, there are 3 (three) broad
categories of reservoir data acquisition program:
1. Preventive, continual data acquisition program
2. Problem, data collected and analyzed only as problems emerge
3. Intermediate, hybrid product of the two methods.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of those approaches. Which method is the
most prudent choice for large reservoirs? Why?

Answer:
The choice of reservoir data acquisition program depends on the reservoir management
approach used. There are three broad categories of reservoir data acquisition program:
preventive, problem, and intermediate. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages,
which should be carefully considered before deciding on the most prudent choice.

Preventive, continual data acquisition program: This approach involves a continual

acquisition of data with the aim of preventing problems from arising. The main advantages of
this approach are that it helps to identify problems early and provides a more comprehensive
understanding of the reservoir. However, it can be costly, and there may be instances where
the collected data may not be used.

Problem, data collected and analyzed only as problems emerge: In this approach, data is
only collected and analyzed when a problem arises. The main advantage of this approach is
that it is cost-effective. However, the disadvantage is that the data collected may not provide
a comprehensive understanding of the reservoir.

Intermediate, hybrid product of the two methods: This approach combines the advantages
of the preventive and problem methods, and is a compromise between the two. The advantage
of this approach is that it is cost-effective and helps to identify problems early. However, the
disadvantage is that it may not provide a comprehensive understanding of the reservoir.

For large reservoirs, the most prudent choice is a preventive, continual data acquisition
program. Large reservoirs have a long production life, and the subsurface is often complex
and heterogeneous. Continual data acquisition provides a more comprehensive understanding
of the reservoir, which can help to optimize production and maximize recovery. This
approach also helps to identify problems early, which can reduce the risk of costly production
interruptions or delays. While it may be more expensive than the other approaches, the
benefits of a comprehensive understanding of the reservoir and the reduced risk of production
problems make it a wise investment for large reservoirs.

13. Whenever we develop a data acquisition program, it is suggested that

(1) data acquisition programs must recognize that the nature of reservoir is stochastic,
(2) reservoir exhibit nonlinear features, and
(3) some reservoir attributes may amplify the variability of predictions.
Identify examples for each of the above.

Answer:
The nature of reservoir is stochastic:
 The permeability of a reservoir can vary significantly due to heterogeneities in the
rock properties, such as variations in grain size, mineralogy, and pore space
distribution.
 The location and shape of hydrocarbon-bearing zones can also be highly uncertain
due to the stochastic nature of geological processes, such as sediment deposition and
diagenesis.
Reservoir exhibit nonlinear features:
 The relationship between reservoir pressure and fluid flow rate can be highly
nonlinear, especially when the reservoir is partially depleted. This is due to the
nonlinear flow equations that describe the behavior of multiphase fluids in porous
media.
 The production behavior of unconventional reservoirs, such as shale gas and tight oil,
can also exhibit nonlinear features due to complex fracture networks and
geomechanical effects.
Some reservoir attributes may amplify the variability of predictions:
 The petrophysical properties of a reservoir, such as porosity and permeability, can
have a significant impact on the performance of the reservoir. However, these
properties are often difficult to measure directly and are typically estimated using
indirect methods, such as well logs and core analysis. The uncertainty associated with
these estimates can amplify the variability of predictions.
 The geological structure of a reservoir, such as fault zones and structural traps, can
also amplify the variability of predictions. The presence of these features can affect
the flow behavior of fluids in the reservoir, but their location and geometry are often
uncertain due to the limited resolution of seismic and well data.
14. The following are some of the reasons for preventive approach to be used in data
acquisition:
1. Irreversibility
2. Non-recurring conditions
3. Variability of recovery
Discuss examples and/or situations in a reservoir for each of those reasons.

Answer:
Irreversibility:
 In some reservoirs, the rate of decline in production can be rapid, especially in the
early stages of development. Once the reservoir pressure drops below a certain level,
it may not be possible to recover the remaining hydrocarbons efficiently. In such
cases, it is important to have a preventive approach to data acquisition to ensure that
accurate and timely data are available to optimize production and recovery while the
reservoir pressure is still high.
 For reservoirs with complex geology or reservoir fluid behavior, it may be difficult to
predict the long-term behavior of the reservoir accurately. In such cases, it is prudent
to acquire a comprehensive set of static and dynamic data to reduce uncertainty and
increase confidence in the reservoir model.
Non-recurring conditions:
 Reservoirs with unique geological or fluid characteristics may present non-recurring
conditions that can affect recovery. For example, in reservoirs with large temperature
or pressure gradients, the behavior of fluids may be different from that in
conventional reservoirs, and data acquisition may be needed to understand and
optimize recovery in such conditions.
 Reservoirs in remote or hostile environments may present logistical challenges that
make it difficult to acquire data after the initial development phase. In such cases, it
may be necessary to acquire as much data as possible during the preventive phase to
ensure that there is a comprehensive understanding of the reservoir for future
development and production.
Variability of recovery:
 In some reservoirs, recovery can be highly variable due to heterogeneities in the rock
properties or fluid behavior. For example, in fractured reservoirs, the recovery can
vary significantly depending on the location and geometry of the fractures. In such
cases, it is important to acquire data from multiple sources, such as well tests and
production logs, to understand the variability of recovery and optimize production
accordingly.
 Reservoirs with varying fluid properties, such as composition or viscosity, can also
exhibit variability in recovery. In such cases, it is important to acquire data from fluid
sampling and PVT analysis to understand the behavior of fluids in the reservoir and
optimize recovery accordingly.

15. Two major characteristics of preventive approach are:

1. Cyclical and continual, it does not begin and end within a fixed timeframe
2. Synergistic, it involves interpretive integration of different disciplines.
Discuss these characteristics
Answer:
The cyclical and continual nature of a preventive approach to data acquisition means that the
acquisition and interpretation of data is an ongoing process, and not limited to a fixed
timeframe. This approach acknowledges that a reservoir is a dynamic system, and changes
over time. Therefore, it is important to continue acquiring and analyzing data to keep up with
these changes and adjust management strategies accordingly.

The synergistic nature of a preventive approach means that it involves the integration of data
from different disciplines, such as geology, geophysics, petrophysics, and engineering. By
incorporating different types of data, a more comprehensive understanding of the reservoir
can be achieved. For example, geology data can provide information about the rock types and
structures, while petrophysics data can provide information about the properties of the rocks,
such as porosity and permeability. The integration of this data can help to develop a more
accurate reservoir model, which in turn can lead to better reservoir management decisions.
Additionally, the interpretation of data from different disciplines may reveal inconsistencies
or gaps in the data, which can prompt further data acquisition efforts in specific areas.

16. In a general sense, reservoir data may be categorized based on

1. Function (description, history)
2. Scale (micro, macro, mega, giga)
3. Time (early, intermediate, mature/developed)
4. Sources (seismic, geology, logs, cores, well tests, production/injection)
List all data and describe all reasons why they are categorized in such a group.

Answer:
Function:
 Description: geology data (rock types, structures, sedimentary environments, etc.),
geophysics data (seismic data, gravity data, magnetic data, etc.), petrophysics data
(porosity, permeability, fluid saturation, etc.), geochemical data (composition of
fluids, stable isotopes, etc.)
 History: production data (oil, gas, water), injection data (water, gas, chemicals)
The reason for categorizing reservoir data based on function is to differentiate between data
that describe the physical properties of the reservoir (geology, geophysics, petrophysics,
geochemistry), and data that describe the behavior of the reservoir over time (production and
injection data).

Scale:
 Micro: pore scale data (porosity, permeability, wettability, capillary pressure, etc.),
mineralogy data (mineral types, crystal structure, etc.)
 Macro: well data (logs, cores, well tests), reservoir grid data (porosity, permeability,
etc.)
 Mega: seismic data, basin-scale data (basin geometry, sedimentary thickness, etc.)
 Giga: regional geologic data, tectonic data, global climate data
The reason for categorizing reservoir data based on scale is to differentiate between data that
describe different levels of spatial resolution, from pore scale to global scale.
Time:
 Early: exploration data (seismic data, well data, outcrop data), initial production data
 Intermediate: appraisal data (more detailed seismic data, additional well data), mature
field production data
 Mature/developed: production history data (long-term production trends, infill drilling
data)
The reason for categorizing reservoir data based on time is to differentiate between data
acquired at different stages of the reservoir life cycle, from exploration to mature field
production.

Sources:
 Seismic data: reflection and/or refraction data acquired using seismic waves
 Geology data: data on the rock types, structures, and sedimentary environments of the
reservoir
 Logs: data acquired from measurements taken inside a wellbore, such as resistivity,
density, and acoustic velocity
 Cores: cylindrical samples of rock acquired from drilling a wellbore
 Well tests: measurements taken during a short period of time (hours to days) to
evaluate the reservoir properties
 Production/injection data: data on the volume and composition of fluids produced
from or injected into the reservoir
The reason for categorizing reservoir data based on sources is to differentiate between data
acquired using different methods or tools, such as seismic waves, well logging tools, or fluid
analysis techniques. Different sources of data may provide different types of information or
have different levels of accuracy, which can impact reservoir modeling and management
decisions.

17. Describe all types of error that can be categorized as

1. Sampling errors
2. Systematic errors
3. Random errors
for all reservoir data acquired from:
1. Seismic
2. Geology
3. Logging
4. Coring
5. PVT
6. Well tests
7. Production/injection

Answer:
Seismic data:
 Sampling errors: These errors can occur when the data acquisition parameters do not
adequately represent the subsurface. This may include factors such as the acquisition
geometry, the size and shape of the subsurface features being imaged, and the
 resolution of the seismic data. Sampling errors can lead to incomplete or inaccurate
images of the subsurface.
 Systematic errors: These errors are caused by consistent biases in the seismic data.
They may be caused by factors such as instrument drift, noise in the data, or errors in
the processing of the data. Systematic errors can result in distorted or biased images
of the subsurface.
 Random errors: These errors are caused by variability in the seismic data. They may
be caused by factors such as the presence of noise in the data, or variations in the
properties of the subsurface. Random errors can lead to uncertainties in the
interpretation of the seismic data.
Geology data:
 Sampling errors: These errors can occur when the samples collected do not accurately
represent the subsurface. This may be due to factors such as poor sampling techniques
or the heterogeneity of the reservoir. Sampling errors can lead to inaccurate
descriptions of the reservoir properties.
 Systematic errors: These errors are caused by consistent biases in the data. They may
be caused by factors such as errors in the measurement of the samples or
inconsistencies in the interpretation of the data. Systematic errors can result in
distorted or biased descriptions of the reservoir properties.
 Random errors: These errors are caused by variability in the data. They may be
caused by factors such as the presence of measurement noise or natural heterogeneity
in the reservoir. Random errors can lead to uncertainties in the interpretation of the
geology data.
Logging data:
 Sampling errors: These errors can occur when the measurements taken by the logging
tool do not accurately represent the subsurface. This may be due to factors such as the
resolution of the tool, or the presence of near-borehole effects. Sampling errors can
lead to inaccurate estimates of the reservoir properties.
 Systematic errors: These errors are caused by consistent biases in the logging data.
They may be caused by factors such as calibration errors, or inconsistencies in the
processing of the data. Systematic errors can result in distorted or biased estimates of
the reservoir properties.
 Random errors: These errors are caused by variability in the logging data. They may
be caused by factors such as measurement noise, or natural heterogeneity in the
reservoir. Random errors can lead to uncertainties in the estimates of the reservoir
properties.
Coring data:
 Sampling errors: These errors can occur when the samples collected do not accurately
represent the subsurface. This may be due to factors such as the size or shape of the
coring tool, or the heterogeneity of the reservoir. Sampling errors can lead to
inaccurate estimates of the reservoir properties.
 Systematic errors: These errors are caused by consistent biases in the coring data.
They may be caused by factors such as errors in the measurement of the samples, or
inconsistencies in the processing of the data. Systematic errors can result in distorted
or biased estimates of the reservoir properties.
  Random errors: These errors are caused by variability in the coring data. They may be
caused by factors such as natural heterogeneity in the reservoir or measurement noise.
Random errors can lead to uncertainties in the estimates of the reservoir properties.
PVT:
 Sampling errors: PVT sampling errors can occur due to inadequate sampling
techniques or procedures, such as not taking enough samples, not properly handling
the samples, or not properly storing the samples.
 Systematic errors: Systematic errors in PVT data can occur due to instrument
calibration issues, temperature and pressure measurement errors, or errors in fluid
composition determination.
 Random errors: Random errors in PVT data can be caused by variations in sample
properties, temperature, pressure, and other factors that affect fluid behavior.
Well tests:
 Sampling errors: Sampling errors in well tests can occur due to improper wellbore
cleanup, inadequate measurement procedures, or inaccurate measurement devices.
 Systematic errors: Systematic errors in well test data can occur due to errors in the
well test model, data interpretation, or data processing. For example, errors in the
determination of the formation permeability or skin factor can result in systematic
errors in well test data.
 Random errors: Random errors in well test data can be caused by variations in
wellbore conditions, formation properties, or fluid properties.
Production/injection:
 Sampling errors: Sampling errors in production or injection data can occur due to
inadequate metering or measurement techniques, such as inaccurate flow rate
measurement or improper fluid composition determination.
 Systematic errors: Systematic errors in production or injection data can occur due to
issues with the measurement devices or metering systems, errors in data processing,
or errors in wellbore modeling. For example, errors in the determination of the
wellhead pressure or flow rate can result in systematic errors in production or
injection data.
 Random errors: Random errors in production or injection data can be caused by
variations in wellbore conditions, reservoir properties, or fluid properties.

18. Describe the role of geology in a reservoir study for the following.
1. Reservoir geometry/boundaries
2. Type of reservoir/trap
3. Rock type
4. Flow barrier
5. Rock distribution
6. Depositional environment

Answer:
Geology plays a critical role in a reservoir study as it provides essential information about the
physical characteristics of the subsurface rock formations that make up the reservoir. Here are
some ways geology influences reservoir studies:
Reservoir geometry/boundaries: Geology helps to identify the geometry and boundaries of
the reservoir by analyzing the subsurface rock layers, fault patterns, and seismic data. This
information is used to create accurate reservoir models that can be used to optimize well
placement and production.

Type of reservoir/trap: Geology helps to identify the type of reservoir/trap by analyzing the
subsurface rock formations and structural features. This information is used to determine the
type of reservoir/trap, such as a stratigraphic or structural trap, which has implications for the
production strategy and exploration efforts.

Rock type: Geology helps to identify the rock type and properties of the reservoir, such as
porosity and permeability, which are critical for understanding fluid flow and reservoir
performance. This information is used to determine the optimal production strategy and well
completion designs.

Flow barrier: Geology helps to identify flow barriers within the reservoir, such as faults and
shale layers, which can impact fluid flow and production rates. This information is used to
optimize well placement and identify areas for further exploration.

Rock distribution: Geology helps to identify the distribution of different rock types within
the reservoir, which can impact fluid flow and production rates. This information is used to
create accurate reservoir models and optimize well placement.

Depositional environment: Geology helps to identify the depositional environment of the

reservoir, which can impact the distribution and properties of the subsurface rock formations.
This information is used to optimize well placement and production strategies, as well as to
identify potential exploration targets.

19.