Department Bs Psychology

Course Name Cognitive Psychology

Course Code PSY-205
Section D
Course Instructor Cognition in cross culture
Topic of Project Roll no
Group Name 211870052
Kinza Rani 211520042
Maida Asim 211520048
Laiba Zia
Azmat ullah
Nimra 211520149
Janat
Introduction.
A goal of cross-cultural psychology is to understand the relationships between human
behavior and the cultural contexts in which it has developed and is displayed. This chapter
discusses issues related to the cross-cultural study of intelligence and cognitive processes.
Cross-cultural psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes,
including both their variability and invariance, under diverse cultural conditions.[1] Through
expanding research methodologies to recognize cultural variance in behavior, language, and
meaning it seeks to extend and develop psychology.
For example, speaking up, responsiveness, empowerment, making things simple. Stated
values.

Memory process
• memory is broken into three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

1. Encoding (or registration):

The process of receiving, processing, and combining information. Encoding allows
information from the outside world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and
physical stimuli. In this first stage we must change the information so that we may put the
memory into the encoding process.
2. Storage
The creation of a permanent record of the encoded information. Storage is the
second memory stage or process in which we maintain information over periods of time.
3. Retrieval (or recall, or recognition):
The calling back of stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or
activity. The third process is the retrieval of information that we have stored. We must
locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless
due to the type of information
• Encoding
Memory encoding allows information to be converted into a construct that is stored in
the brain indefinitely. Once it is encoded, it can be recalled from either short- or long-
term memory. At a very basic level, memory encoding is like hitting “Save” on a
computer file. Once a file is saved, it can be retrieved as long as the hard drive is
undamaged. “Recall” refers to retrieving previously encoded information.

• Types of Encoding
The four types of encoding are visual, acoustic, elaborative, and semantic.
1. Visual encoding
Visual encoding is the process of encoding images and visual sensory information. The
creation of mental pictures is one way people use visual encoding. This type of information
is temporarily stored in iconic memory, and then is moved to long-term memory for storage.
Acoustic
Acoustic encoding is the use of auditory stimuli or hearing to implant memories. This is
aided by what is known as the phonological loop. The phonological loop is a process by
which sounds are sub-vocally rehearsed (or “said in your mind over and over”) in order to be
remembered.
3.Elaborative
Elaborative encoding uses information that is already known and relates it to the new
information being experienced. The nature of a new memory becomes dependent as much
on previous information as it does on the new information. Studies have shown that the
long-term retention of information is greatly improved through the use of elaborative
encoding.
• Semantic
Semantic encoding involves the use of sensory input that has a specific meaning or can be
applied to a context. For example, you might remember a particular phone number based
on a person’s name or a particular food by its color.
• Forgetting:
Forgetting is to exclude useless material from the conscious. psychologist say that
forgetting is a blessing to give the way to proceed in learning and retaining useful things. so
the forgetting is normal whereas amnesia, fugue, multiple personality and depersonalization
are abnormal.
• Causes or Factors of forgetting:
1. Brain Shock or Trauma
 Any head injury or accident or damage to hippocampus.
2. Decay of Brain cells
Due to old age
3. Unconscious reasons:
of Frustration are stress, anxiety and complexes which cause forgetting. (Repression)
4.Long time pause:
between the experience and the recall
Disinterested and Lack of motivation
causes forgetfulness
6.Emotion of fear, anger and extreme, Grief
caused by the situation of any emergency or frustration accompanied by repression leads
the individual to forget painful and shameful events.
7.Over learning and lack of sleep
also cause forgetting.
8. Intoxication, drug addiction alcohol and opium:
Affect active recall
Theories of Forgetting
Interference Theory of Forgetting
Interference is another major cause of forgetting. General understanding of the subject
suggests that “Information gets confused with other information in our Long-Term
Memory.”
• Two types of Interference are:
I. Retroactive Interference
II. Proactive Interference
Retroactive Interference
A mix up of previously learned information with new and similar information is called
Retroactive information.
• Example: A student studies and understands the events and causes of World-War
I thoroughly. After few weeks, the student studies events and causes of World-War II.
 • If the student then fails to remember the events and causes of First World-War, this
would be an example of Retroactive Interference.
Proactive Interference
• The phenomenon where the student fails to remember new information having mixed it
with similar previous information is called Proactive Interference.
• Example: Like the previous example, a student studies and understands the events and
causes of World-War I in depth. After few weeks, the student studies events and causes
of World-War II.
• If the student then fails to remember the events and causes of Second World-War, this
would be an example of Proactive Interference.
• Trace Decay Theory
The trace decay theory of forgetting states that all memories fade automatically as a
function of time. Under this theory, you need to follow a certain pathway, or trace, to recall a
memory. If this pathway goes unused for some amount of time, the memory decays, which
leads to difficulty recalling, or the inability to recall, the memory. Rehearsal, or mentally going
over a memory, can slow this process. But disuse of a trace will lead to memory decay, which
will ultimately cause retrieval failure. This process begins almost immediately if the information
is not used: for example, sometimes we forget a person’s name even though we have just met
them.

• Refers to the perception of objects as a whole instead of parts. According to this view,
Things perceived and learned in parts show in complete and scattered pattern are
forgotten earlier than the things learned as a whole configuration of figure and ground
due to the perceptual organization laws.
Neural chemical theory of forgetting
• Presented by Muller refers to better retention during rest –pause and faster forgetting
during continuous learning processing as lactic acid in blood creates fatigue and mental
tension.
Motivated forgetting theory of repression
• Presented by Sigmund Freud refers to the forgetting which occurs due to repression of
unpleasant painful and sinful events in the unconscious so to keep the individual
psychologically up to social norms.
PERCEPTION
Definition:
 • “Perception is the process by which an organism interprets and evaluated sensory input
so that acquires meaning ”
• Perception can be defined as our recognition and interpretation of sensory information.
Perception also includes how we respond to the information. We can think of perception
as a process where we take in sensory information from our environment and use that
information in order to interact with our environment. Perception allows us to take the
sensory information in and make it into something meaningful.
• Many psychologists define perception in a different way for example:
• Pillsbury defines perception in formula:
Bottom up Processing and Top-down processing
Perception Proceeds along two different avenues called top down and bottom-up processing.
Bottom-up Processing

• Initiated by sensory input

• Outside world’s influence on perception
• Sensation Perception
Bottom-up processing

• Analysis of the stimulus begins with sensory receptors and works up to the level of the
brain and mind.
• Perception that consists of the progression of recognizing and processing information
from individual components of a stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole.
Letter “A” is really a blue blotch broken down into features by the brain that we perceive as an
A

Top-down processing

• Initiated by cognitive processing

• Internal (mental) world’s influence on perception
• Expectations and prior understanding
• Perception Sensation
Top-down processing
• Higher level mental processes construct perception, drawings from our experience and
expectations.
 • Perception that is guided by higher level knowledge expectations, experience and Moti
Top down and bottom-up processing occur simultaneously, and interact with each other in our
perception of the world around us.

• Bottom up processing permits us to process the fundamental characteristics of stimuli

whereas top down processing allows us to bring our experience to bear on
perception.Top down processing allow us to fill in the gaps on ambiguous stimuli.

Perceptual constancy
• Perceptual constancy is a phenomenon in which physical objects are perceived
consistent despite changes in their appearance or in the physical environment.
• Perceptual constancies help us to organize our sensations into meaningful perceptions.
• We perceive things in the same manner as we are used to see them in original condition
Types of perceptual constancy
1. Size constancy
2. Brightness constancy
3. Shape constancy
1.Size constancy; The size of the retinal image depends upon the distance which is between
the eye and perceived object.
1.Size constancy:
The size of the retinal image depends upon the distance which is between the eye and
perceived object.
• The smaller image on retina shows the greater distance. things are always perceived
with reference to constant attributes whether the distance is short or long. whether the
size is big or small.
2.Shape constancy:
• We perceived familiar things having a constant or unchanged form though their image
on the retina have changed.
• The perceiver knows that he is seeing the things in changed conditions and he perceives
it with reference to its particular shape.
3.Brightness constancy:
• is our visual ability to perceive objects as having the same level of brightness even
though the level of lighting changes.
• Brightness constancy helps us perceiving a constant amount of brightness.
Factors of perception
• 1. Subjective factors:
• Motivation
• Perceptual set
• Expectations
• Past experiences
• Attention
• Interests
• Emotional state
• P2. Social factors:
• Social values
• Social beliefs
• National laws
• 3. Objective factors
• Characteristics of stimulus
• Contrast
• Change
• Movement size
• Intensity
• Context
• Repetitionersonal values
• Form perception
• Depth and space perception.
• perception of movement
• perception of time
Laws of perceptual organization:
• law of proximity or nearness:

The physical nearness or proximity of elements to each other makes for their perception as
part of the pattern.
Intelligence

Definition:
The word “intelligence” is derived from the Latin word “intelligentsia” which means the
capacity of understanding and reasoning.
Thorndike defines intelligence as the power of making good responses
Theories of intelligence
Different theorists try to answer the question whether intelligence is one ability or multiple
abilities. There are two types of theorists:
1: Single factor theorists
2: Two factor theorists
Single Factor theorists:
A few theorists proposes that intelligence is one general ability which affects all cognitive
processes Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Hebb Hunt.
According to Hebb Hunt, all the developments of physical, moral, social and emotional
aspects occur with the development of nervous system.

Multiple Factor theories:

The people having average I.Q may have higher score on their special fields of interest for
highly developed abilities. Spearman, Thurston, Guilford, Gardner and Carroll studied
specific abilities and made use of factor analysis by giving a series of tests to many people to
obtain scores of each individual on each test for getting inter correlation to identify the
main factors intelligence. These theorists are called factor theorists.
. Spearman’s two factor Theory of intelligence:
Spearman presented his theory of intelligence as “General or specific Abilities” also called
“G” factor and “S” factor

 G Factor:
Is a mental potential required for all types of work. this general intelligence works in
learning every mental activity and problem solving in all departments of life and can be
transferred from mental activity to another. for example:
 A person having general intelligence can do equally good in all subjects

 S Factor:
Specific ability is expressed in the very childhood through games and aptitude tests. An
individual’s score in specific ability is always greater than his score in general abilities: the
specific factor required for engineering is different from medical. “S” factor works in Special
skills.
G Factor = Positive correlation between the
Scores of two tasks.

S Factor =negative correlation between the

Scores of two tasks.
Criticism:
Only a few abilities can be measured through Spearman’s Factor analysis,
Division of intelligence in general and special factor is not correct as intelligence is the total
sum of compound abilities
2: Thurstons seven factor theory:
He identified seven factors of intelligence.
Seven specific primary abilities are:
1) Verbal comprehension(v):
Reading, disarranged sentences, verbal reasoning.

2) Word fluency:
Rhyming or naming words in a given
Category.
3) Number:
Identification of arithmetic computations.

4) Space:
 Perception of fixed space and or geometric
Relations.
5) Associative Memory:
Rote memory of paired associates, temporal
Sequence.

6) Perceptual speed:
6) Perceptual speed:
Quick grasping of visual details, similarities
and differences.
7) Induction or general reasoning:
Arithmetic reasoning
3) Gardner’s multiple intelligence
Theory
Eight separate intelligences:

 Linguistic

 musical

 Spatial

 Logical –mathematical

 Bodily kinesthetic movements

 Interpersonal

 Intrapersonal

 Naturalist (observing and understanding natural human made patterns and

systems.

Gardener does not take these eight intelligences as magic number and
speculates the possibility of additional intelligence like spiritual intelligence.
According to Gardner brain damage often interferes with functioning in one area
and not in other areas likewise, a person may excel in one area and not in others.
Gardner takes intelligence as an ability to solve problems and creates products
valued by a culture
For example: verbal and mathematical intelligence are important in technological
cultures.
Criticism:

 Verbal and spatial ability are elements of intelligence and not separate
intelligence.
The eight intelligences are not independent and separate as logical.

 mathematical and spatial ability are highly co-related.

Cattle’s theory of intelligence:

Cattle and horn presented theory of fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.
Fluid intelligence:
is the mental non-verbal and culture free mental efficiency granted in brain
development. It increases till adolescence and declines gradually with age and is
sensitive to injuries
Crystallized intelligence:
it is the ability of applying culturally approved problems solving methods as
outcome of invested fluid intelligence throughout life span learning skills and
knowledge and knowledge
Criticism:
fluid intelligence in problem solving develop our crystallized intelligence but many
tasks in life such as mathematical
reasoning draw on both fluid and crystallized intelligence