Theories of Development

Developmental Psychology

CHRISTINE JOY J. DUGENIO

CAS-06-301E
PROF. LILIBETH CORTEZ

 Research on the different theories that contributed relevant piece in human development.
 Discuss what the theories all about, their relevance or importance to life-span development and give
specific examples as you discuss them.
 Evaluate each theories presented based on your own understanding and experiences.
 Select a theory which you think/believe that best explain the aspect of development.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Psychoanalytic theory of personality development tells us that human personality is the result of
three different but fundamental structures — the id, the ego, the superego. (S. Knapp, 2020) A
major thesis for Freud was thus that we are driven by unconscious wishes that we are unaware
of, and that this lack of awareness results in driven or self-defeating behavior. Freud argued that
we fool ourselves about the causes for our actions, and that this self-deception limits our freedom
of choice. We improve our options by being aware of our unconscious desires and barriers
against them. When a result, as we reduce the extent to which we are driven by unconscious
factors, we gain more agency.( J.D. Safran, et al, 2016)The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to
make the unconscious conscious by releasing repressed feelings and experiences. Only through a
cathartic (i.e., healing) experience can the individual be assisted and "healed." The psychoanalyst
encourages the client to acquire understanding into their behaviour and the interpretations of
symptoms by using methods such as inkblots, parapraxes, free association, interpretation
(including dream analysis), resistance analysis, and transference analysis.(S. McLeod, 2019)

PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
Freud’s psychosexual theory, has 5 stages—oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital which is
significant in personality development. During each stage of psychosexual theory, the sexual
energy or also known as the libido is expressed in different ways in different parts of the body.
The build up of libido or the sexual energy creates tension and that is where pleasure came from.
(S. McLeod, 2019)
The oral period lasts from birth to 18 months. An infant derives most of their pleasure from their
lips. Actions such as feeding and thumb-suck are linked to this. Freud believes that an infant can
acquire oral fixation if their oral needs are not addressed. If they are too soon or late, this could
happen. (K. Nunez 2022) The second stage of psychosexual development, usually occurring
within the second year of a child's life, in which the child's attention and carnal enjoyment are
focused on the voiding and withholding of feces and the sadist intuition that corresponds to the
desire to own, control, and deteriorate something. Obsession during this stage frequently leads to
the development of an anal personality. Also known as the anal phase. (N. Sam M.S., 2013)The
phallic phase is named after Freud’s belief that the central focus of this age is the sex organ.
During the phallic phase, Sigmund Freud describes the Oedipus complex, in which a boy needs
his mother and his father to be dead. The phallic phase is the most significant of the five stages.
The kid learns that he’s masculine when he forges his sense of self in relation to his genital
organ. His role is shaped by his father. Dad shows him how to be a person within the family and
within society. The force that drives the phallic phase is sexual and aggressive. The boy needs
his father dead. This facet of the phallic phase is named the Oedipal complex. (S. Foley, 2021)
The period of relative stability was described by Freud. The new organization of sexuality has
not developed and he doesn't pay much attention to it, so this phase is not his one of the phases,
but a separate period. The child's Oedipus complex begins to resolve during the phallic stage.
Children find their needs unfulfilled and withdraw from them. (Wikipedia, 2022) The hindmost
stage of development start with the aggression of puberty, the genital stage. by this time, person
casts about ways to satisfy their erotic and aggressive urges in bilateral relationships through
competition, bodily demanding exertion, and reasoning. The reawakening and correction of
previous identifications is brought about by this. Freud believed that the intellectual differences
that occur during adolescence and adulthood are the result of the inability to meet or express
certain childhood needs. Sexual and aggressive urges may be exaggerated at any stage in
childhood, and may continue to seek pleasure later in life. Freud used the term fixation to refer to
the continued use of pleasure-seeking or anxiety-reducing behaviors suitable for early stages of
development. Normal development involves activities that emblematize the energies of these
impulses or state them in socially adequate ways, since humans are unable to satisfy all their
desires at every stage of life. normal development involves activities that emblematize the
energies of these impulses or state them in socially adequate ways through a process called
sublimation. ( B. Newman and P. Newman, 2020)

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

An ego psychologist , Erik Erikson, developed one of the most influential and known theories of
development. According to him, human personality developed in a series of stages. He
emphasized how social interaction and relationships played a role in development which is based
on epigenetic principle. (K. Cherry, 2022) As per Lumen Learning, Epigenetic principles
develop as we develop our personalities through predetermined stages, and the concept that our
environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through those stages. includes.
This biological unfolding in relation to our sociocultural environment states that "progress at
each stage is partly determined by the success or failure of all preceding stages" in stages of
psychosocial development occurs.
According to Dr. McLeod (2018), the psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson has 8 stages:
Trust vs. Mistrust. [1st stage] the stage begins at birth. If the care the infant receives is consistent,
predictable and reliable, they will develop sense of trust, which will make them feel secured
when threatened. If these needs is not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may
develop. In this situation, the child does not believe in their ability to influence the world and
events around them.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt.[ 2nd stage] Personal control over physical skills and sense of
independence is the focus. Success at this stage leads to virtue of will. Children will feel secure
in their ability to survive in the world if they are encouraged and supported at this stage. When
children are denied opportunities to affirm themselves, they lose self-esteem, and become
dependent on others. You might feel embarrassed or suspicious of yourself.
Initiative vs. Guilt. [3rd stage] Children are more likely to assert themselves through game play
and social interactions such as discovering new skills and interacting with other children at
school. , giving children the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills. Inheritance at this
stage can lead to meaningful things. They can be confident in their abilities. On the other hand,
guilt can arise if needs are not met at this stage.
Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority.[ 4th stage] A child’s reference group becomes more
important and an important source of a child’s self-esteem. Therefore, they need to gain
validation by demonstrating certain abilities that are valued in society and take pride in their
achievements. They begin to feel competent and confident in their ability to achieve their goals.
On the other hand, when children fail to develop certain skills, they feel society demands them.
They can then develop an inferiority complex. Succession at this stage can lead to virtue of
competence.
Identity vs. Role Confusion. [5th stage] A sense of self and individualized identity is what
adolescents seek. Children begin to look to the future in terms of careers, relationships, family
and housing when they become more independent. Adolescents feel uncomfortable with their
bodies for a while before they adapt and grow to it. Success at this stage leads to fidelity. They
begin to form their own identities based on the results of their exploration during this time. Lack
of identity in society can lead to confusion. Identity crisis is when individuals are unsure of their
place in society.
Intimacy vs. Isolation [6th stage] Building close and loving relationships with other people is the
main conflict. When looking at relationships that lead to long-term commitment. Happy
relationships and commitment can be achieved at this stage. Isolation, loneliness, and sometimes
depression can be caused by avoiding intimacy or fearing attachment. The virtue of love
develops after this stage.
Generativity vs. Stagnation. [7th stage] Generativity means leaving your mark on the world by
creating or cultivating something that lasts an individual. We develop a sense of belonging
through generativeness. Success leads to usefulness and a sense of accomplishment, while failure
leads to engagement with the superficial world. When we can't find a way to contribute, we feel
stagnant. Success at this stage leads to compassion.
Ego integrity vs. Despair [8th stage] During this time, we can reflect on our accomplishments, see
ourselves living a successful life, and develop integrity. Success at this stage leads to the virtue
of wisdom. Wisdom enables one to look back on one’s life with a sense of completion and
completeness, and to accept death without fear. If you think your life is unproductive, feel guilty
about your past, or feel like you haven’t achieved your goals in life, you will become dissatisfied
and despair.

Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory holds that how and what humankind conceive leads to emotional arousal, that
certain thoughts and beliefs lead to emotional and behavioral disturbances, and that others lead to
healthy emotions and adaptive behaviors. (R., David, et al., 2016). Cognitive theory focuses on
how the cognition of an individual may influence the arousal of his emotions. It’s a
psychological approach that attempts to discuss human behavior by understanding the cognitive
process. There are 3 cognitive theories: Piaget’s Theory, Vygotsky’s social cultural cognitive
theory, and Information Processing Theory.

Piaget’s Theory
This theory is proposed by Jean Piaget, and it talks about on understanding how children acquire
knowledge and also understanding the nature of intelligence. The theory suggests that children
move through four stages: [1] Sensorimotor stage, the first stage of cognitive development,
infants and children acquire knowledge through sensory experience and manipulation of objects.
All of a child's experiences in the first stage of this stage occur through reflexes, senses, and
basic motor responses. [2] In the Preoperational stage, the appearance of language is one of the
main features of the preoperational development stage. At this stage, children are learning to
pretend through play, but still have difficulty understanding logic and seeing other people's
points of view. They also often struggle to understand the idea of constancy. [3] Concrete
operational stage, while children are still very specific and clear in their thinking at this stage of
development, they become much more proficient in the use of logic. Children at this stage of
development tend to struggle with abstract concepts and assumptions. During this stage, children
also become less withdrawn and begin to think about how others might think and feel. [4] The
formal preoperational stage, final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability
to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this time, teenagers and
young adults can see more potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the
world around them. The ability to think about abstract ideas and situations is a key feature of the
formal preoperational stage of cognitive development.( K. Cherry, 2022)

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

Lev Vygotsky argued that cultural factors such as habits, beliefs, skills, and values were
important for new generations. He wanted to know how it was handed down to His sociocultural
theory, which states that social interaction within the family and with knowledgeable members of
the community is the dominant means by which children acquire the behavioral and cognitive
processes relevant to their society. In this context, adult or peer intervention is an important part
of the development process. (First Discoverers, 2022)
Human development and learning come from social and cultural interactions. The way people
interact with others and the culture they live in affects their mental abilities. The changes that
happen as individuals mature from infancy through childhood to adolescence and eventually into
adulthood is the focus. This theory attempts to explain the intangible processes of the
development of thought, language, and higher reasoning skills, and has implications for
education in general, and is particularly appreciated in the field of applied linguistics. ( B.
Allman, 2018). According to Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, children who are in
the zone of proximal development for a given task can perform the task mostly independently,
but not very far. If that is the case, they will be able to complete the task. Early childhood
cognitive development is dependent on social influence. (Psychology Notes HQ, 2021)
There are three main concepts related to cognitive development outlined by Vygotsky. Culture is
related to learning, language underlies culture, and individuals learn and develop in their roles in
the community. The morals, values, and beliefs of a community can be defined as culture.
Language is used to communicate acceptable attitudes and behaviors. Vygotsky said that culture
affects cognitive development. He wanted people to understand the relationship between culture
and human development. It is a cycle. The culture affects the individual. (Dr. K. Serhat, 2020)

Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory tries to explain how information is stored in the brain. The idea is
that humans do not respond only to environmental stimuli. People process the information they
receive. (I. Bouchrika, PhD., 2022) The brain is very similar to a computer in how it processes
information according to this theory. The human brain is similar to a computer in that it can
receive and store information. The human brain can retrieve this information when it's needed..
( J. Marzin 2022).
There are several stages in the information processing model. The input process deals with the
analysis of the economy. Everything that happens in the brain can be categorized into memory
processes. Appropriate responses to stimuli are prepared by output processes. The framework of
information processing has several notable models proposed. Some have a model like this. Some
of the processes involved in a cognitive task are happening at the same time. There is evidence
that parallel processing is possible. It’s not easy to tell if a task will run in parallel or serially.
The amount of practice with the task and the process required to solve the task can affect it. ( S.
Mcleod, 2008)
Behavioral and Social Change Theory
Behavioral theory aims to explain human behavior by examining the causes and consequences
present in an individual’s environment as well as the learned associations acquired from previous
experience. (B. Angell, 2013) The behavior change theory tries to explain why people change
their behavior. The main factors that determine behavior are environmental, individual, and
behavioral.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a learning method that uses rewards and punishments. Operant
conditioning creates an association between an action and the consequences. (K. Cherry, 2022)
Reinforced behaviors are more likely to be repeated and less likely to occur in operant
conditioning. According to this principle, pleasant consequences are more likely to be repeated,
and unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. Operant responses are three types of
responses that behavior can follow. There is a neutral operant. The environment’s response
doesn’t increase or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. Reinforcer: A
behavior will be repeated if the environment responds in a way that increases the likelihood.
Reinforcers can either be positive or negative. Punisher: A response from the environment
reduces the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. The punishment weakens the behavior.
(S. McLeod, 2022)
To study operant conditioning, BF Skinner built a chamber called the Skinner box and put small
animals in it. In operant conditioning experiments, animals received food or water as
reinforcement each time they pressed the lever or rod. Operant conditioning is meant to
encourage desirable behavior through reward and reduce undesirable behavior through
punishment. Reinforcement and punishment are used in a conscious operant learning process. (P.
Li, MS, MBA, 2022)
There are four types of reinforcement, divided into two groups. The first group works to
reinforce the desired behavior. This is called positive or negative reinforcement. The second
group works to reduce unwanted behavior. This is known as positive or negative punishment.
Punishment may help in the short term, but it’s important to understand that it can’t stop
unwanted behavior in the long term, or even permanently. Instead, it suppresses unwanted
behavior indefinitely. Punishment doesn’t teach a person how to behave properly. (K.
Miller,2020)

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Bandura's social cognitive theory of human functioning emphasizes the importance of self-belief.
Self-systems give individuals some control over their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Bandura
revived a focus on the self that had been largely abandoned in the study of human processes that
William James had begun nearly a century before him. (D.H. Schunk, F. Pajares, 2010) The
influence of individual experiences, the behavior of others, and environmental factors on an
individual's health behavior is described in Social Cognitive Theory. Social support can be
provided by instilling expectations, self-efficacy, and using observational learning. Key factors
associated with behavioral change are self-efficacy, behavioral skills, anticipation, anticipation,
self-control, observational learning, and reinforcement. (The Rural Health Information Hub,
2022)
Behavior is determined by four factors. Goals, outcome expectations, self-efficacy, and social
structure variables are variables. An action plan is an intention to carry out an action. Outcome
expectations are similar to behavioral beliefs in TPB, but there are different types of outcome
considered. Self-efficacy is the belief that an action is under or uncontrollable by a person and is
usually measured as the person's level of confidence in being able to perform the action despite
various obstacles. Social structure variables can be used to influence behavior through goal
modification. One of the strongest predictors of health behavior is self-efficacy. (D. Johnson and
R. Johnson, 2015)
Three core concepts are at the center of social learning theory. People learn by observing. The
inner mental state is an important part of this process. The theory recognizes that learning doesn't
change behavior. There are many real-world applications of social learning theory. It helps
researchers understand how aggression and violence are transmitted. By studying media-
mediated violence, researchers can better understand the factors that lead children to imitate the
aggressive behavior they see on television and in movies. (K. Cherry, 2022)

Ethological Theory
Ethology is behavioral research based on two core principles: [1] Behavioral changes to achieve
survival (sometimes called adaptive traits). [2] Behavioral traits are inherited. Ethological theory
claims that our behavior is part of our biological fabric. According to behavioral theory, children
inherit certain behavioral traits in order to survive. This is the same way children can inherit
certain physical traits from previous generations. (N. Kilgore, 2022)
Bowlby believed that children are born with a biologically programmed tendency to seek out and
be close to people they are attached to. This provides nourishment and comfort, but also helps
the child survive.Proximity to the caregiver ensures that the child's needs are met and protected
from environmental hazards. (K. Cherry, 2020) Bowlby says that the relationship between an
infant and its parent begins with a series of innate cues that draw adults to the baby's side. New
cognitive and emotional skills and a history of consistent, sensitive, and accessible parental care
support genuine and affectionate bonds. Some aspects of children's social behavior, such as
emotional expression, cooperation, and social play, are similar to those of their primate
ancestors. Babies are biologically primed to contribute to forming bonds with their caregivers
that enhance their individual genetic chances of survival. Ethologists believe that child behavior
is best understood in terms of its adaptive values, and therefore strive to fully understand the
entire bioenvironmental system, including its physical, social, and cultural dimensions. ( P.
Pendry, 2001) .

Ecological Theory / Brofenbrenner’s Theory

Ecological theory was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. Community psychologists can use it
to study the relationships of individuals within communities. The ecological/systematic
framework is what this theory is referred to as. Five environmental systems are identified.
(Wikipedia, 2021)Bronfenbrenner described the influences of environmental factors on children
and encouraged us to look at what was going on for a child at their level within the different
systems that they exist within any given society, and how these systems, in turn, interact with
each other and greater systems beyond. (Future learn, 2018)
Our behavior can be affected by different environments throughout our lives. According to
ecological theory, we encounter different environments throughout our lives that can affect our
behavior to varying degrees. These systems include: Microsystem environments are the
immediate environments we have in our lives. Your family, friends, classmates, teachers,
neighbors, and other people with whom you have direct contact are included in your
microsystems. He states that we are not only recipients of the experiences we experience when
we live, but also contribute to the creation of such an environment. Mesosystems contain the
relationships between microsystems in life. . This means that experiences at home can be related
to experiences at school. An exosystem is an environment in which there is a link between
situations in which a person does not play an active role and situations in which they actively
participate. Setting up your macrosystem is the actual culture of an individual. Cultural context
includes the individual’s and/or their family’s socioeconomic status, ethnicity or race, and living
in a developing or third world country. The chronosystem encompasses life transitions and shifts.
It can also be the social and historical background that can affect a person. (S. Sincero, 2012)

Evaluate each theories presented based on your own understanding and experiences. Select
a theory which you think/believe that best explain the aspect of development.

According to the aforementioned theories, everyone plays an important role in life-span

development. Every theory makes an important and great contribution to understanding human
development. As such, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory’s id, ego, and superego provide us with a
better understanding of human consciousness. The theory comprehensively influences our
behavior. And with the concept of psychoanalysis, self-deception limits our choices. This made
us aware of our unconscious wishes. The psychosexual theory explains our behavior. This theory
demonstrates the stages from infancy to adulthood that are significant in personality
development. Erickson’s theory predetermined that our interactions and relationships with other
people play a role in the development of our personality and that we, as individuals, have social
needs that need to be consistently met. Cognitive theories such as Piaget’s theory, Vygotsky’s
theory, and information processing theory contribute to understanding how an individual
acquires knowledge and processes information and how environmental factors affect the
development of our cognitive abilities. Behavioral and social change theory aims to explain how
social factors and our environment influence our behavior. The ethological theory discusses how
we adapt to our environment. This theory somehow has the same concept as Charles Darwin’s
theory. Finally, ecological theory investigates the relationships of individuals within a
community. It talks about environmental systems that are also related to the development of an
individual.
Among those theories, based on my personal experiences, Erik Erikson’s psychosexual theory
explains the aspects of development. I think in his theory, we can associate nurture with nature.
Our nurture, or the way we are groomed by our family and also the parenting style, is a big factor
in our development. And we have nurturing needs that we should have received at birth. Our
nature, our environment, the people around us, and our relationships or interactions with them
may affect the development of our behavior and personality. Our social needs have to be
fulfilled. The 8 stages in his theory explain the needs we need, and the succession in every stage
has an Impact on developing the strong personality of a child.

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