EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT

POWER SHOVEL, BACK HOE, DRAGLINE, SCRAPER, DOZER

and
POWER SHOVEL
 POWER SHOVEL

SHOVEL POWER SHOVEL

Power shovel is used primarily to excavate earth and load into trucks or tractor-pulled
wagons etc. Shovels are capable of excavating all classes of earth except solid rock,
without prior loosening. Hydraulic motors through a hydraulic swivel at the axis of the
pin, allowing the machine to slew 360°. Front shovels are used predominantly for hard
digging above track level and for loading haul units. Loading of shot rock would be a
typical application Shovels are capable of developing high breakout force with their
buckets, but the material being excavated should be such that it will stand as a vertical
bank, i.e., a wall of material that stands perpendicular to the ground. Most shovels are
crawler-mounted and have very slow travel speeds, less than 3 mph. The parts of the
shovel are designed for machine balance; each element of the front-end attachment-
shovel-is designed for the anticipated load. The front-end attachment weighs about
one-third as much as the superstructure with its power parts and cab.
Excavators or shovels are machines designed for digging or earthmoving works and
they come in all shapes and sizes. They are very common nowadays and mainly found in
construction projects, mines, quarries or just about any place where excavation is
required.
Modern excavators are diesel powered and make use of hydraulics power to perform
digging. Thus these machines are also called hydraulic excavators. The basic parts that
make up an excavator consist of the bucket, the stick, boom and the cab. The cab is
where the operator sits and is also where the engine and hydraulic systems are located.
The whole thing is either mounted on top of a tracked or wheel base and can swing 360
degrees.
SUMMARY OF BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT POWER SHOVEL

Basic information:
 Power shovels are used primarily to excavate earth and load into trucks or
tractor-pulled wagons
 Can excavate all classes of earth except solid rock, without prior loosening
 Hard digging above track level and for loading haul units. Loading of shot rock
would be a typical application

TYPES OF SHOVEL

HYDRAULIC OPERATED

CABLE OPERATED
Basic parts - Hydraulic type

Basic parts - Cable type

 Operation- Hydraulic type

 With a shovel in the correct position, near the face of the material to be
excavated, the bucket is lowered to the floor the pit, with the teeth pointing into
the face.
 A crowding force is applied by hydraulic pressure to the stick cylinder at the
same time the bucket cylinder rotates the bucket through the face.
Operation- Hydraulic type
The power shovel is moved into the required position such that the excavation face is
within the reach. Then the bucket stick is lowered and cables are moved such that a bite
is made into the ground. By moving the bucket forward, the earth gets excavated and
gets filled in the bucket. Then the bucket is swung back to the required position and by
opening the flap, the excavated earth is unloaded into the waiting truck. The process is
repeated.

Suitability of application:
 The machine is utilized mainly on surface mining excavations
 Most suitable equipment for close range of work.
 Capable of digging hard materials and can also remove big sized boulders.
The machine is utilized mainly on surface mining excavations. It was developed
alongside the backhoe excavator and may be used together. The front shovel
functions a lot like the excavator. The major difference is the front shovel digs in a
forward manner. In contrast, the excavator digs the dirt towards itself.
Typical cycle element times under average conditions, for 3- to 5-cy-size shovels, are
 1. Load bucket 7-9 sec
 2. Swing with load 4-6 sec
 3. Dump load 2-4 sec
 4. Return swing 4-5 sec

The actual production of a shovel is affected by following factors:

1. Class of material
2. Height of cut
3. Angle of swing
4. Operator skill
5. Condition of the shovel
6. Haul-unit exchange
7. Size of hauling units
8. Handling of oversize material
9. Cleanup of loading area

Application
 Mining operations
 Road construction
 Digging of trenches, holes, foundations
 Material handling
 Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments
 Forestry work
 Demolition
 General grading/landscaping
 Heavy lift, e.g. lifting and placing of pipes
 River dredging

Limitations
• The weight limitations imposed by most states for hauling on highways may
restrict the size of shovel
• Power shovel can dig far more easily and faster, but it does use lots of fuel .
• Transportation cost for crawler mounted power shovel is more and is directly
proportional to its size.
• Efficiency of shovel depends upon the skill of the operator and physical condition
of the shovel.
 BACKHOE:

Basic information:
The term hoe applies to an excavating machine of the power shovel group. It is referred
to by several names, such as hoe, back hoe, back shovel, and pull shovel. A power shovel
is converted in to hoe by installing a dipper stick and a dipper at the end of the shovel
boom. Hoes are used primarily to excavate below the natural surface of ground on
which machine rests. They are adopted to excavate trenches pits for basements and
general grading of work which require price control of depths. Because of their rigidity
they are superior to dragline s in operating on close range work and dumping into
trucks. Because of the direct pull of the dipper, hoes may exert greater tooth pressure
than power shovels. In some respects hoes are superior to wheel –or ladder type
trenching machines, especially in digging utility trenches whose banks are permitted to
establish natural slopes. Hoes can remove the earth as it caves in to establish natural
slopes, where as trenching machines cannot do this easily. The reduction in
construction costs resulting from the elimination of shoring may be a significant item.
The backhoe consists of a boom, dipper stick, and bucket mounted on a tractor.
Backhoes are typically used in trenching because they can excavate to a considerable
depth below their base. This characteristic also makes them useful for work such as
channel excavation, because the excavation can be done while the tractor remains on
dry land.
 WHEEL MOUNTED

CRAWLER MOUNTED
Backhoes are mounted on either rubber tires or crawler tracks. There are advantages to
each type of mounting.
Rubber-tired backhoes
Rubber-tired backhoes (also called backhoe/loaders) are more maneuverable, and can
travel more quickly from one place to another. In addition, most rubber-tired backhoes
have a loader
bucket attached to the front of the tractor, allowing it to be used for work other than
excavation. Crawler-track backhoes can be larger than rubber-tired backhoes, and they
are better able to work on soft soils because of the larger surface area of the tracks.
The boom on a rubber-tired backhoe is mounted at the rear of the tractor. The boom
swings horizontally at its base, and can cover an arc of approximately 180°. When the
backhoe is working, the weight of the machine plus the soil in the bucket can make it
unstable, especially as the boom swings to the side. To stabilize the backhoe, it is
equipped with outrigger, stabilizing feet. These feet are located at the rear of the
backhoe to carry the weight of the working end. When extended, the feet span an area
wider than the tractor itself, and they rest at right angles to the trench. This stabilizes
the backhoe, ensuring that it will not tip over during operation. The stabilizing feet
should always be extended before beginning excavation.
• These ones have tires like regular cars .
• It can move to the next construction site running on road themselves.
• Since they are not as stable as crawlers, they are not suitable for uneven surfaces,
muddy places.
•
Crawler-track backhoe
The boom on a crawler-track backhoe is typically mounted on the front of the tractor.
The entire tractor assembly, including the boom, engine, and operator’s cab, is located
on a base that contains the crawler tracks. The entire tractor rotates on a turntable that
separates the tractor from the base. This allows the boom to swing horizontally for a full
360°. In addition, because of the size of the base, stabilizing feet are rarely included on a
crawler-track backhoe.
• They can be seen in many construction sites.
• Since most part touches the ground, they do not sink even on soft surfaces.
• They cannot run on road like regular cars, so they have to be carried on the big
truck.
• This type of feet is very stable.
Parts of crawler mounted back hoe

Parts of wheel mounted back hoe

The Tractor:
The core structure of a backhoe loader is the tractor. Just like the tractors that farmers
use in their fields, the backhoe tractor is designed to move easily over all kinds of rough
terrain. It has a powerful, turbocharged diesel engine, large, rugged tires and a cab with
basic steering controls (a steering wheel, brakes, etc.). Backhoe cabs are either
completely enclosed or have an open canopy structure to give the operator protection.

The Loader:
The loader is attached in the front and the backhoe is attached in the back. These two
components serve very different functions.The loader can do several different things. In
many applications, you use it like a big, powerful dustpan or coffee scoop. You usually
don't dig with it; you mostly use it to pick up and carry large amounts of loose material.
It's also used to smooth things over like a butter knife, or to push dirt like a plow. The
operator controls the loader while driving the tractor.

The Backhoe:
The backhoe is the main tool of the backhoe loader. It's used to dig up hard, compact
material, usually earth, or to lift heavy loads, such as a sewer box. It can lift this material
and drop it in a pile to the side of the hole. Basically, the backhoe is a big, extremely
powerful version of your arm or finger. It has three segments:

The boom
The stick
The bucket

This arrangement is very similar to your arm. Your arm has three segments -- your
upper arm, forearm and hand. The backhoe segments are connected by three joints,
comparable to your wrist, elbow and shoulder. The backhoe moves in pretty much the
same way as your arm. In a Caterpillar® backhoe, the boom is bent upward to make it
easier to dig with obstacles in the way. This design also provides extra space for the
bucket when the operator curls it in with a full load. The backhoe can dig all sorts of
holes, but is especially suited for digging ditches. To use the backhoe, the operator has
to park the tractor and turn the seat around.

The Stabilizer Legs:

The other appendages you'll typically notice on a backhoe loader are the two stabilizer
legs just behind the rear wheels. These legs are crucial to backhoe operation because
they take the brunt of the weight when a backhoe is digging. Without the stabilizer legs,
the weight of a heavy load or the downward force of digging into the ground would
strain the wheels and tires, and the whole tractor would bounce constantly. The
stabilizers keep the tractor steady, minimizing the jostling effect of digging with the
backhoe. They also secure the tractor so that it won't slip into the ditch or hole.
The stabilizer legs have two types of "shoes," so that they can be planted securely on
both dirt and pavement. The grouser shoe side digs into the dirt for a better grip, but
would tear up the pavement if you were to use it on a road. For a good grip on asphalt,
the operator simply flips the rubber-padded shoe into position.
Operation: Penetration force into the material being excavated is achieved by the stick
cylinder and the bucket cylinder. Maximum crowd force is developed when the stick
cylinder operates perpendicular to the stick. The ability to break material loose is best
at the bottom of the arc because of the geometry of the boom, stick and bucket and the
fact the at that point the hydraulic cylinders exert the maximum force drawing the stick
in and curling the bucket

CYCLE TIME:
Cycle ti e= Ti e take for Diggi g + Lifti g a d swi gi g + Du pi g +
Swi gi g a d loweri g + Positio i g

Applications:
Backhoe loaders are very common and can be used for a wide variety of tasks:
Construction
Small demolition
Digging holes/excavation
Landscaping
Breaking asphalt and paving roads.
The backhoe bucket can also be replaced with powered attachments such as
a breaker, grapple, auger, or a stump grinder.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
Move about easily.
Widely available.
Diesel power.
They are compact and consolidate the tools used for separate jobs into one unit.
Laying pipes, underground cables, foundation of a building and drainage systems.
Highly economical if efficiently used.

Limitations
The primary disadvantage of using a backhoe in trenching work is that it cannot dig as
clean a trench bottom as dedicated trenching equipment. Therefore, a skilled operator
along with additional manual labor will be needed to shape the trench bottom after the
backhoe finishes the excavation.
Needs skilled operators.
Equipment is costly (including various attachments.)
High repair and maintenance cost.
Used only for small projects.
Dig depth is limited.
Noise nuisance
Transportation of equipment from one place to another takes time.

DRAGLINE
Basic information
Draglines are used to excavate earth and load it into hauling units, such as trucks or
tractor-pulled wagons, or to deposit it in levees, dams , and spoil banks near the pits
from which it is excavated. A dragline works as the name implies, by dragging a
dragline-type bucket towards the machine. Dragline and clamshell machines belong to
the group that is frequently identified as the power crane and shovel (PCSA) family
(Peurifoy). The dragline is a versatile machine capable of a wide range of operations. It
can handle materials that range from soft to medium hard. The greatest advantage of a
dragline over other machine is its long reach for digging and dumping. A dragline does
not have a positive digging force of a hydraulic shovel or hoe. The bucket breakout force
is derived strictly from its own weight. Therefore it can bounce, tip over drift sideways
when it encounters hard material. This weakness is familiar with smaller machines and
light weight bucket. Draglines are designed to excavate below the level of the machine.
A dragline does not have to go into the pit to excavate. It operates adjacent to the pit by
excavating the materials form the pit by casting its bucket. This is advantageous when
earth is to be removed from ditch, canal or pit containing water.
They fall into two broad categories: those that are based on standard, lifting cranes and
the heavy units which have to be built on-site. The first category type are used for road,
port construction, pond and canal dredging, and as pile driving rigs. The second
category type is used for strip-mining operations to remove overburden above coal and
more recently for tar-sand mining.

BASIC PARTS
• BOOM
• BUCKET
• HOIST CHAIN
• DUMP CABLE
• DRAG CHAIN
• FAIRLEAD
Types
Crawler-mounted
Wheel or truck-mounted

Crawler- mounted draglines can operate over soft ground conditions that would not
support wheel-or truck-mounted equipment. The travel speed of a crawler machine is
very slow, frequently less than 1 mph, and it is necessary to use auxiliary, hauling
equipment to transport the unit from one job to another. Wheel-and truck-mounted
units may have travel speeds in excess of 30 mph.

Operation

• HOISTING
• DIGGING
• SWINGING
 • DUMPING
The excavating cycle is started by swinging the empty bucket to the digging position,
while at the same time slacking off the drag-and the hoist lines. There are separate
drums on the basic unit for each of these cables so that they may be coordinated into a
smooth operation. Digging is accomplished by pulling the bucket toward the machine
while regulating the digging depth by means of the tension maintained in the hoist line.
When the bucket is filled, the operator takes in the hoist line while playing out the
dragline. The bucket is so constructed that it will not dump its contents until the drag
line tension is released. Hoisting, swinging, and dumping the loaded bucket follow in
that order; then the cycle is repeated. An experienced operator can cast the excavated
material beyond the end of the boom.

Application
 Most suitable machine for digging softer material and below the track line.
 Useful for excavating trenches where the sides are permitted to establish their
angle of repose without shoring
 Excavation of canals and depositing on the embankment without hauling units
 Strip-mining operations to remove overburden above coal and more recently for
tar-sand mining.

Factors affecting dragline production:

1. Type of material being excavated
2. Depth of cut
Angle of swing
3. Size and type of the bucket
4. Length of boom
5. Method of disposal, casting or loading haul units
6. Size of the hauling units, when used
7. Skill of the operator
CYCLE TIME – Hoisting + digging + swinging and dumping
Advantages and limitations
Advantages
A dragline usually does not have to go into a pit or hole in order to excavate. It may
operate on natural ground while excavating material from a pit with its bucket. Which is
helpful when earth is removed from a ditch, canal, or pit containing water?
Draglines are excellent units for excavating trenches when the sides are permitted to
establish their angles of response, without shoring.
Draglines with long boom are used to dispose of earth in one operations , eliminating
the need for hauling units in certain cases.
It can be used for deep digging operations.
The most efficient excavating material below the level of their base.
Used for handling softer unconsolidated material
Can dig well above and below grade and can excavate deep box cut
Greater digging depth and dumping radius
It has more flexibility in operation
Dragline boom length can be varied according to desire so it may or may not require a
disposal equipment
Can negotiate gradient upto12(degree) and ground pressure of 1-2kg/sqcm
Presence of a hopper reloader helps in loading material onto belt conveyor ,rail wagon
etc
Maintenance is cheap
Superior in wet pits
Limitations
The primary limitations of draglines are their boom height and boom length, which
limits where the dragline can dump the waste material.
Their dig depth is limited by the length of rope the draglines can utilize.
Inefficient and is not suitable to load piled up material.
If the blasted rocks are of large lump causes insufficient filling and bucket and drag rope
wear rapidly
Production cost more compared to shovel
Lesser output than powered shovel
Bucket fill factor is less as compared to powered shovel
Lesser efficiency than shovel
SCRAPERS

Scrapers, also known as pans, are machines designed to load, haul, and dump loose
material. Scrapers can handle a variety of material, from fine-grained soils to rock left
from blasting work. Scrapers are used in excavation and embankment work and in base
course construction. Scrapers consist of two components: the tractor, or prime mover,
and the bowl. A typical tractor has two axles, with the bowl suspended from the frame
between the front and rear axles. The tractor also holds the engine and the operator’s
cab. All scraper tractors are mounted on rubber-tires. This gives them better versatility
than they would have if they were mounted on crawler tracks. Most scrapers can
achieve speeds of 28mph (45 km/h) while carrying a full load. This makes them
economical, because they can move a large volume of soil over a considerable distance
at a relatively high speed.
The disadvantage to equipping scrapers with rubber tires is that they cannot generate
the traction necessary to work on soft soils or to load themselves to capacity. Therefore,
all scrapers are designed to have some type of assistance in loading.

Basic parts
The bowl of a scraper is essentially a large bucket with an opening on its front side. The
current largest bowl size for a scraper is 44 yd3 (34 m3), which is roughly the same
volume as 160 55-gallon drums. The bowl has three moving parts that are used to
control how it functions. These parts are the blade, the apron, and the ejector. The
blade is on the front edge of the bowl. It can be lowered into the ground to excavate
material or raised while the scraper is hauling material. The apron serves as a gate on
the front of the bowl that controls how large the bowl’s opening is. It is raised during
loading to allow material to enter, and lowered during hauling to hold material in the
bowl. The ejector is a curved plate located at the back of the bucket. The ejector can be
moved forwards to push material out of the bowl.

Types
Scrapers are classified by their method of loading. Scrapers are either push-loaded,
push-pull, or elevating. Push-loaded scrapers are pushed by a bulldozer as they are
loading. The combined force of the bulldozer and the scraper ensure that the bowl will
be loaded to capacity
 1. Push-loaded
  2. Push-pull

Push-pull scrapers have a push block and bail mounted on the front of the scraper and a
push block and hook on the rear of the scraper. Two scrapers are attached by the hook
and bail. The rear scraper will push the front scraper as the front scraper loads. Then,
the front scraper will pull the rear scraper as the rear scraper loads.
 3. Elevating

Elevating scrapers have a chain elevator that serves as the loading mechanism. As the
scraper moves forward, the elevator moves material into the bowl. The advantage of
this type of scraper is that it does not require a bulldozer or other scraper to push it.
The disadvantages are that the elevator cannot handle rock and that the elevator is an
additional weight that slows the scraper during hauling.
Operation of scraper
Scraping Operations.
To excavate soil, the apron on the bowl is raised and the blade is lowered into the
ground. As the scraper drives forward, the ground material is forced up and into the
bowl. To achieve the maximum capacity of the scraper, the material in the bowl must
consolidate itself. This is primarily achieved through the natural action of the material
in the bowl, which resembles a pot of boiling water. Material entering the bowl forces
material already in the bowl to move upward. As the material falls back down it
consolidates the material underneath it. To aid in the consolidation process, the ejector
is used. As scraping begins, the ejector is extended to the front of the bowl. The ejector
serves as a deflector that redirects the soil towards the front of the bowl. This helps the
material boil up in the bowl and forces the material back on itself, which ensures
consolidation. When the bowl is full, the blade is raised and the apron is lowered. The
scraper can then haul the material to another area on the Project or to a designated
dumping site off the Project right-of-way. The scraper can complete this hauling quickly
and return to the Project to make another pass over the area being excavated.
Spreading Operations.
A loaded scraper can be used to spread material at a desired thickness. This makes the
scraper useful for the construction of embankments and base courses. To spread
material, the blade is lowered to the desired height above the fill. The apron is then
raised to give the desired lift thickness. As the scraper drives over the area, the ejector
moves forward, pushing the material out of the bowl. The length of the lift placed by a
scraper will depend on the thickness of the lift and volume of the bowl.

Loading Hauling Dumping

Cycle time

It is the time for a scraper to load, haul, dump, turn, return and turn back into position
to pick up another load
loadt 0.85+travelt 5.03+dumpt 0.37+turnt fill 0.21+turnt cut 0.30 +
Total cycle time, Ts=6.76 min
Application
Scrapers can be very efficient on short hauls where the cut and fill areas are close
together and have sufficient length to fill the hopper. Excavation and embankment work
and in base course construction.
 Bulldozers

Basic information:
A bulldozer is heavy machinery equipped with a substantial metal plate (known as a
blade) in the front and typically equipped at the rear with a claw-like device (known as
a ripper). A dozer is a tractor unit which has a blade attached to its front. The blade is
used to push, shear, cut and roll materials ahead of the tractor. The dozer is an effective
and versatile earthmover. They are used as both support and production machines on
many construction projects, where they may be used from start to finish.
The bulldozer is one of the most commonly used pieces of earthmoving equipment. It
has a number of applications, from clearing and grubbing to site maintenance. In
addition, there are several attachments that increase the versatility of the bulldozer.
A bulldozer is a tractor that has a blade attached to its front. The tractor is mounted on
either crawlers or wheels. Bulldozers are commonly classified based on these
mountings. The blade attached to the front of the bulldozer is used to push soil, debris,
or other material. The blade can be lowered and raised, allowing it to excavate and
distribute soil. On many bulldozers, the blade can also be angled to the left or the right,
so that material is pushed forward and to one side. Case Construction Equipment
unveiled its new M Series lineup of crawler dozers. The new lineup includes the 92-
horsepower 750M, 112-hp 850M, 127-hp 1150M, 150-hp 1650M and 214-hp 2050M.
 Basic parts:

Types:

Crawler type Wheel type

Crawler-mounted bulldozers can offer better traction on soft soil, the ability to travel
over a greater variety of surfaces, and more versatility on the Project. Wheel-mounted
bulldozers can travel faster, have a higher output when considerable traveling is
necessary on the Project, result in less operator fatigue, and can travel over pavements
without damaging them.

Advantages of crawler type

• Can work on variety of soil
• Best for handling tight soils
• Can work almost any terrain
• Good for short work distances
 • Can push large blade loads
Advantages of wheel type
• Good on firm soils
• Best for handling loose soils
• It can push moderate blade load
• It is good for long distance
• It can travel on the paved highways without damaging it
• Speed is more
Operation
Crawler type have a continuous track of linked shoes that moves in the horizontal plane
across fixed rollers. At the rear of the machine, the track passes over a vertically
mounted sprocket drive wheel. As the sprocket turns, it forces the track forward or
back, imparting motion to the dozer. In the front of the machine, the tract passes over a
vertically mounted idler wheel that is connected to recoil device having adjustable
tension. The idler wheel maintains proper tension in the track and enables it to absorb
heavy shocks.

Bull dozer consists of a heavy blade of somewhat concave profile. The blade is attached
to the body of the tractor with two arms and a supporting frame. The blade is held at the
lower edge on the two heavily built push arms which are hinged to the track frame of
the tractor. The top of the blade is supported by two brace arms attached to the push
arms. The blade is projecting ahead at the bottom.

Dozer-type comparison
Wheel dozer
Good for firm soils and concrete and abrasive Can work on a variety of soils; sharp edged
soils that have no sharp-edged pieces
Best for level and downhill work
The concentrated wheel load will provide
compaction and kneading action to ground
surface
Good for long travel distances
Best in handling loose soils
Fast return speed, 8-26 mph
Can only handle moderate blade loads
Applications:
Crawler dozer
pieces, though fine sand will increase running
gear wear
Can work on soft ground and over mud-slick
surfaces with special low-ground-pressure
undercarriage and track configuration
No such action
Good for short work distances
Can handle tight soils
Slow return speeds, 5-10 mph
Can push large blade loads

The bulldozer is commonly used in excavation and embankment construction. The

bulldozer can also be used in clearing and grubbing, topsoil removal, and maintenance
of haul roads and borrow pits.
 • Moving earth for haul distances up to 100m.
• Helping load tractor pulled scrapers.
• Spreading and leveling earth fills.
• Back filling trenches.
• Clearing, the construction sites of debris and rubbish.
• Maintaining haul roads.
• Clearing the floors of borrows and quarry pits.
• Stripping of the top soil that is not usable.

Types of blade:

Straight blade Universal blade U blade S-U blade

1. A straight blade that is short and has no lateral curve, no side wings, and can be used
only for fine grading.
2. A universal blade, or U blade, which is tall and very curved, and features large side
wings to carry more material around.
3. A combination blade that is shorter, offers less curvature, and smaller side wings.

S Blade

The straight blade or S is as the name suggests a geometrically straight blade. The S
blade is attached to the tractor by dozer arms that attach at the lower corners of the
back of the blade eliminating the option of angling. The S blade is vertically stabilized
with angle braces to the dozer arms that may be outfitted with a hydraulically operated
tilt cylinder allowing for horizontal blade adjustment. Tilting the blade enhances
ground penetration by concentrating the cutting force over varying blade lengths. The
tilts also increase versatility to include operations such as ditching and crowning. Given
the straight configuration and lack of side wings to hinder material side spillage the S
blade has limited material carrying capabilities. The experienced operator can
improvise and enhance material carrying by building and employing a push trough.

Where the S blade performs best is in medium to harder compacted materials. The
rugged design, weight, and geometry of the blade give it good ground penetrating
characteristics which allow for better dozing of harder materials. The S blade is used in
many applications including backfilling, stumping, stripping, shaping and ditching. The
versatility of the blade increases with the skill of the operator in finding means of
overcoming design limitations.

The SU Blade

SU stands for semi-U. This blade is designed to occupy the middle ground between the
straight blade and the U blade providing to a lesser degree characteristics of both. The
SU blade is mounted to the tractor with the same heavy straight push arms attached to
the lower back of the blade. The blade is vertically stabilized from the dozer arms with
angle braces which will incorporate one or two hydraulic tilt cylinders. The tilt
cylinders provide the ability to alter the horizontal plane of the blade and concentrate
ground penetrating forces. This feature increases the blade versatility to include
crowning and ditching. The distinctive feature that sets this blade apart from the S
blade is the addition of the forward curving side wings on either end which work to
hamper material spillage. The gives the SU blade increased materials loading and
carrying capability thereby broadening the range of efficient uses for the tractor
equipped with this blade.

The SU blade has less ground penetration ability than the S blade, but the more efficient
material carrying capability make it a good choice in a number of bulldozer activities
including stumping, stripping, backfilling, ditching, crowning and leveling. The blade
works well in soft to medium hard soils, especially with the skillful application of the tilt
feature. The SU blade will have limited efficiency in glacially compacted tills (hardpan)
without prior loosening with a ripper. The SU blade provides a degree of versatility that
makes it a common choice for outfitting a tractor. Combined with an experienced and
skilled operator the SU blade will perform well at most tasks.

U Blade

The geometry of this blade is as the name suggests a generalized U shape. The U
shape works like a scoop to hold in materials and minimize side spillage off the
blade. This feature gives the U blade good loading and material carrying qualities
allowing for more efficient movement of soils over longer distances. Similar to the S
and SU blade the U blade is mounted with heavy dozer arms from trunnions on the sides
of the tractor to the lower bottom corners of the blade. The U blade is vertically
stabilized from the push arms with angle braces that incorporate one or two hydraulic
tilt cylinders. The tilt cylinders provide the blade with the ability to concentrate the
ground penetrating forces thereby increasing versatility to include operations such a
ditching and crowning. The increased width of the U blade lowers the overall ground
penetrating forces making the blade most suitable for medium to soft soils. The limited
ground penetrating penetrating characteristic of the blade can be mitigated by
mounting a ripper on the tractor to loosen glacially compacted silts such as hardpan or
soft rock.

Angle Blade

The angle blade is typically a straight blade pivot mounted on the centre of a C
frame. The centre pivot mount allows the blade to be angled to the left or the right to
enhance side casting of materials. On older machines the blades often had manual
screw type tilt adjusters on the side arms which vertically stabilize the blade, but on
newer machines these were generally upgraded to hydraulically operated tilts either on
one or both side arms. These improvements allowed for greater operator ease of blade
horizontal tilt adjustment and consequent productivity increases.

The angle blade works well for a number of uses including, stumping and stripping,
shaping, ditching, trail pioneering, and general dozing of medium to softer
materials. The straight geometry of the blade allows material to easily spill off the sides
thus reducing its value for carrying materials longer distances. Experienced operators
will partially overcome this deficiency by creating a trough when longer pushes of
materials are needed.

Overall the angle dozer allows a broad range of tractor applications that make it a prime
choice when outfitting a new machine.
 HOISTING EQUIPMENT

DERRICK CRANE, TOWER CRANE

and
MOBILE CRANE
 CRANES
The construction equipment that falls under the term cranes represents a broad class
of machines. The typical crane is used to lift and place loads. Modifications on the basic
crane structure allow it to be used for other activities such as dredging and pile driving
Transportation: loading and unloading of freight.
Manufacturing: assembling heavy equipment
Construction: movement of materials
Cranes are equipment used for lifting a load from one location, transporting it to
another location. Cranes are only machine which can provide three-dimensional
movement of load in one virtually continuous operations. It is able to perform
operations with precision, speed and safety, and is an un-avoidable piece of equipment
in construction industries.
Derrick cranes
The derrick crane was conceived as a specialist disassembly crane for stripping down
cranes on tall buildings, bridge pylons and telecommunication towers. The dimensions
and weights of all individual parts on the new crane are therefore designed to enable
them to be dismantled with the aid of a very small hoist and removed via lift shafts in
buildings. A derrick crane is a specific style of lifting machine. It is usually a fixed crane,
meaning it is assembled and disassembled in the location where it is used, although
there are some very small mobile styles. Generally, the crane is characterized by its
long, fixed length tower. These cranes are typically used in locations where items need
to be moved from a common initial point to single nearby location, like on shipping
platforms and construction sites. This crane is composed of a tower that pivots at the
base, but is unable to actually bend. The tower is generally made up of a web work of
steel pipes and braces, creating a lot of strength but relatively little actual substance.
The tower is connected to four lines — these lines work independently of one another,
allowing the crane tower to move freely in any direction. A single fifth line hangs over
the end of the tower and has a hook on the end. This line moves up and down and hooks
onto items. Another common location for a derrick crane is on shipping platforms. It is
very common to find smaller derricks loading and unloading boats and trains in
shipping yards. The crane remains in a fixed position on the platform or, occasionally,
on the deck of the ship. Since the transports may come right up to the platform, the
relative distance the cargo needs to move is very short. This crane operates using very
specific physics principles. It uses four lines with different origin points that come
together at the end of the tower. This provides additional stability to the tower, as it is
anchored in four locations, rather than just one like a normal crane. This also allows the
crane free movement, as the lines can be brought in or out at different speeds, allowing
the tower to move without sacrificing stability. Since the hook can go up and down
freely, the only limit on the crane is its amount of line. As a result, a derrick crane is
often used to raise and lower items in a high location, like on high-rise buildings. Often,
during the end phase of construction, a crane is brought to the top of the building and
assembled on the roof. The derrick then lowers the equipment to the ground, after
which it is disassembled and brought down as well.

A = Boom, B = Tower/Mast, C =
back stay or stiff legs, D = Sills

Derrick cranes consist of a mast, a boom and a bull wheel on which the boom rotates
about an vertical axis. These cranes are either electrically or diesel operated or deisel-
electrically operated.

Types

Guy derrick: has a small mast mast supported by a number of guys and a boom pivoted
at the lower end of the mast. The boom can revolve through 360 degree. The crane Is
used for heavy loads upto 200tons.

Stiff leg derrick: When loads are less than 50 tons, guy ropes are replaced by trussed
structure which becomes stiff legged derrick. It consists of a mast which can rotate and
a boom. Used for loads from 7-50 tons.

Advantages:
Maximum production
Most economic
Lesser vibrations
Smooth handling
Best suited for small types of work
Limitations:
Load carrying capacity reduces if swing radius/ boom size is increased. This is because
the tendency to tip is guarded against by increased tension of the guys.
It is slower than other types of cranes
Immobile
Have to be assembled and disassembled
Tower cranes
Basic information
Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane that consist of the same basic parts.
Fixed to the ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes attached to the sides of
structures as well depending upon the requirements), tower cranes offer the best
combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall
buildings. Tower crane provide high lifting height and good working radius, while
taking up a very limited area. Limited mobility at job site. High Setup cost but lower
operating cost. The construction crew uses the tower crane to lift steel, concrete, large
tools like acetylene torches and generators, and a wide variety of other building
materials. Tower cranes are a common fixture at any major construction site.
Basic parts:

Mast: the main supporting tower of the crane. It is made of steel trussed sections that
are connected together during installation.
Slewing Unit: the slewing unit sits at the top of the mast. This is the engine that enables
the crane to rotate.
Operating Cabin: the operating cabin sits just above the slewing unit. It contains the
operating controls.
Jib: the jib, or operating arm, extends horizontally from the crane. A "luffing" jib is able
to move up and down; a fixed jib has a rolling trolley that runs along the underside to
move goods horizontally.
Hook: the hook (or hooks) is used to connect the material to the crane. It hangs at the
end of thick steel cables that run along the jib to the motor.
Weights: Large concrete counterweights are mounted toward the rear of the mast, to
compensate for the weight of the goods lifted.
The long horizontal jib is the part of the crane that carries the load. The counter-jib
carries a counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load to
and from the center of the crane. The crane operator either sits in a cab at the top of the
tower or controls the crane by radio remote control from the ground. In the first case
the operator's cab is most usually located at the top of the tower attached to the
turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway down the tower. The lifting hook is
operated by the crane operator using electric motors to manipulate wire rope cables
through a system of sheaves. The hook is located on the long horizontal arm to lift the
load which also contains its motor.
1. The base is bolted to a large concrete pad that supports the crane.
2. The base connects to the mast (or tower), which gives the tower crane Its height.
3. Attached to the top of the mast is the slewing unit (large ring-gear and motor) that
allows the crane to rotate.
4. Attached to the slewing unit is the jib (or boom), the machinery arm, the
counterweights
5.Operators Cab On top of the slewing unit are three parts

Advantages

• Time saving machine

• Multipurpose in use
• Heavy duty
• High performance
• Ease even in critical situation
 • Can be transferred from one project to another
• When idle , no overheads
• Optimum utilization of resources
Limitations
• Cumbersome to erect & dismantle.
• High initial cost for erection as well as dismantling.
• Skilled operators are required.
• If in defective session, hampers the schedule.
• Maintenance is difficult.
• Sometimes create safety problems.
• Limited to projects with large areas
Mobile cranes
Basic information:
Mobile cranes generally operate via a truss / boom from which end a hook is suspended
by wire rope and sheaves. The wire ropes are operated by whatever prime movers the
designers have available, operating through a variety of transmissions. Steam engines,
electric motors and internal combustion engines (IC) have all been used. Older cranes'
transmissions tended to be clutches. This was later modified when using IC engines to
match the steam engines "max torque at zero speed" characteristic by the addition of a
hydrokinetic element culminating in controlled torque converters. The operational
advantages of this arrangement can now be achieved by electronic control of
hydrostatic drives, which for size and other considerations is becoming standard. Some
examples of this type of crane can be converted to a demolition crane by adding a
demolition ball or to an earthmover by adding a clamshell bucket or a dragline and
scoop, although design details can limit their effectiveness.

Another reference

A truck crane consists of a superstructure set on rubber-tire truck chassis. These cranes
are designed to have more maneuverability on the Project site and on the road than
crawler cranes. This reduces transportation costs and makes truck cranes more
desirable than crawler cranes when the equipment is needed for a short amount of time.
The trade-off for the greater maneuverability of a truck crane is that it cannot drive on
the soft soils that a crawler crane can. The truck crane’s maneuverability comes in part
from its transmission. The gears are arranged so that an average crane can reach a road
speed of 35 to 50 mph (55 to 80 km/h). There are also a number of creeping gears that
allow the crane to move at very slow speeds. The Contractor must exercise caution
when using these creeping gears. Some of them provide so much power that using them
for anything other than creeping on reasonably good ground will twist the drive shaft
off. Truck cranes have a fully rotating superstructure that holds the boom. Many truck
cranes have a single engine that powers both the truck and the boom. These cranes have
either one cab for control of both the truck and the boom, or separate cabs for control of
each. Larger truck cranes will also have separate power sources for the truck and boom.
Truck cranes can have lattice booms or telescoping booms. For truck cranes that are
driven on the road, telescoping booms are preferable. Telescoping booms consist of
multiple sections that fit into one another. The booms are hydraulically operated and
can be extended or contracted while the boom is loaded. This allows for a greater
flexibility of movement than a lattice boom; however, telescoping booms are typically
not as strong as lattice booms. Despite the strength limitation, telescoping booms are
desirable on truck cranes because they allow for quick set-up and break-down of the
cranes on the Project site, and easy transport from Project to Project.

Basic parts:

• Boom/Jib
• Rotex gear
• Outriggers
• Counterweights
• Reinforced-steel cable
• Hook
The most recognizable part of any crane is the boom. This is the steel arm of the crane
that holds the load. Rising up from just behind the operator's cab, the boom is the
essential piece of a crane, allowing the machine to raise loads to heights of several
dozen feet. Most hydraulic truck cranes have a boom that has several telescoping
sections. For instance, a 70-ton Link-Belt hydraulic truck crane has a boom with three
telescoping sections. This particular boom has a length of 127 feet (38.7 meters). Some
booms are equipped with a jib, which is the lattice structure attached to the end of the
boom. On the 70-ton hydraulic truck crane, the jib is 67 feet (20.4 meters) long, giving
the crane a total length of 194 feet (59.1 meters). As the load is lifted, the sections
telescope out to the desired height. Reinforced-steel cable lines run from a winch just
behind the operator's cab, extending up and over the the boom and jib. Each line is
capable of holding a maximum load of 14,000 pounds (6,350 kilograms). So, a 70-ton
hydraulic truck can use up to 10 cable lines for a total of 140,000 pounds (63,503
kilograms), or 70 tons. The lines run up the boom and jib and attach to a 285-pound
(129 kilograms) metal ball that keeps the lines pulled taut when no load is attached to
the hook. To maneuver the load, the boom has to be able to move right and left, as well
as up and down. Underneath the operator's cab is a Rotex gear on a turntable bearing
that turns at 2 revolutions per minute (rpm). It is driven by a bidirectional, hydraulic
motor mounted on the cab and housed in a metal cover to prevent injuries. The rotation
is controlled by a foot-operated, hydraulic pedal in the cab.

Hydraulic truck cranes are used to lift heavy loads to tall heights, and it's important that
the truck be completely stable during the lifting operation. The tires don't offer the
stability needed, so the truck employs outriggers that act as balances to keep the crane
from leaning too much to one side or the other. The outriggers use hydraulics to lift the
entire truck, tires and all, off the ground. The outriggers are comprised of the beam,
which is the leg of the outrigger, and the pad, which is the foot. Sometimes, "floats" are
placed under the pad to dissipate the force of the crane and the load over concrete or
pavement. Floats are usually wood planks that are lined up to create a base that is larger
than the pad itself. The outriggers are only one mechanism used to balance the crane
during lifting operations. There are also detachable counterweights that can be placed
on the back of the crane on the underside of the cab. These counterweights prevent the
crane from tipping forward during operation. The amount of counterweight needed for
a particular lift is determined by the weight of the load, the radius of the boom and the
boom's angle during operation. The 70-ton Link-Belt truck crane has counterweights
that come in 4,000-pound (1,814-kilogram) sections. Counterweights are only used
during lifts; they have to be removed before the truck can be driven.

Truck-mounted crane

A crane mounted on a truck carrier provides the mobility for this type of crane.
Generally, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for special
equipment to transport the crane. When working on the jobsite, outriggers are extended
horizontally from the chassis then vertically to level and stabilize the crane while
stationary and hoisting. Many truck cranes have slow-travelling capability (a few miles
per hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be taken not to swing the load
sideways from the direction of travel, as most anti-tipping stability then lies in the
stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also have moving
counterweights for stabilization beyond that provided by the outriggers. Loads
suspended directly aft are the most stable, since most of the weight of the crane acts as a
counterweight. Factory-calculated charts (or electronic safeguards) are used by crane
operators to determine the maximum safe loads for stationary (outrigger) work as well
as (on-rubber) loads and travelling speeds.

Side lift cranes

A side lifter crane is a road-going truck or semi-trailer, able to hoist and transport ISO
standard containers. Container lift is done with parallel crane-like hoists, which can lift
a container from the ground or from a railway vehicle.
Rough terrain cranes

A crane mounted on an undercarriage with four rubber tires that is designed for pick-
and-carry operations and for off-road and "rough terrain" applications. Outriggers are
used to level and stabilize the crane for hoisting.

These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the
undercarriage and the crane, similar to a crawler crane. In a rough terrain crane, the
engine is usually mounted in the undercarriage rather than in the upper, as with
crawler crane.

Like truck cranes, rough-terrain cranes consist of superstructures mounted on rubber-

tire truck chassis. However, where truck cranes can have as many as nine axles, rough-
terrain cranes always have two axles. Because of their smaller size, these cranes also
have lower lifting capacities than truck cranes. Rough-terrain cranes are intended for
work in hard-to-reach areas. They are smaller than truck and crawler cranes to allow
greater maneuverability. They are also equipped with oversized rubber tires to allow
the cranes to travel over different types of terrain. Despite these characteristics, rough-
terrain cranes are not limited to rough-terrain work. These cranes can typically reach a
road speed of 30 mph (50 km/h). This road speed, combined with their
maneuverability, makes rough-terrain cranes useful to load and unload materials and
perform other simple lifting operations. They can also be used for work next to existing
roadways, where their smaller size allows them to fit onto a highway shoulder or other
narrow area. The superstructures of rough-terrain cranes are fully rotating, and always
support the boom. On some rough-terrain cranes, the cab is also located on the
superstructure. On other rough-terrain cranes, the cab is mounted on the truck chassis.
In both the cases, the drive controls and the boom controls are located in the cab.
Rough-terrain cranes use telescoping booms. These booms are also used on truck
cranes. Telescoping booms on rough-terrain cranes are typically smaller than those on a
truck crane, which reflects the smaller overall size of the rough terrain crane. AT’s have
2-9 axles and are designed for lifting loads up to 1200 metric tons.
Pick and carry cranes

A Pick and Carry Crane is similar to a mobile crane in that is designed to travel on public
roads, however Pick and Carry cranes have no stabilizer legs or outriggers and are
designed to lift the load and carry it to its destination, within a small radius, then be able
to drive to the next job.

Capacity range is usually 10-20 tonnes maximum lift, although this is much less at the
tip of the boom. Pick and Carry cranes have displaced the work usually completed by
smaller truck cranes as the set up time is much quicker. Many steel fabrication yards
also use pick and carry cranes as they can "walk" with fabricated steel sections and
place these where required with relative ease.
Carry deck cranes

Carry deck cranes are smaller mobile cranes that travel on four wheels and are capable
of rotating their boom a full 360-degrees.

An American invention, carry deck cranes are designed to work in confined spaces and
can transport the loads they pick up on the small built-in deck around their cab.

Crawler cranes

Crawler cranes are a type of tracked mobile crane available with either telescopic or
lattice booms. Because they are self-propelled they are able to move around a
construction site and perform jobs without much set-up. They are however very
expensive to transport from site to site because of their great size and weight. Crawler
crane tracks provide additional stability, allowing a crawler crane to operate without
the use of outriggers, though some models do include them. A crawler is a crane
mounted on an undercarriage with a set of tracks (also called crawlers) that provide
stability and mobility. Crawler cranes range in lifting capacity from about 40 to 3,500
short tons (35.7 to 3,125.0 long tons; 36.3 to 3,175.1 t).

Crawler cranes have both advantages and disadvantages depending on their use. Their
main advantage is that they can move around on site and perform each lift with little
set-up, since the crane is stable on its tracks with no outriggers. In addition, a crawler
crane is capable of traveling with a load. The main disadvantage is that they are very
heavy, and cannot easily be moved from one job site to another without significant
expense. Typically a large crawler must be disassembled and moved by trucks, rail cars
or ships to its next location.
HAULING EQUIPMENT

TRACTORS and TRUCKS

 Tractors
Basic information:

The primary purpose of tractor is to pull or push loads, and it may be unused also as mount
for many types of equipment such as bulldozer, shovel, dragline, hoe, trenchers etc.
Therefore, it is regarded as one of the most important equipment and is indispensable on most
of the construction projects whether small or big. There are sizes and types to fit almost any
job for which they are meant for.

The tractor is a high-powered utility vehicle designed to tow implements or attachments for
use in the agricultural and construction industries. Initially designed to aid in farm work, the
tractor has grown into a multi-functional piece of heavy equipment

A tractor is an engineering vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort (or
torque) at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used
in agriculture or construction. Most commonly, the term is used to describe a farm vehicle
that provides the power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks, especially (and
originally) tillage, but nowadays a great variety of tasks. Agricultural implements may be
towed behind or mounted on the tractor, and the tractor may also provide a source of power if
the implement is mechanized.

Basic parts:
 1. Engine/Transmission
2. Brakes
3. Frame
4. Electrical System
5. Fuel System
6. Wheels
7. Hitches
8. Miscellaneous-Pedals, Levers, Switches
Engine parts include the cylinders, pistons, crankshaft, and valves. Transmissions may
require gears, bearings, and other parts.

Older farm tractors use a manual transmission. They have several gear ratios, typically three
to six, sometimes multiplied into two or three ranges. This arrangement provides a set of
discrete ratios that, combined with the varying of the throttle, allow final-drive speeds from
less than one up to about 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), with the lower speeds used for
working the land and the highest speed used on the road. Slow, controllable speeds are
necessary for most of the operations performed with a tractor. They help give the farmer a
larger degree of control in certain situations, such as field work. However, when travelling on
public roads, the slow operating speeds can cause problems, such as long queues or tailbacks,
which can delay or annoy motorists in cars and trucks. These motorists are responsible for
being duly careful around farm tractors and sharing the road with them, but many shirk this
responsibility, so various ways to minimize the interaction or minimize the speed differential
are employed where feasible.

Older tractors usually have unsynchronized transmission designs, which often require the
operator, stop the tractor to shift between gears. This mode of use is inherently unsuited to
some of the work tractors do, and has been circumvented in various ways over the years. For
existing unsynchronized tractors, the methods of circumvention are double clutching or
power-shifting, both of which require the operator to rely on skill to speed-match the gears
while shifting, and are undesirable from a risk-mitigation standpoint because of what can go
wrong if the operator makes a mistake –

Transmission damage is possible, and loss of vehicle control can occur if the tractor is
towing a heavy load either uphill or downhill – something that tractors often do. Therefore,
operator's manuals for most of these tractors state one must always stop the tractor before
shifting, and they do not even mention the alternatives.

Unsynchronized transmission designs were replaced with synchronization or with

continuously variable transmissions (CVTs). Either a synchronized manual transmission with
enough available gear ratios (often achieved with dual ranges, high and low) or a CVT allow
the engine speed to be matched to the desired final-drive speed, while keeping engine speed
within the appropriate speed (as measured in rotations per minute or rpm) range for power
generation (the working range) (whereas throttling back to achieve the desired final-drive
speed is a trade-off that leaves the working range.
Hithes
The power produced by the engine must be transmitted to the implement or equipment to do
the actual work intended for the equipment. This may be accomplished via a drawbar or hitch
system if the implement is to be towed or otherwise pulled through the tractive power of the
engine, or via a pulley or power takeoff system if the implement is stationary, or a
combination of the two.

Another significant area in need of improvement was the way in which attachments
connected to the tractor. The simple tow-hitch system currently being used created a lot of
drag, which, when working in heavy soil, would bog down the tractor enough to cause it to
stall or even flip over. It was also quite arduous and time consuming to hitch and unhitch
attachments. So, an Irish tractor salesman named Harry Ferguson, with a talent for
engineering, began developing a new system. He invented the three-point hitch, which some
argue, “Was the single, most significant advance in tractor technology, bar none.
The three-point hitch transferred the weight of attachments to the tractor’s rear wheels,
improving traction. The new hitch also included “draft control;” a process that automatically
lifted the attachment while working in tough or sticky soil to reduce drag until the spot was
passed. Hitching and unhitching was now completely hydraulically controlled, making the
process much quicker and less painstaking.

Electrical system

The last truly significant advancement in the tractor manufacturing industry was the
development of electronics. The invention of the microchip revolutionized all sizes, models,
and makes of the tractor. It provided precise control of fuel injection benefiting power,
torque, and emissions. It allowed transmissions to choose the perfect ratio, even overriding
the operators’ control. Also, tractors with electronics kept an accurate list of all variables to
inform the operator of any and all concerns.

Type:

Crawler tractor
If a tractor is mounted on crawler, it is called crawler tractor. A crawler track is an endless
chain consisting of steel links made of steel plats connected together by pins and bushings.
Among the construction equipment, the crawler tractor is the most basic and versatile
machine. Generally, it is used for moving heavy units on rough surface having poor traction.
The optimum pull that a crawler tractor can provide depends upon its weight and is equal to
the coefficient of traction (depending upon road surfaces) multiplied by the weight of unit,
regardless of the power supplied by the engine. Its maximum speed is limited to 10kmph
while average speed lies between 4.5 to 5.6kmph. It is suited for short haul say 60 to 150m.
Special advantage lies in its ability to travel over very rough surfaces and to climb very steep
grades up to 25 to 29% at a speed of 2.75kmph. A crawler tractor has a life of 8 to 12 years
(9000 to 16000hrs.) depending upon its horse power which varies from 100 to 300 HP.
Wheel tractor:

One of the basic advantages of a wheel tractor when compared with a crawler tractor lies in
its higher speed. For any earth moving project, job conditions will influence the layout of the
project and the performance of the machine working on it. But under all conditions, speed is
what must be stressed when applying the rubber tired tractors. Sped is the biggest asset, and,
when properly used, can have an important effect on almost any earthmoving or material
handling operation. However, in order to attain a higher speed, a wheel tractor must sacrifice
its pulling effort. As the speed is increased through the selection of higher gears. The rimpull
will be decreased in approximately the same proportion. Because for a given unit whose
engineer is operated at a rated power, speed, rimpul will always be constant. Another point of
a wheel tractor is that it possesses a lower coefficient of traction between rubber tires and
some soil surfaces, the wheel tractor starts slipping before developing its rated rimpull. Its
useful life life lies between 8 to 10 yrs. (12,000 to 15,000hrs.) depending upon on its
horsepower which is generally more than 75 HP.
Criteria Crawler tractor Wheel tractor

Traction Coefficient of traction is up It is up to 0.60

to 0.9
Useful rimpul* negotiates very heavy loads is useful for light loads
Speed 3 to 4 times higher than a crawler tractor
Maneuverability stick control which is not Articulated steering wheel
easy to control which is easy to operate and
control, good visibility
Ground pressure 0.85kg/cm2 to 1.00 Around 1.25 kg/cm2

Cost Crawler tractors are more Cheaper than crawler tractors

costly initially. But on un-
even, undulated areas and
particularly in rocky hilly
areas, crawler tractors
provide better service and
prove cheaper in the long
run.
Operation and maintenance More Less compared to crawler
cost tractor
*useful rimpull = machine weight x coefficient of traction

TRUCKS

Basic information:

Trucks are hauling units that provide relatively low hauling costs because of their high travel
speeds. In transporting material, processed aggregates, and construction materials and for
moving other pieces of construction equipment. The use of trucks as the primary hauling unit
provides a degree of flexibility as the number in service can be increased or decreased easily
to permit modifications in the total hauling capacity of a fleet. Most trucks may be operated
over any haul road for which surface is sufficiently firm and smooth and on which the grades
are not excessively steep. These trucks are used in large project sites for hauling materials,
where their size and costs are justified.

Truck or lorry is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size,
power, and configuration, with the smallest being mechanically similar to an automobile.
Commercial trucks can be very large and powerful, and may be configured to mount
specialized equipment, such as in the case of fire trucks and concrete mixers and suction
excavators. Modern trucks are largely powered by diesel engines exclusively.

Types:

Rear dump truck- rigid frame

These (both rigid frame and Articulated Dump Trucks) are used when :
 The material to be hauled is free- flowing or has bulky components and any type of
materials
 The hauling has to dump into restricted locations or over the edge of a bank of fill
 Maximum maneuverability in the loading or dumping area is required
The bodies of trucks that will be used to haul wet clay and similar materials should be free
from sharp angles and corners. Dry sand and gravel will flow easily from almost any shape of
the body. When hauling rock, the impact loading on truck body is extremely severe. It
requires a heavy-duty rock body made of high tensile steel.
Off-highway dump trucks do not have tail gates, therefore the body floor slopes forward at
slight angle, typically less than 15 degree.
Rear dump truck- Articulated
A dump truck is a truck used for transporting loose material (such as sand, gravel, or dirt)
for construction. A typical dump truck is equipped with a open-box bed, which is hinged at
the rear and equipped with hydraulic pistons to lift the front, allowing the material in the bed
to be deposited ("dumped") on the ground behind the truck at the site of delivery. ADT are
specifically designed to operate over rough or soft ground, and in confined locations where a
rigid-frame dump truck would have problems. An articulated joint and oscillating ring
between the tractor and dump body permit all wheels to maintain contact with the ground at
all times. The articulation, all-wheel drive, high clearance, and low pressure radial tires
combine to produce a truck capable of moving through soft or sticky ground. ADT can
typically climb steeper grades up to 35% than rigid-frame trucks up to 20%.

Bottom dump truck:

Tractors towing bottom-dump trailers are economic haulers when the material to be moved is
free flowing such as sand, gravel, reasonably dry earth, and coal. Use of BDT will reduce the
unload time, provided there must be a large clear dumping area where the load can be spread
into windrows (a long line of raked hay, corn sheaves, or peats laid out to dry in the wind).
BDT can have a single axle, tandem axle or even triaxles. Hydraulic excavators, loaders,
draglines, or belt loaders may be used to load these units. The clamshell doors through which
these units discharge their loads have a limited opening width. Difficulties may be
experienced in discharging materials such as wet, sticky clay, especially if the material is in
large lumps.
BDT to be considered when:
Material to be moved is free flowing such as sand, gravel, reasonably dry earth, and coal
There are unrestricted loading and dump sites.
The haul-route grades are less than 5% because of the unfavorable power to weight ratio and
the fact that there is less weight on the drive wheels of the tractor unit, thereby limiting
traction; bottom-dump units have limited ability to pull steep grades.
Cycle time:

Advantages of truck transport

It provides a complete "door-to-door" service;

It can be cheaper than other modes of transportation for short hauls (less than 400 mi, or 640
km);
It can be cheaper for small shipments regardless of distance;
It can be faster on short hauls;
It can provide frequent service;
It is highly flexible, able to go wherever there are roads and streets;
It offers a wide variety of equipment; and
The freight can be loaded and unloaded quickly.
Disadvantages
It is more expensive for long hauls than some competing modes of transit;
It is too expensive for many low-grade and bulk commodities in intercity service; ex: ash
It is limited somewhat as to what it can carry by the size of the vehicles used and by size and
weight restrictions imposed by states; and
It is affected by weather and road conditions and traffic.