University of science and technology

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

PRODUCTION OF LAUNDRY
DETERGENT

A Dissertation Submitted as Partial Fulfillment for The

Requirement of the B.Sc (Honors) Degree in Chemical
Engineering

Prepared By:
Mohammed Meshaal ELsheikh
Abdullah salem bakharsh
Mahmoud Abd Elhadi Mulla

Supervised by:
Dr. Salma Omer Alhag Ali

Dec 2022
 ‫اآليـــــــــة‬

‫َّللاُ اله ِذ َ‬
‫ين آ َمنُوا‬ ‫قال هللا تعالى‪َ }:‬ي ْرفَعِ ه‬
‫ين أُوتُوا ْال ِع ْل َم دَ َر َجات{‬
‫ِمن ُك ْم َواله ِذ َ‬
‫صدق هللا العظيم‬
‫سورة المجادلة اآلية (‪(11‬‬

‫‪I‬‬
 Dedication

To our loving family and our hard

working teachers and especial, our
supervisor
Dr.salma omar.
Thank you for your endless support,
encouragement and love.

III
 Acknowledgment
We Thank allah for giving us the courage and
determination as guidance in conducting this research
study despite all the difficulties.

And we which to extend our gratitude to dr.arwa,

dr.iman, T.afnan, Eng.hassan, dr.mervat, prof.gurashi.
Who helped us during the making of this research.

And the hard working engineers in assel factory

especially dr.shareef for their time and guidance.

IV
 Abstract
Laundry detergent history begins around the time of world
war 2, Despite soap products being used for cleaning
bodies and clothing as far back as the time of the Egyptian
soap flakes fell out of use during world war 2 laundry
detergent provided a cheaper more efficient method for
cleaning, The study area includes bahary industries
particularly Aseel factory which we collected the data
concerning with study The study report that is project will
return back the capital through 1.09 years so this project
have economic benefit and will achieve the objectives of
the study.

V
 ‫المستخلص‬

‫بدأ تاريخ صناعة منظفات الغسيل في وقت قريب من الحرب العالمية‬

‫الثانية‪ ,‬على الرغم من استخدام منتجات الصابون لتنظيف األجسام و‬
‫المالبس منذ زمن بعيد‪ ,‬حيث لم يعد استخدام رقائق الصابون المصري‪,‬‬
‫خالل الحرب العالمية الثانية فإن منظف الغسيل يوفر طريقة ارخص وأكثر‬
‫فعالية في التنظيف‪.‬‬
‫تشمل منطقة الدراسة العديد من المصانع وخاصة مصنع اصيل للمنظفات‬
‫الذي جمعنا منه البيانات الخاصة بهذه الدراسة‪ ,‬في تقرير الدراسة يستطيع‬
‫هذا المشروع ان يعيد رأس المال خالل ‪ 1.09‬سنة وبالتالي فإن هذا‬
‫المشروع له فائدة اقتصادية وسيحقق اهداف الدراسة‪.‬‬

‫‪VI‬‬
-Table of Contents:
No Title page
‫اآلية‬ I
Dedication II
Acknowledgment III
Abstract IV
‫المستخلص‬ V
List of Figures VI
Chapter One :Introduction
1.1 Definition of detergent powder 2
1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of 2
detergent powder
1.3 Types of process used to make 3
detergent powder
1.4 Types of Laundry detergent 3
1.5 In order to achieve good results for 4
washing is required three main
factors

1.6 Objective 4
Chapter Two : Literature review
2.1 History of Laundry detergent 6
2.2 How detergents work to clean 8
clothes
2.3 The Influence of the Water 8
2.4 Comparison with liquid detergent 10
2.5 Builders 10
2.6 Surfactants 11
2.7 Raw materials and it properties 11
2.7.1 soda ash(sodium carbonate 12
2.7.2 Sodium sillcate 13
2.7.3 Sodium metasilicate 13
2.7.4 Sulfonic acid (LABSA) 14
2.7.5 Sodium sulphite 15
2.7.6 caustic soda 16
2.7.7 Enzymes 16

VII
2.7.8 sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) 17
2.8 The Manufacturing Process 18
2.8.1 The blender process 18
2.8.2 The agglomeration process 20
2.8.3 The slurry method 21
2.8.4 Key takeaway 21
2.9 process description 22
2.9.1 Neutralizer vessel 22
2.9.2 Crutcher (preparation of slurry) 23
2.9.3 Ageing vessel 23
2.9.4 High Pressure Pump 24
2.9.5 Spray dryer 25
2.9.6 The post-tower processing 27
2.9.7 Packing & Labelling 27
Chapter Three: Material Balance
3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 Conservation of Mass 30
3.3 Material Balance Calculation 30
3.3.2 Material balance for spray dryer 32
3.3.3 Material balance for crutcher 33
3.3.4 Material balance for neutralizer 34
3.3.5 Material balance for performer 35
Chapter Four: Energy balance
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Conservation of energy 39
4.3 Energy balance calculations 40
4.3.1 Energy Balance for neutralizer 40
4.3.2 Energy balance for crutcher 42
4.3.3 Energy balance for spray dryer 43
4.3.4 Energy balance for perfumer 45
Chapter Five: Equipment design
5.1 Introduction 48
5.2 Design Calculation 49
5.2.1 Design of neutralizer 49
5.2.2 Design of tank 54
5.2.2.1 Introduction 54

5.2.2.2 Design 54
5.2.3 Design of Spray dryer 58
Chapter Six: Control
6.1 Introduction 63

VIII
6.1.1 Objective of process control 63
6.1.2 Process control variables 64
6.1.3 Typical system includes: control 64
6.1.4 Instrumentation and signals 64
Chapter Seven: cost estimation
7.1 Total capital investment 75
7.1.1 Fixed and working capital 75
7.2 Operating cost 75
7.2.1 Fixed cost 76
7.2.2 Variable costs 76
7.3 Factor affecting investment 76
production costs
7.4 Total capital investment (TCI) 80
7.5 Total Fixed Capital Charge 81
7.5.1 Deprecation 81
7.5.2 Local Taxes 81
7.5.3 Insurance 81
7.6 Total Production Cost (TPC) 81
7.7 Cost per unit 82
7.8 Income 82
7.9 Gross profit 82

7.10 Taxes 82

7.11 Net Profit 82

7.12 Rate of Return 82

7.13 Payback or Payout Period 82

Chapter Eight: safety and environmental
8.1.1 Introduction 85
8.1.2 Safety Culture 85
8.1.3 Soaps & Detergents: Human Safety 86
8.2.1 The impact of detergent chemicals 87
on air
8.2.2 The impact of detergent chemicals 88
on water and wastewater
8.2.3 The impact of detergent chemicals 88
on sediment and soil
8.2.4 Surfactant Toxicity Increase 88
8.2.5 Ensure your surfactants are 89
biodegradable

IX
8.2.6 Phosphate-free detergents 90
Chapter Nine: Plant layout
9.1 Site selection 92
9.2 Plant location: 92
9.3 Ideal location 92
9.4 Plant layout 93
Reference

X
List of Figure:
Figure Page
Figure 2.1: The blender process 19
Figure 2.2: agglomeration process 20
Figure 2.3: neutralizer vessel 23
Figure 2.4: Crutcher 24
Figure 2.5: High Pressure Pump 25
Figure 2.6: Spray Dryer 27
Figure 2.7: Process Flow Sheet 29

XI
XII
Chapter One:
Introduction

1
 Chapter One

Introduction
1.1 Definition of detergent powder:
By definition, it’s a soap in the form of a powder that is used to wash
clothes, sheets, towels, and fabrics in general. It can be used in a washing
machine or for manual washing, Powder detergent is one of the more
traditional washing solutions, with two key
advantages: affordability and power against heavy stains, These
advantages, among others, lead to the resurgent popularity of detergent
powder worldwide, while its affordability makes it a particularly
convenient market product for countries in development. [1][2]

Detergents powder are preferred regular soaps on account of economy and

efficiency. Unlike regular soaps detergents powder remain un effected by
the presence of natural lime and magnesium salts in water and maintain
cleaning properties in hard water with practically no wastage. Therefore
these are more economical. [1][3]
Detergent powder available in the market are used for washing cloth
cotton linen and other fabrics. Liquid detergents are also sold for the
purpose of dish washing and cleaning floors industrial use in textiles, and
commercial buildings, hospitals, and hotels, similarly railway coaches,
road vehicles, aircrafts, milk bottling plants and food preservation
equipment are washed with the help of detergents. [1]

1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of detergent powder:

1-Advantages:

 Affordability
 Recyclable packages
 Excellent for removal of heavy stains
 Brightening and whitening properties
 Specific optional ingredients such as oxygen bleach

2
2-Disadvantages:
 Dosing can be tricky and messy
 Lower quality formulas can leave residue or dissolve only partially
on low temperatures
 The package is sensitive to water and tear
 Not the best solution for pre-treatment of stains

1.3 Types of process used to make detergent powder:

1-the blender or dry mixing process. The ingredients mix inside the blender
machine, slowly running out onto a conveyor belt which takes them to the
next step, or to the packaging.
2-the agglomeration process, similar to what happens inside a food
processor. Sharp blades shred the mass to create a fine powder, which then
gets sprayed with the liquid ingredients.
The heat produces viscous, gel-like liquid, easy to crush when dried. The
detergent created by this method is recognizable by its distinctive, granule-
like appearance.
3-The slurry method contains ingredients dissolved in water. A pump
blows the slurry inside a spray drying tower where the hot, dry air causes
it to dehydrate, creating beads of dry detergent.
This is the most reliable process of the three, thus strongly
recommended.[3]
1.4 TYPES OF LAUNDRY DETERGENTS:
Heavy duty detergents:
Heavy duty High efficiency laundry detergent is a supe- rior blend of
synthetic detergents, water conditioners and fast acting soil specific
enzymes. These enzymes work quickly to break down a variety of stains
including blood, grass, cooking oil, organic grease, ink and food soils and
works in hot and cold water. A free-flowing granular heavy duty high
efficiency laundry detergent is made by blending with a detergent builder
(e.g. Zeolite A) and optional other ingredients a discrete tertiary amine.[5]
Liquid detergents:

3
The liquid detergents commonly contain at least some water to help liquify
the other additives and still have the detergent pourable. The liquid
detergents may also have other solvent liquids, such as alcohol or a
hydrotrope, to help blend all the additives together. Especially effective on
food and greasy, oily soils. They are also good for pretreat- ing spots and
stains prior to washing Powder detergent.

Ideal for general wash loads. Powders are especially effective at lifting out
clay and ground-in dirt
Ultra detergents :
Ultra detergents are more concentrated and can be added in
smaller amounts. The detergent can be added onto the laundry
or to the wash water at the start of the wash, or it can be added
beforehand or soon after starting the wash. These ultra detergents
are available in liquid or powder forms. They come in smaller
packages, yet are designed to offer the same cleaning power as
similar prod- ucts in larger packages and are needed in lesser
amount.[2]

1.5 In order to achieve good results for washing is required

three main factors:
1 - Chemical agent : This is provided by the soap and detergents.
2 - Mechanical agent : This is secured by a washing machine .
3 - Heat agent : This is secured by raising the temperature of water washing

1.6 Objective:
1- Identifying the raw materials the goes in the manufacturing of powder
detergent.
2-To manufacture and produce Detergents powder through the process of
The slurry method.
3- Calculating the cost of the project and the rate of return.

4
Chapter Two:
Literature
Review

5
 Chapter Two

Literature review
2.1 History of Laundry detergent:
The oldest literary reference to soap is a sumerian tablet from 2200 BC
giving a soap formula consisting of water, alkali and cassia oil, but it is not
known exactly when it was discovered. The industrial production of soap
(boiling fats and oils with an alkali) remained basically the same until 1916,
when the first synthetic detergent was developed in Germany in response
to a World War I due to the shortage of fats for making soap. Soaps have
an advantage over inbuilt synthetic surfactant systems regarding soil
redeposition and whiteness maintenance, it acts as its own water softener
and therefore when there is enough soap to form suds and wash, the water
has already been softened. The need of anti-redeposition agents began with
the introduction of multi-component laundry detergents based on synthetic
surfactants although synthetic surfactants help to prevent the soil
redeposition to some extent, this effect is not very pronounced, making a
whiteness retention aid a necessity. [1]
Sixty years ago, it was discovered that chemical technology could change
the molecular structure of water with the introduction of the very first
laundry detergent. It was understood that lowering of surface tension is
needed for better cleaning and this was achieved by using chemical
surfactants.[1]
Prior to world war first, laundry products consisted principally of sodium
and potassium neutralized fatty acid soaps. The first synthetic detergents
were produced in Germany during World War II as replacement for the
thenscarce animal fats traditionally used in the production of soaps, during
the shortages. These were called branchedchain alkyl benzene sulfonates
and short chain alkyl naphthalene sulfonates. Like soap, they could take
hard minerals out of water, leaving it soft.
Introduction of long chain alkyl aryl sulfonates as detergents in the 1930s
and by 1945 had become the main surfactant component of synthetic
laundry detergents. The first built synthetic detergent, using sodium
diphosphate as a builder was introduced in the United States in 1947.
Straight-chain detergents didn’t work in hard water and phosphates were
added to detergents to soften the water, but as phosphates were excellent
fertilizer for algae in rivers and oceans, resulted in algae blooms that
deplete the oxygen in the water, killing fish and then phosphates were
replaced with other water softeners such as sodium carbonate and EDTA.
In the mid 1960s concern arose over the environmental fate of complex
phosphates due to their implication in eutrophication of waterways. Since
then, the detergent industry has devoted considerable energy to finding cost
6
effective replacement The surfactants used in early synthetic detergents
were prepared by reacting benzene with propylene tetramer to form the
alkyl aryl group, which was then sulfonated. These materials are so called
hard ABSs (alkyl benzene sulphonates), were highly branched and
nonbiodegradable.
Overtime they accumulated in the environment environment to such an
extent that foaming resulted in some sewage treatment plants and
waterways. In 1965, the U. S. detergent industry voluntarily withdrew hard
ABSs from the market, replacing them with biodegradable linear chain
analogs. In the mid in 1970s, the introduction of ion exchange materials
and zeolites as detergents builders led to a gradual movement away from
phosphate technology.
At the time of conversion to compacts the most widely used surfactants in
synthetic powder detergents were the anionic, linear alkyl aryl sulfonates
(LASs), and long chain fatty alcohol sulfates (ASs), to a lesser extent, long
chain fatty acids, and the nonionic alkyl ethoxylates. With the recent
change in formulations and manufacturing processes precipitated by a
transition to compact detergents, the major U. S. manufacturers took the
opportunity to formulate out of phosphate together.
Importantly this was achieved without compromising performance or
consumer value. Today the conversion of the U.S. detergent market to nil
phosphate formula is virtually complete, 32% of European powders are
zeolite based, Canada is about 50% converted whereas Latin America and
many of the Pacific region geographies remain largely phosphates.
However, the move to nil phosphate builder system increased the overall
complexity of powdered detergents.
In addition to binding hardness ions, phosphate provides a number of other
functions that are critical to efficient soil removal and cleaning. These
include soil peptization or breakup, soil dispersion, suspension and pH
buffering.
Removing phosphate from detergent formulas required manufacturers to
identify other actives that could fulfill its multifunctional role. Today nil
phosphate powders contain zeolites and/or layer silicates for hardness
control, polycarboxylates
polymers for soil suspension, citric acid for
soil peptization and dispersion as well as pH control and carbonate for
calcium control and buffering.[1]

7
2.2 How detergents work to clean clothes:
To get the best results from any laundry detergent, there is a three-fold
process of chemical energy, thermal energy, and mechanical energy that
must be used when washing clothes.[5][4]
The chemical energy is, of course, the laundry detergent. The ingredients
in the laundry detergent you choose will affect the final results. Less
expensive detergents have fewer or no enzymes. Fewer enzymes equal less
cleaning power.
Thermal energy pertains to water temperature. Different detergents are
formulated to work best at different temperatures. Read the directions to
select the best product for your laundry.
Mechanical energy comes from either a washer or a person hand-washing
clothes.[5]

2.3 The Influence of the water:

The most obvious role of water is to serve as a solvent, both for the
detergent and for soluble salts within the soil. Water is also the transport
medium for dispersed and colloidal soil components, however The
washing process begins with wetting and penetration of the soiled laundry
by the detergent solution. Water has a very high surface tension (72
mN/m), and wetting can only take place rapidly and effectively if the
surface tension is drastically reduced by surfactants to values of 30 mN/m
and below. The surfactants thus become key components of any detergent.
The surface tension as a function of the surfactant concentration is shown
for typical surfactants used in detergents Water hardness has also a
significant influence on the results of the washing process.[2]

8
 Table (2.1)

Water hardness is defined in terms of the amount of calcium and

magnesium salts present, measured in millimoles per liter (mmol/L). A
calcium hardness of 1 mmol/L corresponds to 40.08 mg of calcium ions
per liter of water. .(See Table 2.2)
Water hardness can vary considerably from one country to another and
even from region to region within a country. Soft water is relatively rare in
most of Europe, whereas it is common in North America, Brazil, Japan,
and many other countries. .(See Table 2.1)
Water of poor quality can severely impair the washing process and have
detrimental effects on washing machines. [2]

Table (2.2)

9
2.4 Comparison with liquid detergent:
There are some advantages of powered detergent over the liquid detergent
The powered detergent comes in packs of every size and shape. So the
users can purchased one according to their needs and requirements . They
are bit cheaper and are packed in eco friendly cardbboxes , which are better
for environment point of view. The powder also contains more
chemicals than liquid as they have fillers .and the sodium sulphates present
in the powder detergent can cause damage to septic systems .
The liquid detergent can be expensive and are in plastic bottles , which are
not eco friendly .The users who have some serious stains on the clothes
prefer soap bar or liquid detergent , so that they can directly use the liquid
to area of stain . [2]

2.5-Builders:
Builders are the final ingredient of any detergent base powder. They
increase the efficiency of the surfactant, while also affecting the minerals
in hard water to prevent precipitation.

In addition, builders can emulsify the fat, turning it into washable tiny
globules. Builders like sodium silicate do even more—they can prevent
corrosion on the inside of washing machines, ensuring that the formula is
safe to use, these chemicals are modern versions of traditional washing
agents, fatty acids, lye and ash.

Alkaline makers are, essentially, soluble salts that neutralize acids.

Together with surfactants, they form the basis of laundry detergent suitable
for removing stains, However, they require other ingredients to convert
basic power into a superpower. Modern detergents typically contain
medium-strength STPP (Sodium Tripolyphosphate) as a well-balanced,
versatile builder. [3]

10
2.6-Surfactants:
Surfactants – or foamers – such as LABSA (linear alkylbenzene sulfonic
acid) are added to alkalis as a second major component to boost their wash
ability.

Their main role is to increase the foaming capacity of the formula.

However, surfactants work to break down the stain, even more, dissolving
components that do not readily dissolve in water.

Anionic surfactants do not always perform well in hard water and need to
be supported with non-ionic surfactants to maximize the cleaning action of
detergent powders. Get information about, mild detergents.

One of the most common surfactants on the market is the potent Sodium
Sulfate. It is one of the few ionic surfactants that loses almost nothing of
effectiveness in hard water. [3]

2.7 Raw materials and it properties:

Before anything, it’s necessary to handle raw materials properly, and that
includes storage and transport. There are two types of chemical ingredients
used in the production of powder detergent: liquid and solid.

Most solid ones come in powdered form, packed in woven bags, such
as Soda Ash or STPP, while liquids like sulphonic acid or Caustic lye are
commonly stored in tanks.[3][2]

While the hydrocarbons used in soap generally come from plants or

animals, those used in detergent can be derived from crude oil. Adding
sulfuric acid to the processed hydrocarbon produces a molecule similar to
the fatty acids in soap. The addition of an alkali to the mixture creates a
surfactant molecule that will not bond with the minerals in hard water, thus
avoiding the accumulation of precipitates.

In addition to a surfactant, modern detergent contains several other

ingredients. Among the most significant are builders, chemicals which
serve several purposes. Most importantly, they increase the efficiency of
the surfactant. They also sequester minerals in hard water, meaning that
they hold them in solution, preventing them from precipitating out.
Furthermore, builders can emulsify oil and grease into tiny globules that
can be washed away. Some, like sodium silicate, inhibit corrosion and help

11
assure that the detergent will not damage a washing machine. Still other
builders contribute to the chemical balance of the wash water, making sure
that it conduces to effective washing.

Modern detergents have several other ingredients include antiredeposition

agents, chemicals that help prevent soil from settling back on washed
clothes. Fluorescent whitening agents are also common. By converting
invisible ultraviolet light into visible blue light, these help to maintain
brightness or whiteness. Oxygen bleaches such as sodium perborate
improve the detergency of the mixture, especially in low-phosphate or no-
phosphate products, as well as helping to remove some types of stains.
Processing aids such as sodium sulfate are also used to prevent caking and
to standardize product density.[3]

2.7.1 Soda ash(sodium carbonate):

There are many soda ash uses in detergents. It's a great additive that can
help reduce the amount of dirt and dust created during cleaning.
Additionally, soda ash can help to remove stains and make clothes look
cleaner and brighter. So whether you're looking for an easy way to clean
your house or want to add a little bit of color to your laundry routine, soda
ash is a great choice.[5][3]
Soda ash is a type of sodium carbonate. It is also referred to as sodium
bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate. It is an essential ingredient in
glass, paper, soap and detergents. The two most common types of soda ash
are potash and trona.[5]
Soda ash is often used in detergents to reduce the amount of dirt and dust
that is created during cleaning. It can help to remove stains and make
clothes look cleaner and brighter. Additionally, soda ash can help to
remove dirt and dust from surfaces faster.[4][2]
Some benefits of soda ash uses in detergents include:
It's a natural cleaner:
Soda ash is a natural cleaner that can be used to clean products and make
them more effective at removing dirt, grease, and other materials. It's also
a good substance for environmental responsibility because it's produced
without the use of harmful chemicals.[3]

12
It's effective at removing dirt and grease:
Soda ash is effective at removing dirt and grease. It's also been shown to
be more effective than other detergents at cleaning surfaces. In fact, it's
been found to be as effective as a harsh detergent. Simply put, soda ash is
more effective than other detergents at cleaning up surfaces.[4]
It helps to reduce the number of products that need to be used:
Soda ash is a great detergent because it helps to reduce the number of
products that need to be used. This saves you time and money.
Additionally, soda ash can help remove dirt and grease from surfaces.[2][3]
Soda ash is a very affordable ingredient. You can find it in most detergents
at a lower cost than other ingredients. This makes it an attractive option for
small businesses that need to increase their detergent efficiency.[3]
It can be used in many different applications:
Soda ash can be used in a wide variety of different applications. It can be
used to clean products, make them more effective at removing dirt, grease,
and other materials, and it can also be used to make detergents more
effective.[3]

2.7.2 Sodium sillcate:

Detergents are used in cleaning household surfaces, dishes and washing
laundry. Sodium silicate is a building agent used in many commercial
detergents. The purpose of the sodium silicate to is prevent mineral
deposits on surfaces after washing by removing water hardness. it is
especially effective on calcium ions creating an irreversible reaction. It is
best to use sodium silicate with a surfactant that pulls dirt away from the
material.[4][3]

2.7.3 Sodium metasilicate

is a silicic acid salt, classified as an inorganic salt product. It is non-toxic,
harmless, and odorless, with purifying, emulsifying, moistening,
dispersing, permeating, and PH buffering abilities. As an aqueous solution,
it is capable of hygroscopy and deliquescence when in contact with air. Its
forms include anhydrous, pentahydrate, and nonahydrate compounds.[4]

13
It is estimated to be generally less aggressive and safer to use than caustic
soda (sodium hydroxide). Sodium silicate reacts with metal oxides to
establish a protective film on metal surfaces, reducing the alkali’s tendency
to corrode and dissolve metals. This sort of protection is maintained as long
as minute amounts of soluble silica remain in the presence of water.[3][2]
In conjunction with surfactants, sodium metasilicate aids the neutralization
of acidic soil, the deflocculation of particulate soil, and the emulsification
of oily and greasy soil. Furthermore, it enhances the suspension of removed
soil and prevents its reaccumulation. The grease and dirt deposits get
dispersed into small, suspended particles that rinse away without
redepositing on freshly washed surfaces.[5][4]
As a builder, sodium metasilicate enhances/maintains the surfactant’s
cleaning efficiency by balancing water hardness. Also, it has the highest
active alkalinity and PH buffering index among inorganic electrolytes,
which enables its strong moistening, emulsifying, and saponifying effect
on fats. For this reason, it’s broadly used in manufacturing high-efficiency
in soaps, detergents, and metal cleaners. Sodium metasilicate pentahydrate
can substitute STPP in detergent formulas to increase their cleaning
efficiency while reducing environmental pollution.[3]

2.7.4 Sulfonic acid (LABSA):

Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid most commonly known as sulfonic
acid, Sulfonic acids in detergents are commonly used. These are the most
popular cleaning agents when it comes to washing clothes. Sulfonic acids
can be found in liquid or powder form and are also called sulfates. They're
often present in all-purpose cleaners, household cleaners, and toilet bowl
cleaners, Knowing what sulfonic acid is and how it works can help you
understand why they're an important ingredient of your favorite household
cleaning products.[3][5]
In the past, sulfonic acids were used as chemical warfare agents. They were
banned as a weapon in 1993 by the Chemical Weapons Convention.
However, it's important to note that these chemicals are now being used for
good rather than harm and are safe for people and the environment.[4]
Sulfonic acids are created from a chemical called sulfur trioxide. Sulfur
trioxide is a colorless gas with a pungent odor easily condensed into an

14
acid form. Sulfur trioxide is created from either burning sulfur or reacting
sulfur with atmospheric oxygen.[3]
The reason for this is that sulfonic acid molecules have a positive charge.
This means they have a slight affinity for negatively charged stains, such
as those from protein or minerals. In theory, it should lift them from fabric
and break down the stains completely. When you wash your clothes with
water and detergent, the water will dissolve the fabric's surface dirt and
other substances. The detergent then breaks down those particles, lifting
them away from the fabric and breaking them down even further into
smaller pieces.[4][3]
Sulfonic acids are also good at breaking up grease because it has a slightly
higher pH level than other types of detergents. They work well in
household cleaners because these products need to be effective against
grease and oil and dirt and grime.[2]

2.7.5 Sodium sulphite:

is not added for cleaning purposes, at least not as far as the laundry is
concerned. It is added to protect the washing machine or dishwasher from
corrosion. Iron reacts with oxygen to form ferric oxide which is better
known as rust. This reaction proceeds more readily at high temperatures,
as found in washing machines.[3][5]
The surface of water is in contact with air, so some oxygen can always
dissolve. Oxygen also is a byproduct of photosynthesis which of course
occurs as aquatic plants grow. The amount of oxygen that dissolves
depends on the temperature (less dissolves as the temperature increases),
the pressure (less dissolves at higher altitudes) and the amount of other
substances already dissolved in the water (freshwater holds more oxygen
than salt water). Oxygen in water is a good thing for fish who fulfil their
oxygen needs by extracting the gas as water passes through their gills, but
it is not so good for metals in washing machines which will corrode.
Sodium sulphite is an oxygen scavenger.[3][4][5]

15
2.7.6 Caustic soda:
It is a white crystal at room temperature and is highly corrosive. Soluble in
water, its aqueous solution is strongly alkaline, and can make
phenolphthalein red. Sodium hydroxide is a very common base, and is one
of the necessary drugs in the chemistry laboratory. Its solution can be used
as a washing liquid.[4]
Caustic soda is primarily used because of its excellent organic dissolving
and saponifying powers, its considerable germicidal activity, and its
comparative cheapness. Liquid caustic soda and various additives have
been used for many years in a wide variety of applications. In general,
caustic soda “cleans” because of its strong alkalinity and is widely used
due to its low cost.[3]

2.7.7 Enzymes:
enzymes can be re-used over and over again. A single enzyme will
typically catalysearound 10,000 chemical reactions per second. This means
that only a tiny amount of enzyme is needed to have a huge effect on a
reaction., The major classes are proteases, lipases, amylases, mannanases,
cellulases, and pectinases. Historically, proteases were the first of these to
be used extensively to increase the effectiveness of laundry detergents.
Cellulases contribute to cleaning and overall fabric care by maintaining, or
even rejuvenating, the appearance of washed cotton-based garments
through selective reactions not previously available when washing clothes
with surfactants unamended with enzymes.[2][3]

Some lipases can act as alternatives to current surfactant technology by

targeting greasy lipid-based stains.[5]

Recent investigations show that multi-enzyme systems may replace up to

25% of a laundry detergent’s surfactant system without compromising the
cleaning effect. This leads to a more sustainable detergent that allows
cleaning at a low wash temperature.[3]

Mannanases and pectinases are used for hard-to-remove stains of salad

dressing, ketchup, mayonnaise, ice cream, frozen desserts, milkshakes,
body lotions, and toothpaste as well as banana, tangerines, tomatoes, and
fruit-containing products such as marmalades, juices, drinkable yoghurts,
and low-fat dairy products.[4]

16
The obvious advantages of enzymes make them acceptable for meeting
consumer demands. Due to their catalytic nature, they are ingredients
requiring only a small space in the formulation of the overall product. This
is of particular value at a time where detergent manufacturers are trying to
make their products more compact.[3][2]

2.7.8 Sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP):

is an inorganic compound with formula Na5P3O10. It is the sodium salt of
the polyphosphatepenta-anion, which is the conjugate base
of triphosphoric acid. It is produced on a large scale as white powder a
component of many domestic and industrial products, especially
detergents.[4]
The majority of STPP is consumed as a component in various types of
commercial detergents. Sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) is a builder agent
and a provider of a wide range of benefits in detergent formulations. Its
role consists of sequestration of calcium and magnesium, for a water
softener. In hard water (water that contains high concentrations of
Mg2+and Ca2+), detergents are deactivated. Being a highly
charged chelating agent
Builders like STPP have a substantial role in detergents, including
improving the removal of various stain classes and levels (particulates,
blood, grass, beverages), together with enhanced whiteness
maintenance.[3]

17
 Table (2.3)

RAW Material Liquid Solid Type/Function

LABSA (sulfonic │ Surfactant

acid)
Naoh │ Surfactant/to
neutralise LABSA
STTP │ Builder

Soda Ash │ Surfactant

SCMC │ Surfactant

Sodium Silicate │ Builder

Sodium │ Builder/to prevent

metasilicate corrosion
Sodium Sulphate │ prevent corrosion
on washing
equipment
Fatty Acid │ Surfactant

Water │ Dissolve the

ingredients to help
them mix better

2.8 The Manufacturing Process:

Although there are three ways of manufacturing dry laundry detergent,
only two are commonly used today. In the blender process favored by
smaller companies, the ingredients are mixed in large vats before being
packaged.[4][9]

18
2.8.1 The blender process:
One alternative to spray drying that has long existed is simple dry blending.
This process consists of low-intensity dry mixing of inorganic salts with
low-viscosity surfactants, which are absorbed into the pores of the salts.
Processes of this sort have traditionally limited surfactant choice to
nonionic surfactants, because anionic pastes cannot be easily incorporated
via this process. This, in turn, has greatly limited the performance of
detergent powders made in this way. As a result this process has not been
an option for premium performance powders.[4]
First, ingredients are loaded into one of two machines: a tumbling blender
or a ribbon blender. The tumbling blender, shaped like a rectangular box,
is turned and shaken from outside by a machine, while the ribbon blender
is a cylinder fitted with blades to scrape and mix the ingredients. After the
ingredients inside the blender have been mixed, a doorway at the bottom
of the bowl is opened. (see Figure 2.1)With the blender still agitating the
ingredients, the mix is allowed to run out onto a conveyor belt or other
channeling device. The belt then moves the detergent to another area of the
factory where it can be dropped into boxes or cartons for delivery to
wholesalers or distributors.[4]

Figure (2.1) The blender process

19
2.8.2 The Agglomeration process:
In this method, dry ingredients for a detergent are first fed into a large
machine known as a Shuggi agglomerator (Shuggi is the manufacturer).
Inside the agglomerator, sharp, whirling blades mix the material to a fine
consistency; the process resembles food being textured inside a food
processor. (see Figure 2.2) [3][4]
After the dry ingredients have been blended, liquid ingredients are sprayed
on the dry mix through nozzles fitted into the agglomerator's walls. The
blending continues, causing an exothermic (heat-producing) reaction to
occur. The resulting mixture is a hot, viscous liquid similar to gelatin that
hasn't hardened.
Next, the liquid is allowed to flow out of the agglomerator. As it leaves the
machine, it collects on a drying belt where its own heat, exposure to air,
and hot air blowers render it friable—easy to crush or crumble. The newly
made detergent is then pulverized and pushed through sizing screens that
ensure that no large lumps of unmixed product go out to the market. The
result of this process is a dry detergent made up of granules of the mixed
detergent.[3][4]

Figure (2.2) agglomeration process

20
2.8.3 The slurry method:
In this process, ingredients are dissolved in water to create a slurry. With a
pump, the slurry is blown through nozzles inside the top of a cone shaped
container as hot, dry air is simultaneously forced into the bottom of the
cone. As the slurry dries, "beads" of dry detergent fall to the bottom of the
cone, where they can be collected for packaging.[2][5][4]
A large volume of hot air enters the bottom of the tower rising to meet the
falling detergent. For low density products, hot gas and powder flow
concurrently downward.
In the end, the spray-dried granules (particles) fall to the bottom of the
tower where they are collected and stored as a base powder.
The base powder is a semi-finished product that contains no enzymes,
fragrances, or colorful speckles. It can be further customized per need,
delivered for private labeling, or sold as bulk washing powder.[2][5][4]
2.8.4 Key takeaway:
There are three ways to produce powder detergent: blender, agglomeration,
and slurry method. The last one, performed in a spray drying tower, is the
most reliable one. It comprises seven essential steps, from dosing and
mixing raw ingredients to post-processing and packaging of the
product.[3][4]

21
2.9 Process description:
First the raw material is prepared in the preparation unit Some companies
use the sulfonic acid (labsa) as raw material while others prepare
it.[3][5][9]
2.9.1 Neutralizer vessel:
In this unit the raw material is prepared; the caustic soda is prepared by
mixing it with water till it becomes liquid.(See Figure 2.3)
The prepared raw material is then introduced to a batch reactor The added
substance are caustic soda and sulfonic acid in A known percentages.
This is called neutralizer vessel and the basic reaction is:
NaOH + CH12H25 – C6H4SOHC12H25 C6H4SO3Na + H2O
The product(LABSA) is in a high temperature then it inters a crusher vessel
it is a mixer where the temperature is raised to the need the out going
substance called neutralized slurry.

Figure (2.3) neutralizer vessel

22
2.9.2 Crutcher (preparation of slurry):
Water is prepared before the slurry enters the mixture while other
substances like these substances are added inter mixing like sodium
silicate, which prevent corrosion, the Crutcher stirs and mixes them with
processed water for up to one hour.(See Figure 2.4)
the mixer temperature are between 35 - 450 C, the mixing product is soil to
aging vessel this vessel helps the good mixing to be done, The product
from the vessel is emptyed in feed tand in a slurry shak. [4][9]

Figure (2.4) Crutcher

23
2.9.3 Ageing vessel:
The ageing vessel acts also as a buffer volume, as all the downstream
operations are continuously performed, on average The mixed slurry then
goes to “age” for up to half an hour in the aging tank. After ageing, the
slurry passes through a self‑cleaning filter to break lumps eventually
present in the slurry; then a booster pump feeds the slurry to the High
Pressure Pump at an automatically controlled pressure.[4][5][9]
2.9.4 High Pressure Pump:
The proprietary of the High Pressure Pump has been specifically designed
to handle viscous and abrasive slurries at a pressure up to 70 bar.[9]
It is an alternating pump with single‑acting plungers. Pump delivery
flowrate is continuously adjusted according to the plant capacity, by
regulating the rotation speed.(See Figure 2.5) [5]
The constant high pressure and the regular pumping, achieved also with
highly concentrated slurry, allow to obtain a final product of strictly
constant characteristics, From the High Pressure Pump, the slurry is fed to
the spray-drying tower.[5]

Figure (2.5) High Pressure Pump

24
2.9.5 Spray dryer:
This is another critical area of detergent manufacture, From here the slurry
is pumped to the top of a spray tower of about 4.5 - 6.1 m (15 - 20ft) in
diameter where the nozzles around the top.(See Figure 2.6) [5][9]
The slurry is pumped to a spray nozzles circuit installed in the upper part
of the spray tower The size and number of nozzles depends on the plant
capacity and required product granulometry, spray out detergent slurry of
approximately 70 percent concentration. A large volume of hot air enters
the bottom of the tower rising to meet the falling detergent. For low density
products, hot gas and powder flow concurrently downward. This step is
critical in that the detergent particles shape, size and density are determined
by all of the design preparation made previously, and the shape and size in
turn will largely determine dusting and the solubility rate of the detergent
itself in the washing process.[5][9]
The spray-drying process can be run cocurrently or, most common,
countercurrently If particles and air move cocurrently and the slurry enters
the hottest zone of the tower, a rapid evaporation of water occurs, and
blown-up, relatively light particles (beads) result. In the countercurrent
process, drying starts in an area of high humidity and lower temperature,
and beads are obtained that are characterized by thicker walls.[5][9]
The optimization of the design of hot-air inlet ducts and the design and
positioning of slurry distribution nozzles, achieved through Computational
Fluid-Dynamics simulation, result in overall improvement of the drying
path through the Spray-Tower, granting operation with high differential
temperatures and consequent optimum thermal efficiency.[5][9]
The lower free-fall speed due to the countercurrent airstream results in a
higher number of particles in the tower at any time.
The most commonly available fuels (ranging from natural gas to heavy fuel
oils), can be utilized without causing inconveniences nor affecting the
whiteness of the finished products.[5][9]
The air is directly heated by exhaust gases from an oil- or gas-fueled burner
and led into the tower at about 300-4000C through a ring channel.
Appropriate design of both the air inlet zone above the cone and the air
outlet at the tower dome is important. Air entering the tower is accelerated
tangentially and vertically. This causes homogeneous heat transfer

25
between air and product. Water vapor, combustion gases, and drying air
are withdrawn from the tower by means of a ventilating fan.[5]
Fine particles are drawn off from the tower along with the exhaust gas and
collected in a filter. In modern plants this filter is installed on top of the
tower so that the separated fines and dust fall down into the agglomeration
zone of the tower. The resulting tower powder has a low content of fine
particles. Heat exchangers are installed to use the exhaust gas energy for
preheating the burner air.[5]
The detergent powder is discharged from the tower and is transferred by
means of a belt, to a continuous crystallization unit (air-lift), where it is
conveyed upward by a flow of ambient air that cools it down, so
completing the drying and initiating the particles surface crystallization.
Eventual it transferred to post addition, perfuming and packaging.[5]

Figure (2.6) Spray Dryer

26
2.9.6 The post-tower processing :
Additives such as enzymes, fragrances, colorfull speckles, and all
ingredients that cannot pass through the spray drying process are added and
blended with the original mixture to form a customized product.[3][9]
The finished powder then travels to the storage bins and packing machines
for final packing.
Add useful materials for detergents:[4]
1-perfume : perfume intervention of various kinds in the composition of
laundry detergent, it gives the distinctive smell cleaner, and hide the
washing water smells unpleasant, and give the lovely smell of laundry last
for a longer period .
2- Enzymes are biological molecules that catalyse (speed up) chemical
reactions. Enzymes are specific—they will only work on particular
molecules. For example, the enzyme sucrase will only bind with and break
bonds in sucrose, not any other type of sugar.
2.9.7 Packing & Labelling:
In the final step, manual and automatic packing machines load the pouches,
buckets, and woven bags with washing powder detergent.[2][9]

27
28
Figure (2.7) Process Flow Sheet
Chapter Three:
Material
Balance

29
 Chapter Three

Material Balance
3.1 Introduction:
Material balance is the basis of process design a material balance take over
the complete process will determine the quantities of raw material required
and products Balance over individual process units set the process stream
flow and compositions.
a good understanding of material balance is essential in process design.
They are also useful tools for the study of plant operation and trouble
shooting. They are also useful also useful tools for the study of plant
operation and trouble shooting. They can be used to check performance
against design to extend the often limited data available from the plant
instrumentation to sources at material loss. [6]
3.2 Conservation of Mass:
The general conservation equation process system is
Input= output + Accumulation +consumption -Generation.
For steady-state process, accumulation = 0.
No reaction occur; generation =0.0
Consumption= 0.0
Then the equation is reduced to Input = output. [6]
3.3 Material Balance Calculation:
We started with the spray dryer because we have the designed final
product flow rate So we took it as a base to our calculations to calculate
the amount of the taw materials containing the acid, Sodium hydroxide,
water and added materials. [6]

30
 Table (3.1) known and unknown variable

known Unknown
X9=26350 X8
X4=17127.5 X7
X5=922.25 X3
X6=11198.75 X1
X10=19.25 X2

3.3.1 Useful information: [9]

Efficiency of spray dryer= 80%
X5 added liquid=
material Flow rate
Fatty 913.02kg/hr
Acid
Colour 9.22kg/hr
Total 922.24kg/hr

X4 added solid=
material Flow rate kg/hr
Sodium sulphate 8906.3
STPP 4059.21
Soda ash 1575.73
SCMC 137.02
Sodium silicate 1575.73
Sodium metasilicate 856.37
total 17127.5

Stoichiometric reaction equation:

NaOH + CH12H25 – C6H4SOHC12H25 C6H4SO3Na + H2O

31
3.3.2 Material balance for spray dryer:

X8
X7 Spray dryer

X9

Efficiency = product/feed (X9/X7).

0.8=26350/X7
X7=26350/0.8
X7=32937.5 kg/hr
Overall material balance for spray dryer
X7=X8+X9
32937.5=X8+26350
X8=32937.5-26350
X8=6407.5 kg/hr

32
3.3.3 Material balance for crutcher: X6

X3

X4 Crutcher X7

X5

Overall material balance for crutcher :

X3+X4+X5+X6= X7
X3=X7-X4-X5-X6
X3= 32937.5-17127.5-922.24-11198.75
X3=3689 kg/hr

33
3.3.4 Material balance for neutralizer :

X1
Neutralizer X3

X2 n
The

neutralizer product (x3) = 3689 kg/hr

Stoichiometric reaction equation:
NaOH + CH12H25 – C6H4SOHC12H25 C6H4SO3Na + H2O

A +B C +D

40 326 348 18

Mass fraction for product:

18
For NaOH = = 0.04918
348+18
348
For SLABSA = = 0.9508
18+348

Mass of NaOH = 0.04918* 3689 = 181.42 kg/hr

Mass of SLABSA = 0.9508*3689 =3507.75 kg/hr
181.43
Molar mass of NaOH = =10.07 kg/mol hr
18
3507.75
Molar mass of SLABSA = =10.07 kg/mol hr
348

Mass of NaOH =10.07 * 40 = 402kg/hr

Mass of SLABSA =10.07*326 = 3282.82 kg/hr

34
3.3.5 Material balance for performer:

X9
performer X11
X10

X9= Flow rate of spray dryer products 26350 kg/hr

X10= Flow rate of additives 19.25 kg/hr
X11= Flow rate of final product 26369.3 kg/hr

35
 Material balance quantities flow diagram

402 NaOH

Neutralizer
3282.82 LABSA

3684.82

17127.5
add solid material
Crutcher
922.24
add liquid material

11198.75
Process water
29248.49

Vapor
Spray dryer 6407.5

26350

product
Additives
perfumer 26369.25
19.25

Fig:3.1 material balance quantity flow diagram

36
Summary:
Table (3.2)

X1 402 kg/hr
X2 3282.82 kg/hr
X3 3689 kg/hr
X4 17127.5 kg/hr
X5 922.25 kg/hr
X6 11198.75 kg/hr
X7 32937.5 kg/hr
X8 6407.5 kg/hr
X9 26350 kg/hr
X10 19.25 kg/hr
X11 26369.3 kg/hr

37
Chapter Four:
Energy
Balance

38
 Chapter Four

Energy balance
4.1 Introduction:
Energy can exit in several heat -mechanical energy, electrical energy and
it is the total energy that is converted in the process design, energy balance
are made to determine the energy requirements at the process, the heating
cooling and power required.
In plant operation and energy balance in the plant will show the pattern of
energy usage areas for conversion and saving.[6]

Calculations:
The enthalpy is calculated by the following Eqe:
H= (mcp )T-T ref.
H =enthalpy of stream.
m =mass flow rate of stream.
cp =specific heat of stream.
T= temp-of stream.
Tref = reference temperature.

4.2 Conservation of Energy:

The general conservation equation process system is:
Input output +accumulation +losses – Generation. [6]

Assumption:
1. Steady state system:
accumulatio= 0.0
2. Reference temperature =250c =2980k [9]

39
4.3 Energy balance calculations:
4.3.1 Energy Balance for Neutralizer:

E1
Neutralizer E3
E2

E1 =energy of NaOH
E =MCpΔT T =45 C TR=25 C Cpnaoh=3.8 kj/kg c
E1 =402*3.8 (45-25) =30552 kj/kg
E2=Energy of labsa
T=450C TR=25 0C Cplabsa=2.19kj/kg0c
E2 =3282.82*2.19 (45-25) =145787.5 kj/kg
E3=Energy of Neutralizer outlet
E1+E2 =E3
E3= 143787.51+30552 =174339.51 kj/kg

40
Heat generation:
Reaction equation:

C12H25-C6H4SO3H+NaOH C12H25C6H4SO3Na+H2O
A+B C+D
Heat of reaction ΔHr:
Heat of formation ΔHf
ΔHfA = -7668 kj/kg
ΔHfB = -60244.8 kj/kg
ΔHfC = -5148 kj/kg
ΔHfD = -172260 kj/kg
ΔHr = -245320.8 kj/kg

41
4.3.2 Energy balance for Crutcher:

E3

E4 Crutcher
E7
E5

E6
E4= Energy balance for add solid
MSolid= 17127.5 kg/h , T=45 0C , TR=250C , CpSolid=1.015 kj/kg0c
E4 =17127.5*1.015 (45-25) =347688.25 kj/kg
E5= Energy balance for add liquid
MLiquid= 922.25 kg/h , T=45 0C , TR=250C , CpLiquid=2.02 kj/kg0c
E5 = 922.25*2.02 (45-25) =37258.9 kj/kg
E6= Energy balance for add water
Mwater= 11198.75kg/h , T=45 0C , TR=250C , Cpwater=4.2 kj/kg0c
E6 = 11198.75*4.2 (45-25) = 940695 kj/kg
E7= outlet of the Crutcher
E3+E4+E5+E6 = E7
E7 = 1325642.15 kj/kg

42
4.3.3 Energy balance for spray dryer:

E7 E9

Spray Dryer

E8 E10

Overall energy balance:

E7+E8=E9+E10
E8= Energy for inlet air
E8=MAir CPAir ∆T
CpAir= 1.005 kj/kg0c T=3500C TR=250C MAir=??
E8= MAir*1.005(350-25)
E8= MAir*326.62
E9= Evaporated water (vapour+air)
E9=MVapor λ+MVapor CPVapor ∆T+MAir CPAir ∆T
MVapor= 6407.5 kg/h λ= 2257.06 kj/kg CP Vapor= 4.2 kj/kg0c
TVapor= 1000c TAir= 1000c TR= 250C MAir=??
E9=6407.5*2257.06+6407.5*4.2(100 -25)+MAir*1.005(100-25)
E9=16480474.45+MAir*75.37
E10=Mproduct CPProduct ∆T
MProduct= 26350 kg/h CPProduct= 1.5 kj/kg0c T= 700C TR= 250C

43
E10=26350*1.5(70-25)= 1778625 kj/kg
(From the overall energy balance equation M Air can be obtained)
E7+E8=E9+E10
Substituting the value of E7,E8,E9,E10
E7=outlet of the crutcher=1325642.15 kj/kg
1325642.15+MAir*326.62=16480474.45+MAir*75.37+1778625
MAir= 67396.84 kg/h
E8= MAir*326.62
E8= 67396.84*326.62= 22013155.88 kj/kg
E9= 16480474.45+MAir*75.37
E9=16480474.45+67396.84*75.37= 21560174.28 kj/kg

44
 4.3.4 Energy balance for Perfumer:

E10 Perfumer E12

E11

E12= E10+E11
E11= MAdditives CPAdditives ∆T
TR= 250C TR= T ∆T= 0 0c
E11= 0 kj/kg
E12=1778625+0= 1778625 kj/kg

45
Summary of energy balance:
Table (4.1)

E1 30552 kj/h
E2 145787.5 kj/h
E3 174339.51 kj/h
E4 347688.25 kj/h
E5 37258.9 kj/h
E6 940695 kj/h
E7 1325642.15 kj/h
E9 21560174.28 kj/kg
E10 1778625 kj/kg
E11 0 kj/h
E12 1778625 kj/kg

46
Chapter Five:
Equipment
Design

47
 Chapter Five

Equipment Design
5.1 Introduction:
The reactor is the heart of petro chemical process The following
characteristics are normally used to classify reactor design:
1. Mode of Operation: Batcher or Continuous.
2. Phase Present : Homogeneous or Heterogeneous
3. Reactor Geometry : Flow Patterns and Manner of Contacting the
phases.
Four our process a continuous flow jacketed stirred tank reactor ( CSTR)
type which can be considered as the basic chemical reactor type is chosen
to be the most suitable reactor. [7]
The composition in the reactor is constant and the same as the product
stream.
Lower construction Advantages:
1. Costs.
2. Efficient stirring of the reactants insures a uniform temperature.
3. Facilitation of temperature and control
4. The physical configuration of cylindrical tanks provide a large heat
transfer area on the external surface of the tank.
5. Efficient utilization of reactor volume is an advantage that permits it in
process demand very large capacity. [7]
Calculation of the volume of the reactor:
Main reaction equation :

Sodium hydroxide + LABSA SLABS + Water

A + B C + D
48
5.2 Design Calculation:

5.2.1 Design of neutralizer :

Design Equation of the Neutralizer:(CSTR). [7][9]
𝐹𝐴0∗𝑋
V=
−𝑟𝐴

Where:
V= Volume
X= Conversion
FA0 = Intial molar flow rate of (A)
-rA= Rate of Consumption of(A)
The rate Law:
-rA=K CA CB
Where:
CA =concentration of (A) .
CB= concentration of (B) .
K= specific rate of reaction.
Procedure :
Flow rate of (A)= 402 kg/hr
Density of (A)= 715.43 kg/m3
𝑚𝑜𝐴
VOA=
𝜌𝑜𝐴
402
VOA= = 0.562 m3/hr
715.43

Flow rate of (B)= 3282.82 kg/hr

Density of (B)= 745.42 kg/m3
𝑚𝑜𝐵
VOB=
𝜌𝑜𝐵
3282.82
VOB= = 4.403 m3/hr
745.42

49
Total volumetric flow rate of reactants (VOT):
VOT= VOA+VOB
VOT= 0.562+4.403
VOT= 4.965 m3/hr
Calculation the residence time (T):
𝑉
T=
𝑉𝑜𝑇

V= the volume of the neutralizer:

Taking basis T= 1.5 hr
V= VOT*T
V= 4.965*1.5 = 7.4475 m3
The volume of the reactor(V)= 7.4475 m3
Assuming that only 80% of the reactor is filed by reactants:
V= 7.4475/0.8 = 9.309 m3

calculation of the height and the diameter:

Let :
D= diameter
H= height
It's cylindrical reactor and assume :
H= 1.5D
The volume could be obtained from:

𝜋𝐷 2 ∗𝐻
V=
4

Substituting H= 1.5D

50
 1.5𝜋𝐷 3
V=
4

Solving for D:
D= 34 ∗ 9.309
√
1.5 ∗ 𝜋

D= 1.99 m
The diameter of the reactor =1.99 m
H= 1.5D
H= 1.5*1.99
H= 2.98 m
The height of the reactor= 2.98 m
calculation of the thickness of the reactor:
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
e= +C
2 𝑗 𝐹−𝑃𝑖

where:
Pi= design pressure
Pi= 1.2*operating pressure
Operating pressure= 1 atm = 0.1013N/mm2
Pi= 1.2*0.1013
Pi= 0.12156 N/mm2
Di= internal diameter
Di= 1.99 m
F= design stress
F= 200 N/mm2
j= joint factor
j= 0.7
C= corrosion allowance
C= 3 mm
51
Substituting the values above we found :

0.12156∗1.99
e= + 3
2∗0.7∗200−0.12156

e= 3.8643 mm
For a vessel diameter more than one meter the minimum practical
thickness is 5mm.
The thickness of the reactor is 5mm.
cooling jacket:
The flow rate of the cooling water M w:
∆𝐻𝑟∗𝑀𝐴
Qr =
𝑀𝑊𝐴
−245320.8∗3282.82
Qr =
326

Qr = -2470373.20 kj/hr
𝑄𝑟
Mwater =
𝐶𝑝 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟∗∆𝑇 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
2470373.20
Mwater =
4.2∗30

Mwater = 19606.13 kg/hr

Density of water 𝜌w= 1000 kg/m3
Volumetric flow rate of cooling water (VOw):
𝑀𝑤
V0W =
𝜌𝑊

19606.13
= 19.6 m3/h
1000

The volume of the cooling water:

Vw =V0w*t t=1.5 hr
Vw=19.6*1.5= 29.4 m3

52
Summery of design neutralizer :
Table (5.1)

Volumetric rate A 0.562 m3/hr

Volumetric rate B 4.403 m3/hr
The volume flow of the reactor 4.965 m3/hr
Actual volume 9.309 m3
Height 2.98 m
Operating pressure 1 atm
Internal diameter 1.99 m
Design pressure 0.12156 N/mm2
Design stress 200 N/mm2
Joint factor 0.7
Corrosion allowance 3 mm
Volumetric flow rate of cooling 19.60m3/h
water

53
5.2.2 Design of tank
5.2.2.1 Introduction:
The tank is Vertical cylindrical tanks with flat baese and fixed cone-roof
cylindrical-type design which are universally used for the bulk storage of
liquids at atmospheric pressure. The main load to be considered in the
design of these tanks is the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid, but the tanks
must also be designed to withstand wind loading.[7][2]
Safety features for The tank include a pressure relief-valve system on the
tank roof, to be opened when draining or Adding to the tank contents. A
bursting disc system also allows for pressure release in the event Of
pressure build-up. A manhole provides access to the tank for internal
maintenance.[7][5]
A standard metal staircase and railing skirts the outer edge of the 'tank
providing access to the tank roof. A manhole in the tank roof provides
access for internal repairs. Discrete inlet and outlet lines are required to
feed into the base of the tank.
A pressure relief valve is attached to the roof. This valve is opened
automatically when pumping product to, or withdrawing product from,
the tank. The valve is shut when pumping stops so that vapour losses
from the tank are contained. A bursting disc on the roof also provides
emergency pressure relief for an unforeseen pressure build-up within the
tank. The tank must be constructed of Aluminium.[7][6]

5.2.2.2 Design
The minimum wall thickness required to resist the hydrostatic pressure
can be calculated from the equations for the membrane stresses in thin
cylinders as follow :[7][9]

where :
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
e= +c
2𝑓𝐽−𝑝𝑖

54
e= minimum Thickness of the wall
Pi= internal pressure
Di= inside diameter
f= design stress (for stainless steel=165N/mm2)
j= joint factor(0.8)

From material balance:

Mass Flow rate = 32937.5 kg/h , ρ= 932 kg/m
32937.5
Volumetric flow rate = = 35.34 m3/h
932

We volume assume the volume of aging vessel the same volume of

neutralizer
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Residence time =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
9.309
Residence time = 35.34 = 15.8 min
( 60
)

𝐿
The optimum design obtained at =2 .
𝐷

V=9.309m3
Substitute for volume
3.14∗𝑑 2 ∗𝐿 3.14∗𝑑 2 ∗2𝑑
V= =
4 4
3.14∗𝑑3
V=
2

D=1.8m
L=3.6m
Area of the tank
𝑉 9.309
A= =
𝐿 3.6

A =2.58m2

55
 𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
e= +c
2𝑓𝐽−𝑝𝑖

di =1.8m
Pi=0.12159N/mm2
F=165 N/mm2
J=0.8
C=3mm
0.12159∗(1.8∗10^3)
e= + 3= 3.82 mm
2∗165∗0.8−0.12159

outside diameter = Di+e

1.8 + (3.77*10^-3) =1.80382m
Doomed head

For ellipsoidal Head:

0.12159∗(1.8∗10^3)
e= + 3 = 3.87 mm
2∗165∗0.8−0.2∗0.12159

56
-Summery:
Table (5.2)

Tank Diameter (Di) 1.8m

Tank Hight (L) 3.6m
Tank Thickness 3.82mm
Area 2.58m2
Outer Diameter 1.80382m

57
5.2.3 Design of Spray Dryer:[7][9]
Gs= heated gas flow rate by kg/hr
X1= moister content in the entering solid
X2= moister content in the exit solid
H1= enthalpy of entering air in kj/kg
H2= enthalpy of exit air in kj/kg
𝜌p= Density of drop let in kg/m
𝜌𝑓= Density of air at average temperature in kg/m
𝜇= viscosity of air at average temperature
Vs= settling velocity
G= acceleration to gravity
Ac = area of the column
Dc = diameter of the column
Va = operating velocity
Dp =Drop diameter
H1= 0.24 kj/kg
H2= 0.03 kj/kg

𝐷𝑝2 ∗(𝜌𝑝−𝜌𝑓)∗𝑔
Vs=
18𝜇

2
(3.5∗10−3) (900−0.865)9.81
Vs=
18(23.32∗10−6)

Vs= 257.41 m/s

Va= 2*Vc

58
Va= 2*257.41 = 514.82 m/s
𝑉𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑢𝑟
Gs=
𝐻1−𝐻2
1601.75
Gs=
0.24−0.03

Gs= 7627.38 kg/h

Humid volume:
Inlet volume (Vin)= 1.22 m3/kg dry air
Outlet volume (Vout)= 1.149 m3/kg dry air
𝑉𝑖𝑛+𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Vavg =
2
1.22+1.149
Vavg = = 1.1859 m3/kg
2
𝐺𝑠∗𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
Ac =
𝑉𝑎
7627.3∗1.18
Ac = = 17.48 m2
514.82

Diameter of dryer :
4∗𝐴𝑐 4∗17.48
Dc= √ = √ = 4.77 m
𝜋 𝜋

Height of column:
H= 2Dc = 2*4.77
H= 9.54 m
Residence time
td= 50√𝑋1
td= 50√0.24 = 24.49 sec
𝛾𝑤 ∗ 𝜌𝑝∗𝑋1∗𝐷𝑝2
θ𝑝 =
12∗𝐾𝑓∗ ∆𝑇𝑡

= θ𝑝 Time required to evaporate moisture from droplet

= density of feed = 900 kg/m3ρ𝑝

59
= latent heat of vaporaization at normal boiling point = 2256.9 kj/kg 𝛾𝑤
Dp= drop diameter = 3 ∗ 10−3 𝑚
Kf = thermal conductivity of air at average temperature = 0.033925
watt/m.k
= temperature driving force ∆𝑇𝑡
T1+T2
ΔTt= Tavg-(
2
350+50
Tavg= =2000C
2
70+45
Δ T = 200- =142.50C
2
2256.9∗900∗(3.5∗10^−3)
ϴp= =0.428 Sec
12∗0.033925∗142.5

60
-Summery:
Table (5.3)

Diameter of Spray dryer 4.77m

Hight of the column 9.54m

Area of the column 17.48 m2

Residence Time 24.49sec

61
Chapter Sex:
Control

62
 Chapter Sex

Process Control
6.1 Introduction
Process control is the study and application of automatic control in the field
of chemical engineering.
It is referring to the method that are used to control process variables when
manufacturing a product. For example, factors such as the proportion of
one ingredient to another, the temperature of the materials, how well the
ingredients are mixed, and the pressure under which the materials are held
can significantly impact the quality of an end product.[8]
Some examples of controlled processes are:
-Controlling the temperature of a water stream by controlling the amount
of steam added to the shell of a head exchanger.
- Operating a jacketed reactor isothermally by controlling the mixture of
cold water and steam that flows through the jacket of a jacketed reactor.
-Maintaining a set ratio of reactants to be added to a reactor by controlling
their flow rates.
Controlling the height of fluid in a tank to ensure that it does't overflow.[8]

6.1.1 Objective of process control

The primary objective of the designer when specifying instrumentation and
control schemes are:
Safe plant operation To keep process variables within known safe
operating limits, and to detect dangerous situation as they develop and
provide alarms and automatic.[8]
Shut - down system also to provide interlocks and alarms to prevent
dangerous operating procedures.
• Production rate
To achieve the design product output.
• Product quality
To maintain the product composition within the specified quality
standards.
• Cost
To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other
objectives.

63
Proper application of process control can actually improve the safety and
profitability of a process. Even though rapidly decreasing cost of digital
devices and increasing computer speed have enabled high-performance
measurement and control system, it is not an easy task to achieve this
because modern plants tend to difficult to operate due to high complexity
and highly integrated process units.[8]
6.1.2 Process control variables
A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas) that
can change the manufacturing process in some way, Common process
variables include:
• Pressure.
• Flow.
• Level.
• Temperature.
• Density.
• PH (acidity or alkalinity).
• Liquid interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that are
combined in a vessel).
• Mass
• Conductivity.
6.1.3 Typical system includes: control
Temperature control.
Pressure control.
Flow rate control.
Level control.
Composition control.

6.1.4 Instrumentation and signals:

There are many common sensors used for chemical processes. These
include temperature, level, pressure, flow, composition, and Ph.
There are three kinds of signals that exist for the process industry to
transmit the process variable measurement from the instrument to a
centralized control system:[8]
• Pneumatic signal.
• Analog signal.

64
Digital signal.
The most common manipulated input is the valve actuator signal (usually
pneumatic) each device in a control loop must supply or receive a signal
from another device.
When these single are continuous. Such as electrical current or voltage, we
use the term analog (continuous signals) which provided the foundation for
control theory and design and analysis.
If the signal is communication at discrete intervals of time, we use the term
digital many devices and controllers are now based on digital
communication technology. A sensor may send a digital signal to a
controller. Which then does a discrete computation and sends a digital
output to the actuator? Very often, the actuator is a vale, so there is usually
a D/I (digital - to - electronic analog) converter involved. Indeed, if the
valve stem is moved by a pneumatic actuator rather than electronic, then
an I/P converter may also be used. In the past few decades, digital control-
system design techniques that explicitly account for discrete rather than
continuous) nature of the control computations have been developed. If
small sample times are used, the tuning and performance of the digital
controllers is nearly equal to that of analog controllers.[8]

65
 Table (6.1) Terminologies

A/D Analog to digital

D/A Digital to analog
PLC Program logic control
TC Temperature controller
TT Temperature transmitter
S.P Set point
PC Pressure controller
PT Pressure transmitter
FT Flow transmitter
FC Flow controller
FCE Final control element

66
Figure (6.1): neutralizer analog control

67
Fig (6.2): neutralizer Digital control

68
Fig (6.3): spray dryer analog control

69
Fig (6.4): spray dryer digital control

70
 L.T

Feed L.C S.P

Tank

Fig (6.5): feed tank analog control

71
Fig (6.6): feed tank digital control

72
Chapter Seven:
Cost
Estimation

73
 Chapter Seven
Cost Estimation
7.1 Total capital investment:
The total capital investment for any process consists of the fixed capital
investment for physical equipment and facilities in the plant plus the
working capital investment which must be available to handle all other
items requiring a direct cash outlay.[7][8][6]

7.1.1 Fixed and working capital

Fixed capital is the total cost of the plant ready for start up. It is the cost
paid to contractors: It includes the cost of:
1. Design, and other engineering and construction supervision.
2. All items of equipment and their installation.
3. All piping, instrumentation and control system.
4. Building and structures.
5. Auxiliary facilities, such as utilities, land and civil engineering work.

Working capital is the additional investment needed, over and above the
fixed capital, to start the plant up and operate it to the point when income
is earned. It includes the cost of:

1. Startup.
2. Row materials and intermediates in the process.
3. Finished product inventories.
4. Funds to cover outstanding accounts from customers.
Working capital investment is about 15% of the total capital investment.[7]

7.2 Operating cost:

An estimate of the operating costs, the cost of producing the product is
needed to judge the viability of a project, and to make choice between
alternative processing schemes. The cost of producing a chemical product
will include the items listed below. They are divided into two groups:
1. Fixed operating cost: cost that do not very with production rate. These
are the bills that have to paid whatever the quantity produced.
2. Variable operating costs: costs that are dependent on the amount of
product produced.[7][6]

74
7.2.1 Fixed cost:
1. Maintenance (labor and materials).
2. Operating labor.
3. Laboratory costs.
4. Supervision.
5. Plant overhead
6. Capital charges.
7. Pates (And any other local taxes).
8. Insurance.
9. Licenses fees and royalty payment.

7.2.2 Variable costs:

1. Raw materials.
2. Miscellaneous operating materials.
3. Utilities (services).
4. Shipping and packaging.

The costs listed above are the direct costs of producing the producing the
product at the plant site. In addition to these costs will have to carry its
share of the company general operating expenses.
These will include:
1. General overheads.
2. Research and development costs.
3. Sales expense.
4. Reserves.
The above 4 items are called the general expense. There are roughly 20%
of the direct production costs at the site.[7]

7.3 Factor affecting investment production costs:

1. Sources of equipment:
Substantial reduction in cost can be made by employing idle equipment or
by purchasing sound hand equipment.
2. Price fluctuations:
Consideration on price and wages fluctuations is mad when prices of
equipment wages, salaries and other expenses in plant are made.
3. Company policies:
Polices of different companies have a direct effect on costs. Accounting
procedures and methods for determining deprecation costs vary among
different companies on plants. The company policies with reference to
labor units should be considered.[7]

75
4. Time of operation of production:
Operating time, rate of production and sales demand are very closely
interrelated. The related plant should operate under a time schedulewhich
gives the maximum production rate while maintain economicoperating
methods. So, the total cost per unit of production is kept neara minimum
because the fixed are utilized to the fullest extent.
5. Government Policies:
The national government has many regulations which have a direct effect
on the industrial costs. Examples of these are import and export tariff
depreciation regulations.[7][6]

76
-Equipment Cost: Table (7.1)

Equipment No. Cost

Neutralizer 1 90,000$
Crutcher 1 700,000$
Pump 5 50,000$
Pump (High Pressure) 1 55,000$
Tank 1 75,000$
Spray Dryer 4 2,000,000$
TOTAL 3,270,000$

77
 Table (7.2)

Percentage FCI % COST

Purchased Equipment 22.9 3270000$

Purchased Equipment 8.3 1185196.506550$

Installation
Piping (Installed) 9.2 1313711.79039$

Electrical (Installed) 7.3 1042401.74672$

Building (Including 4.6 656855.89519$

services)
Yard Improvement 1.8 257030.567685$

Service Facilities 13.8 1970567.68558$

Engineering and 7.3 1042401.74672$

Supervision
Construction Expense 9.2 1313711.79039$

Legal Expense 1.8 257030.567685$

Contractor fee 1.8 257030.567685$

Contingence 7.3 1042401.74672$

Total Fixed Cost 99.9 13,608,340.611315$

Investment(FCI)

78
Calculation:
Total Fixed Cost Investment(FCI)=13,608,340.611315$
7.4 Total capital investment (TCI)
Working Cost (W.C)
TCI= FCI+W.C
W.C=0.15(TCI)
TCI=13,608,340.611315+(0.15*TCI)
TCI=16,009,812.4839$

-Direct manufacturing cost:

Table (7.3)

Raw Material 0.15 TPC

Operating labor 0.15 TPC

Direct Supervision 0.0275 TPC

Maintenance and repairs 0.06 FCI

Operating supplies 0.009 FCI

Laboratory charges 0.015 TPC

Utility 0.045 TPC

TOTAL 0.7375(TPC)+0.069(FCI)

79
7.5 -Total fixed capital charge:
7.5.1 -Deprecation:
Services Life =20 years
Salvage Value(S.V) = zero
Internal cost=3,270,000$
Internal cost−S.V
Deprecation=
Services Life
3270000−0
Deprecation= = 163500$
20

7.5.2- Local taxes = 1%*FCI

=0.01*13608340.611315=136083.406113$
7.5.3- Insurance =1%*FCI
=0.01*13608340.611315=136083.406113$
-Total Fixed Capital Charge= Deprecation+ Local Taxes+ Insurance
= 163500+136083.406113+136083.406113=435666.812226$

7.6 -Total Production Cost (TPC):

Plant over Head= 0.075TPC
FCI=13608340.611315
-General Expense: Table (7.4)

Administrative cost 0.0375TPC

Distribution and Marketing 0.0095TPC
R and D 0.003TPC
Total General Expense 0.0473TPC

TPC=Direct Manufacturing cost+ Total Fixed Capital Charge+ Plant over

Head+ Total General Expense
TPC=0.7375(TPC)+0.069(13608340.611315)+435666.812226
+0.075TPC+0.0473TPC
TPC=9804866.72187
80
7.7 -Cost per unit:
-rate of production:
26350kg/h*(ton/1000kg)*(24h/1day)*(300day/1year)=189720 ton/year
𝑇𝑃𝐶 9804866.72187
-cost per unit= = = 51.68$
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 189720

-Selling price=170$
7.8 -Income:
Income= rate of production*Selling price
=189720*170=32252400$
7.9 -Gross profit:
Gross Profit=Income-TPC
=32252400-9804866.72187=22447533.27813$

7.10 -Taxes:
Taxes=35%* Gross Profit
=0.35*22447533.27813=7856636.6473$
7.11 -Net Profit:
Net Profit =Gross Profit-Taxes
=22447533.27813-7856636.6473=14590896.6307$
7.12 - Rate of Return:
Net Profit
Rate of Return = ∗ 100
𝑇𝐶𝐼
14590896.6307
=16009812.4839 ∗ 100 = 91.13%
7.13 -Payback or Payout Period:
1
Payback = = 1.09𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
0.9113

81
-Summery:
Table (7.5)

Total Fixed Cost Investment 13,608,340.611315$

Income 32,252,400$

Manufacturing cost 1,662,084.4595$

Total capital investment (TCI) 16,009,812.4839$

cost per unit 51.68$

Net Profit 14,590,896.6307$

Rate of Return 91.13%

Payback Period 1.09 year

82
Chapter Eight:
Safety
and
Environmental

83
 Chapter Eight

Safety and environmental

8.1.1 Introduction:
The International labor Organization (ILO) estimates that there are up to
20 million people employed in the global chemical, pharmaceutical and
rubber and tires industries today.[4]
Global competition has rapidly changed the world map of chemical
production and consumption. Greater competitiveness and uncertainty
have triggered restructuring processes with significant implications for
employment and earnings, composition of employment and working
conditions in general.[4][3]
Every day, people die as a result of occupational accidents or work-related
diseases – more than 2.78 million deaths per year. Additionally, there are
some 374 million non-fatal work- related injuries and illnesses each year,
many of these resulting in extended absences from work. The human cost
of this daily adversity is vast and the economic burden of poor occupational
safety and health practices is estimated at 3.94 per cent of global Gross
Domestic Product each year.[3][5]
8.1.2 Safety Culture:
The term “safety culture” appears to have been first used after the
Chernobyl disaster in 1986. The investigation report by the International
Nuclear Safety Advisory Group (INSAG) of the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) pinpointed “poor safety culture” as one of the
contributing factors to this worst nuclear power plant accident in history.
Although the concept of safety culture has been used more often in safety
research, particularly in high-risk industries such as e nuclear power, oil,
gas, chemical, construction, etc., not much research has examined the
relationship between safety culture and safety performance. Recently,
many industries showed a growing interest in safety culture concept as a
means of potential accident reduction associated with unforeseen working
situations and as in the ordinary tasks. Safety culture is the main indicator
of safety performance.[6]

84
8.1.3 Soaps & Detergents: Human Safety
Because human safety and environmental evaluations consider different
types of exposures, they are evaluated by different procedures. The
principal steps in the assessment process are, however, the same. They
involve:
 Assembling existing data on toxicity and exposure.
 determining where new information is needed and, if necessary,
carrying out appropriate studies
 determining whether predicted exposure levels are below levels that
cause significant toxic effects, This safety evaluation process
enables scientists to predict the potential risk, if any, associated with
the use of the ingredient or product, and determine if it is safe for
consumers and the environment.[5]

summary:
although a lot of different factors have been found to underlie safety
culture, the most commonly measured factors are regarded as safety
policies, safety rules and procedures, incentives, training, communication,
workers' involvement, safety managers' commitment, and employees'
safety behavior. Likewise, the dependence relations among these
dimensions constitute the hypotheses of the study.[5][4][3]

85
 The impact of detergent chemicals on environment
8.2.1 The impact of detergent chemicals on air:
The exhaust air from detergent spray drying towers contains 2 types of air
contaminants:
 Fine detergent particles
 Organics vaporized in the higher temperature zones of the tower
Dust emissions are generated at scale hoppers, mixers, and crutchers during
the batching and mixing of fine dry ingredients to form slurry. Conveying,
mixing, and packaging of detergent granules can also cause dust emissions.
Pneumatic conveying of fine materials causes dust emissions when
conveying air is separated from bulk solids. For this process, fabric filters
are generally used, not only to reduce or to eliminate dust emissions, but
also to recover raw materials.[4]
8.2.2 The impact of detergent chemicals on water and
wastewater:
The extensive monitoring studies have shown that, on average all
surfactants studied are removed for more than 99% during activated sludge
treatment. The removal was constant in all sewage treatment plants studied
indicating that for these plants the removal was not essentially effected by
plant operating conditions. The removal of all surfactants was always
higher than the elimination of other organic material expressed as BOD.
The exposure concentration of surfactants in the treated sewage were low.
The monitoring studies of Dutch risk assessment concluded that the
surfactants posed no significant risks to the river ecosystems, and this was
generally endorsed. The results were also considered to demonstrate for the
surfactants studied, that they did not pose a risk to the marine environment.
A similar conclusion can draw for the terrestrial environment but a need
was recognized for further data on the toxicity of surfactants to terrestrial
organisms.[2]

86
8.2.3 The impact of detergent chemicals on sediment and
soil:
A non-published literature study was performed in which the effects and
exposure data from the open literature was collected. From this study it
appeared that both for sediment and soil only very few effects data are
available.[4][5]
With respect to sediment organisms effects are found only at
concentrations that are much higher than the concentration typically
measured near activated sludge treatment plants. Since these priority
substances do not have a very high partition coefficient it is not expected
that because of uptake through food there is additional reasons for concern
apart from the concern for the pelagic organisms.[1]
The situation for soil is similar to that for sediment. Effect concentration
are relatively high whereas concentration in sewage sludge amended soils
are orders of magnitude lower.[2]
8.2.4 Surfactant Toxicity Increase:
Surfactants, or surface-active agents, are chemicals that reduce the surface
tension of oil and water; in detergents, surfactants help dirt to drop out and
stay out of Clothing or other items being cleaned. Surfactants in detergents
are toxic to aquatic life, persist in the environment and break down into
additional toxic byproducts, according to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. In a Fresh water environment, surfactant-containing
detergents break down the protective mucus layer that coats fish, protecting
them from parasites and bacteria, according to lenntech. The reduced
surface tension of water also makes it easier for aquatic life 1 absorb
pesticides, phenols and other pollutants in the water. The EPA also advises
that surfactants can disrupt the endocrine systems of humans and animals;
Lenntech notes that surfactants decrease the breeding rates of aquatic
organisms.[5]
However, the following list of ingredients commonly used in the leading
brands, along with a description of how they impact the environment:
Alkyl benzene sulfonates or ABS (also linear allyl benzene sulfonates)
A class of synthetic surfactants (usually identified as "anionic
surfactants.") ABS are very slow to biodegrade and seldom used. LAS,
however, are the most common surfactants in use. During the
manufacturing process, carcinogens and reproductive toxins such as
benzene are released into the environment, While LAS do biodegrade, they
do so slowly and are of low to moderate toxicity. LAS are synthetic. The

87
pure compounds may cause skin irritation on prolonged contact, just like
soap. Allergic reactions are rare. Because oleo-based alternatives are
available, LAS should not be used.
Alkyl phenoxy polyethoxy ethanols (also nonyl phenoxy ethoxylate or
nonyl phenol).
This is a general name for a group of synthetic surfactants. They are slow
to biodegrade in the environment and have been implicated in chronic
health problems. Researchers in England have found that in trace amounts
they activate estrogen receptors in cells, which in turn alters the activity of
certain genes. For example, in experiments they have been found to
stimulate the growth of breast Cancer cells and feminize male fish. One
member of this family of chemicals is used as a common spermicide,
indicating the general level of high biological toxicity associated with these
compounds.[1]

8.2.5 Ensure your surfactants are biodegradable:

Surfactants are active ingredients which help a detergent or cleaning
product remove dirt from surfaces. If you manufacture detergents
containing surfactants for domestic users, you must ensure that the
surfactants are ultimately biodegradable and so are easily broken down by
bacteria into harmless chemicals. If you manufacture detergents containing
surfactants for industrial or institutional users which are not ultimately
biodegradable, you can apply for a derogation (permission to carry out an
otherwise banned activity) from the Chemicals Regulation Directorate
(CRD), part of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). To do so, you must
ensure that your product passes the minimum legal standards for primary
biodegradability.
Primary biodegradability is the first stage in the breaking-down. of
surfactants, after Which they are usually less dangerous to the living
environment.
You must keep the results of surfactant biodegradability testing which must
be available to the CRD.[3]

88
8.2.6 Phosphate-free detergents
Disposal of phosphate-free detergent wastewater is also an environmental
issue, Phosphates are primarily used in detergents as builders', which
remove calcium ions, and allow surfactants (the cleaning agents) to work
more effectively. In phosphate-free detergents the phosphates are replaced
By either:
Alternative builders such as zeolites or alternative builders and an
increased concentration of surfactants.
Biodegradable detergents can cause problems in our storm water systems,
streams and rivers. Ensure that no wash wastewater is permitted to enter
these systems.
Ensure that all wash wastewater is either collected by a licensed waste
disposal company or a trade waste permit is obtained to dispose of it into
the sewerage system.[5][3]
Phosphate-containing detergents can create algae blooms in fresh water.
These in turn use up the oxygen available for aquatic life, according to
Lenntech, a water treatment facilities corporation affiliated with the
Technical University at Delft, the Netherlands. This problem occurs
because phosphorous and nitrogen from detergents are nutrients that
stimulate excessive growth of algae and other aquatic vegetation, reports
the Indiana University News Room. Nutrient loading with Phosphates from
laundry and dishwasher detergents, as well as from suburban lawn
chemicals, can lead to eutrophication, a process by which a freshwater
aquatic ecosystem slowly dies due to continual oxygen depletion.
Phosphate-containing laundry detergents are banned in most states, and
about a half-dozen states have banned phosphate-containing dishwasher
detergents as of mid-2010.[3]

89
Chapter Nine:
Plant
Layout

90
 Chapter Nine

Plant layout
9.1 Site selection
Plant sitting plays an important role in process safety. Important factors in
plant sitting typically include the following items:
 Population density around the site.
 Market Area.
 Raw Materials Supply.
 Transport facilities.
 Availability of labor.
 Availability of utilities (water, Power, etc.).
 Availability of land.
 Effluent disposal.
 Climate.
 Political and Strategic considerations. [7]

9.2 Plant location:

Plant location refers to the choice of region and the selection of a particular
site for setting up a business or factory. But the choice is made only after
considering cost and benefits of different alternative sites. It is a strategic
decision that cannot be changed once taken. If at all changed only at
considerable loss, the location should be selected as per its own
requirements and circumstances. Each individual plant is a case in itself.
Businessman should try to make an attempt for optimum or ideal
location.[7][6]

9.3 Ideal location:

An ideal location is one where the cost of the product is kept to minimum,
with a large market share, the least risk and the maximum social gain. It is
the place of maximum net advantage or which gives lowest unit cost of
production and distribution. For achieving this objective, small-scale
entrepreneur can make use of locational analysis for this purpose.[7]

91
9.4 Plant layout:
There are many goals must be achieved in designing plant layout such as:
1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs.
2. The process requirements.
3. Convenience of operation.
4. Convenience of maintenance.
5. Safety.
6. Future expansion.
7. Modular construction.
But there is no ideal plant layout, so one has to compensate one goal for
the other to achieve the best layout.
The process units and ancillaries buildings should be laid out to give the
most economical flow of materials and personnel around the site.
Hazardous processes must be located at a safe distance from other
buildings.[7]
Consideration must also be given to the future expansion of the site. The
ancillary buildings and services required on a site, in addition to the main
processing units (buildings), will include:

1. Storages for raw materials and products.

2. Maintenance workshops.
3. Stores, for maintenance and operating supplies.
4. Laboratories for process control.
5. Fire stations and other emergency services.
6. Utilities steam boilers, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration,
transformer stations.
7. Effluent disposal plant.
8. Offices for general administration.
9. Medical centers.
10.Carparks. [7]

92
 Lap Reception N

Processing
Guard
office

Area parking

Offices
Control
Storage
Room
Restaurant
Area
W.C

Safety
room Power Mosque
Station

Figure (9.1) plant layout

93
-References:

[1]- Divya Bajpai, V.K. Tyagi, 2007, Laundry Detergents: An

Overview, Journal of Oleo Science, February.
[2]- Eduard Smulders, 2002, Laundry Detergents,
Germany,Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
[3]-New Horizons, 1996, An AOCS/CSMA Detergent Industry
Conference, United states of America, AOCS PRESS.
[4]-Russell E. Train, 1974, SOAP AND DETERGENT, United
states of America, U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY.
[5]- Showell, Michael S., 1998, Powdered Detergents Surfactant
Science Series, New York, CRC Press.
[6]-Richard M.Felder Ronald W.Rousseau, 2005, Elementry
Principle of chemical Process, United states of America, John
Wiley&sons Inc
[7]-R.K.SINNOT, 2005, Chemical Engineering Design, England,
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
[8]-prof gurashi "gasmelseed, chemical engineering process
control".
[9]- Assel Factory

94