ACE+ REVIEW CENTER

APRIL 2023 REVIEW PROGRAM

CIVIL ENGINEERING LICENSURE EXAM

HYDRAULICS AND PRINCIPLES OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING Module 24

Wednesday, January 11, 2023

PROPERTIES OF SOIL ZERO AIR VOIDS UNIT WEIGHT

WEIGHT & VOLUME RELATIONSHIP G s γw
γzav =
Soil is an assemblage of particles, and thus there are separate volumes of 1 + ωGs
solid and void. The voids are occupied with air and water. AIR VOID RATIO
Volume Weight Avr = n(1 − S)
CRITICAL HYDRUALIC GRADIENT
Va Air Wa
γb Gs − 1
icr = =
γw 1+e
V Vw Water Ww W
RELATIVE DENSITY OF GRANULAR SOILS
emax − e
Vs Solid Ws Dr = × 100
emax − emin
1 1
Assemblage of Particles Phase diagram of Soil −
γmin γd
Dr = × 100
1 1
POROSITY & VOID RATIO RELATIONSHIP −
γmin γmax
RELATIVE COMPACTION
Void = Void = γd(field)
e Air + Water n Air + Water R= × 100
γd(max)
1+e 1 SHRINKAGE RATIO
1-n
1 m2
1 Solid Solid SR =
ρw V2
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS
Porosity: 1
Volume of void Vv Va + Vw Gs =
1 SL
n= = = −
Total volume V V SR 100
Void Ratio: SUITABILITY NUMBER
Volume of void Vv Va + Vw
e= = = 3 1 1
Volume of solid Vs Vs Sn = 1.7√ 2 + 2 + 2
D50 D20 D10
WATER CONTENT Suitability no. Rating as backfill
The water content for completely dry soil is 0% and normally up to several
tens of percentages for fully saturated soils. However, the value may go up to 0 – 10 Excellent
more than 200% for highly open-structured clay formed under a marine 10 – 20 Good
environment and for organic soils as unusual cases. 20 – 30 Fair
weight of water Ww 30 – 50 Poor
ω= = × 100
weight of solid Ws > 50 Unsuitable

DEGREE OF SATURATION
The S value changes from 0% for completely dry soil conditions to 100% for SORTING COEFFICIENT
fully saturated soil. The soils with 0 < S < 100% are called partially saturated
D75
soils. Note that on many occasions, “saturated” soils are interpreted as “fully So = √
saturated” without spelling “fully”. D25

volume of water Vw
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
S= = × 100 When clay particles are in a large amount of water, it is like a lean soup
volume of void Vv
(liquid) and, at a slightly drier state, it becomes like a soft butter (plastic). At
SPECIFIC GRAVITY a further dried stage, it behaves like a cheese (semi-solid). At a very dry
unit weight of solid γs stage, it is like a hard candy (solid).
Gs = =
unit weight of water γw
TOTAL UNIT WEIGHT
total weight W Ws + Ww
γ= = =
total volume V Vs + Vw + Va
DRY UNIT WEIGHT
weight of solid Ws
γd = =
total volume V
G s γw
γd =
1+e
γm
γd =
1+ω
Note that γd is not necessarily physical dry unit weight of soils: rather, it is
treated as a case by mathematically removing water while maintaining
constant total volume V without shrinkage, which takes place during the
physical drying process.

MOIST UNIT WEIGHT (BULK UNIT WEIGHT)

Gs + Se
γm = γ
1+e w
total weight W Ws + Ww
γm = = =
total volume V Vs + Vw + Va
SATURATED UNIT WEIGHT
Gs + Se
γsat = γ
1+e w
BUOYANT UNIT WEIGHT
γb = γsat − γw

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PLASTIC LIMIT
TYPES OF INDICES
Plasticity Index
PI = LL − PL
Liquidity Index
ω − PL
LI =
LL − PL

Characteristic of Soil
LI < 0 Brittle Solid
LI < 1 Plastic
LI > 1 Liquid
A PL test is run in a more primitive way (ASTM D 4318). A
Consistency Index
LL − ω drier specimen is rolled into a thread by human palms on a
CI = glass plate. PL is defined as the water content at which a
LL − PI
Flow Index rolled thread just crumbles with 3 mm (1/8 in.) diameter, as
ω1 − ω2
FI = shown above.
N
log ( 2 )
N1
N1 = @ 15 blows; N2 = @ 25 blows SHRINKAGE LIMIT
m1 − m2 V1 − V2
Toughness Index SL = − ρw × 100
PI m2 m2
TI = ACTIVITY OF CLAY
FI
PI
TYPES OF LIMITS A=
LIQUID LIMIT μ0.002mm
Cone Penetration – 20mm
Rate of the volume change potential
LL > 60 & PI > 35 Very High
LL (50-60) & PI (25-35) Medium
LL < 50 & PI < 25 Low

The current standard liquid limit test (ASTM D 4318) uses a

small semi-spherical cup as seen below.

A portion of the cap is filled with a thoroughly mixed wet clay

specimen, and a groove is cut with a special grooving tool on
the center portion of the specimen. The cranking handle,
which lifts and drops the cup, is then rotated with two
revolutions per second until the opening of the groove closes
with 13 mm (1/2 in.) length. The number of revolutions (blow
counts) is recorded, and the water content at this stage is
measured. Several trials with slightly different (usually a few
percentages) water content specimens are performed.

LL is then defined as the water content with 25 blows in the

flow curve.

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CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
I. USCS (UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)
EFFECTIVE SIZE (𝐃𝟏𝟎 )
This is the diameter in the particle size distribution curve corresponding to
10% finer. It is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity and drainage
through the soil.

UNIFORM COEFFICIENT (𝐂𝐮 )

D60
Cu =
D10
COEFFICIENT OF GRADATION/CURVATURE (𝐂𝐜 )
D230
CC =
D60 D10
SORTING COEFFICIENT (𝐒𝐨 )

D75
So = √
D25
SUITABILITY NUMBER (𝐒𝐍 )

1 1 1
SN = 1.7√ 2 + 2 + 2
D50 D20 D10

Boulders Cobbles Gravel Sand Silt & Clay

300 mm – 76.2 mm – 300 76.2 – 4.75 4.75 – 0.075 < 0.075 mm
1,000 mm mm mm mm
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II. AASHTO (AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY

& TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS)

Boulders Cobbles Gravel Sand Silt & Clay

76.2 mm – 76.2 – 2– 0.075 – 0.002 < 0.002 mm
1,000 mm 2 mm 0.075 mm mm

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III. USDA (U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE)

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

> 2 mm 2mm – 0.05 mm – 0.002 < 0.002 mm
0.05 mm mm

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FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS III. FALLING – HEAD TEST

I. Bernoulli’s Equation
u v2
h= + +z
γw 2g
Where:
h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity aL h1
γw = unit weight of water k= ln ( )
At h2
Where:
Note: Velocity can be neglected because the seepage velocity is small, and
a = cross-sectional area of stand pipe
the total head at any point can be adequately represented by: L = length of the soil specimen
u
h= +z A = cross-sectional area of soil sample
γw
t = time of collection
Total Head Loss:
h1 = initial head at time t = 0
∆h = hA − hB
Hydraulic Gradient: h2 = final head at time of collection
∆h
i=
L IV. PERMEABILITY TEST IN THE FIELD BY PUMPING FROM WELLS
Where:
L = distance between points A and B Unconfined Aquifer (Gravity Well)

Darcy’s Law:
v = ki
Where:
v = discharge velocity
k = hydraulic conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability)

Seepage Velocity:
v
vs =
n
Where:
v = discharge velocity
n = porosity

Discharge:
q = kiA
Where:
k = hydraulic conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability)
r
i = hydraulic gradient Qln ( 1 )
A = cross-sectional area of the soil r2
k=
π(h12 − h22 )
Where:
II. CONSTANT – HEAD TEST Q = discharge
r1 = farthest observation
r2 = nearest observation
h1 = height of water at the farthest observation
h2 = height of water at the nearest observation

VL
k=
hAt
Where:
V = volume collected in a given time
L = length of the soil sample
A = cross-sectional area of the soil sample
h = constant head
t = time of collection

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Confined Aquifer (Artesian Well) FLOW THROUGH PERMEABLE LAYERS

CASE 1:

Hydraulic gradient:
h
i=
L
cosα

r CASE 2:
Qln ( 1 )
r2
k=
2πt(h1 − h2 )
Where:
Q = discharge
r1 = farthest observation
r2 = nearest observation
h1 = height of water at the farthest observation
h2 = height of water at the nearest observation
t = thickness of aquifer

Transmissivity of Aquifer
r
Qln ( 1 ) Hydraulic gradient:
r2 i = sinα
T=
2π(z2 − z1 )
T = kb
Where:
Q = discharge
r1 = farthest observation
r2 = nearest observation
z1 = drawdown at the farthest observation
z2 = drawdown at the nearest observation
b = thickness of aquifer
k = hydraulic conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability)

V. EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL

Horizontal Equivalent

1
k H(eq) = (k H + k H2 H2 + k H3 H3 + ∙∙∙ +k Hn Hn )
H H1 1

Vertical Equivalent

H
k V(eq) =
H1 H2 H H
+ + 3 + ∙∙∙ + n
k V1 k V2 k V3 k Vn

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STRESSES IN SOIL
Intergranular Stress, 𝐏𝐄 SETTLEMENT OF SOILS
Intergranular or effective stress is the stress resulting from Basic Settlement
particle to particle contact of soil.
PE = PT − Pw ∆𝑒 (𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒𝑓 )𝐻
𝑆= 𝐻=
𝑒𝑜 + 1 𝑒𝑜 + 1
Porewater Pressure/Neutral Stress, 𝐏𝐰
Primary Settlement
Pw = γw hw Normally Consolidated:

Total Stress, 𝐏𝐓 𝐶𝑐 𝐻 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
𝑆= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) ; 𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
The sum of the effective and neutral stresses. 1+𝑒 𝑃𝑜

𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝑤 Over Consolidated:

Capillary Rise 𝑠𝐶 𝐻 𝑃𝑜 +∆𝑃

𝐶
𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃 < 𝑃𝑐 ; 𝑆 = 1+𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝑃𝑜
ℎ=
𝑒𝐷10
𝑠𝐶 𝐻 𝑃 𝐶 𝐻 𝑃𝑜 +∆𝑃
𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃 > 𝑃𝑐 ; 𝑆 = 1+𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑃𝑐 ) + 1+𝑒
𝑐
𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
Where: 𝑜 𝑃𝑐
h = capillary rise
C = capillary constant 𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10)
D10 = effective size diameter
e = void ratio 1 1
𝐶𝑠 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑡𝑜 𝐶
5 10 𝑐

𝑃𝑐
𝑂𝐶𝑅 =
𝑃𝑜

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