SECTION-B

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
0BJECTIVE
yalue of
value for differ
of vv for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find its focal lengtn
the
tofind
a P P A R A T U S R E Q U I R E D

and

three uuprights
ch, three
bench,
pri with provision for
lateral movement, mirror holder, two pins, a knitting needie
Optical
h a lml ebrescale.

THEORY

ength f ot a concave mirro is related to the obiject distance u and image distance v by the miro

given
by

f
u+0
Or u e

conventions should be used for proper sign of u, v and f, according to which a

Cartesian sign
asfare negative.

M
Image

-L -0

Object Pin
Image
pin M,
Fig. 1. Ray diagram

PROCEDURE distant object (say, a

clear image of a
length of the concave mirror by getting
a
focal
Determine the approximate
screen. Measure the distance
between the mirror and the wall.
tree) on a wall or lateral movement
the one end of the optical bench and two other uprights having
mirror upright near
2. Place the
Ensure that the needles
face the mirrors.
Ensure that the principal
screws providedin the bench to make the mirror vertical.
optical
3. Adjust the levelling
to the optical bench scale.
axis of the mirror is parallel so that its
Keep the object pin at position
a
index mark on the base of the mirror upright.
distance equal to the length of
4. Note the position of
the
on the same horizontal
line and are separated by a
and pole of the mirror are the bench.
tip
x cm). Record the position
of the index mark of the object pin upright on
the given knitting needle (say cm. The index
corrections for the object
of the mirror and object pin as y
Record the difference in positions
to the object distance.
correction is algebraically added
distance u is (x- y) cm. This
distance (between the mirror and the image pin).
the 4 to find the index correction for the image
5. Repeat step the height of the needle
at a distance of nearly
1.5 times the approximate focal length. Adjust
6. Keep the object pin
25
 sthe
26 Keeping
onie eye
closed th
and loking with
other, ocate R
equal to the pole
of the
mirror,

be enlarged, d o u b l e theapproximate
leno h. the
Acal pin. It will appear
to
dintanw of
m o n e than
Adjust
us itits)
nneedle
needleata
(Inverterd) of
the image ofthe other
To hesght so
AUal Keep the image
needle

inert
just colncides
a
with that

nmall priece
of the lip
o n the tip
of paper
of o n e of the
needles,

between the imao

Use side wave
ys dr
(dateral)
dif erentscrewiate tbe
motion
coincide,
s e e that
there is n o parallex
o r backward. Whe
ge dle anet
backward.
eedle and i
When
parallaxis the image
sideways and forward the
B. Move the eye image
eedle

needle. Ifthe need be, move

the of the eye.
coincide and they will appear
to be coinciding
marks of
lor all positions

mirror, ooject pin

and the image
in on pin e
the
removed
Record the positions
of the index
distance say, 2 cm) each d scale of
10. Change the position
of the object pin by
a small
Kecord at least five different s t
e
(away from the ooh
readjust the image pin
to r e m o v e
the parallax.
ns,
the
ract OBSERVATIONS
mirror =
Cm
length of he
concave
APproximate focal
Ma
Length ofthe knitting needle,
x= cm Ccm.
the object pin, y
Observed distance between the mirror and
cm.
mirror and the image pin,
2
=.
Observed dístance between the
Cm.
distance, x-y= t
Indexcorrection for the object
Index correction for the image distance, x-z = t m Cmn

Observed
S. No. Position of Corrected
Concave Object Image
- PO V PI u-ut(x -
(cm) Y)VVt
Pin Pin
Mirror
P (cm) O (cm) I (cm) (cm) (cm) Vt(x-2 ()em)
(cm)
2.
3.

5.

RESULT Meanf=.
The focal length of the given concave mirror = . C m

PRECAUTIONS
1. The pole of the mirror and the tips of the needles should be at the same height.
2. The upright should be vertical.
3. Parallax removed from tip to tip.
must be
4. Index correction should be applied.
5. The eye should be at least be 30 cm from the
image needle.
sOURCES OF ERRORS
1. The needles
are not at the same
height.
2. Index corrections not
properly applied.
3. Parallax not removed.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
OBJECTIVE
Todetermine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
angle of deviation angle of incidence ence and
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Glass prism, drawing board, sheet of paper, drawing pins,
pencil, meter scale, protactor, graph paper, etc.
THEORY
if 1and e are
theangles of incidence and emergence respectively and ð is the
i+e = A+8,
angle of deviation, then
where, Ais the angle of prism and A Lr+2r, in
=

it passes symmetrically through the Fig. 5(a). When a ray passes through the
prism i.e., angle of minimum deviation
Li = Ze and r,= Zr2
 33

ter ages d
ncdence

+P
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.
PROCEDURE
1. Fix awhite sheet on the
drawing board with the help of drawing pins. Draw a line with pencil
that it divide the sheet into two lengthwisel, 0
parts
2. Pace the prism on the
paper and mark its boundary ABC. From any Scale 1 cmon -ars
point on the face AB, draw perpendicular to the face of the 1 cn on yaris
a line
prism. Draw
PQmaking an angle of 30 with the normal. Fix two pins P, and P
on this line. Look from face AC
and fix two more pins P, and Pso that
all the four pins look to be along the same
straightlines.
3. Remove the pins and join the points extending
backward so that the line
meet backward also. Measure the angles formed between them, let it
so
be 6
4. Repeat the observation with other incident angles say 35, 40, 45
and measure corresponding value of ô in each case. Angle of incidencei

5. Draw a graph between i and ô and find the angle of minimum deriva
tion , from the graph.
OBSERVATIONS
S. No. i (Angle of incidence) 8 (Angle of deviation)

30
2. 35

40

45

50
6. S5

60
 34
than 10 c m .
be less
proper graphh
P R E C A U T I O N S

should'not

between pins so that a

1. The
distance
between
30 to
oU
incidence
should lie
the pins, encircle
its
2 The angle of and just
after removing position
be fixed
vertically
3 Pins should
should be
properly drawn.
4. The graph
SOURCES OF ERROR ()
done accurately.
Measurement of angle is not
1.

2 Pins may not fixed vertically.

 EXPERIMENT No. 6

OBJECTIVE
To detemine the retractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
A giass slab a travelling micrascope, fine chalk (or saw dust) powde
THEORYY
Due to theamenon of refiraction, a point P when seen through a glass slab (or any other refracting me
phen
aFrs o benisd depth of the slab (= NP,) is less than the real depth NP. The
toP Theapparent refractive ) m)
of the material of the(say
glass slab is given by ex
Real depth NP
Apparent depth NP

Apparent o
depth
Real
depth

Fig. 6.
PROCEDURE
1. Place the
travelling microscope at a horizontal place and level the
2. Determine the vernier constant of the
vertical scale of the
microscope by adjusting the levelling screws.
3. Adjust the position of the eye piece so that the cross wiresmicroscope.
4. Draw an ink mark and focus
the
are
clearly visible.
5. microscope
Now, place the glass slab on the ink mark
on the
mark. Record the reading ) of the
vertical scale.
and readjust the
Record the reading ) on the
vertical scale. travelling microscope to focus the ink mark
6. again.
Sprinkle
chalk powder (on saw
dust) particles on the surface of
particles and record again the the glass slab. Focus the
7. Repeat the above
reading of the vertical scale. microscope on the
steps drawing the ink mark at a different
BSERVATIONS positions.
Vernier constant of the
miroscope scale =
... cm.
CLASS XI
35
S. No. Vertical scale reading with
Real depth Apparent
microscope focussed on p-2-X
Depth 2-Y
Ink Mark Ink Mark (Z-X) (cm) (Z-Y) (cm)
Chalk Dust
without slab with slab6
X (cm)
Particle
Y (cm)
Z (cm)
1.

2.

3.

5.

Mean u
RESULT
Refractive index of the material of the slab, u = ..

PRECAUTIONS
1. The microscope should be carefully focussed.
2. The microscope screw should be moved only in one direction to avoid backlash error.
3. The powder should be spread on the top of the slab.
4. The particles used should be very fine and a thin
layer should be formed.
OBJECTIVE

draw the characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward and reverse bias.
APPARTUS REQUIRED

A diode (IIN 270 or IN 3065), milliammeter (0-500 mA), voltmeter (0 3V), mnicroammeter HA
A iunction
junction diode
ter (0-100 V), 5 V and 100 V d.c. supplies, rheostat, kev and connecting wire (or a diode charac

THEORY

In ap-n junction diode, p-region has high concentration of holes and n-regíon that of electron
noes
leading to the formation of a depletion region Gimmobile excess negative
recombine chargefurther
the electrons and and prevents
p-region and mmobile excess positive charges in the n-region). This creates a potential barrier (V)
im
p-region and
iftusion of majority carries across the junction.
Biasing of P-N Junction Diode o
that the positive terminai
Forward Biasing. When a battery is connected to a p-n iunction diode in such a way

connected to thep-side and the negative terminal to the n-side, the junction diode is said to be
torwara
pia
battery is
biased junction dicde is shown in Fig. 8(a).
A forward

V) (ii)
(unbaised)
diode. The dotted lines indicate briginal
Fig. 8(a). A forward biased PN junction potential.
potential, V-applied
depletion layer, Vg-Barrier junction in a
creats a n electric field across the
When the diode is forward biased, the externally applied voltage
the electric field and potential
across the junction
Therefore,
due to barrier potential. the junction thereby increases.
directionopposite to the field the diffusion of electrons and holes across
barrier is lowered and
decreases, i.e., potential
 40
Ltue to increased movement of majority carrier towards the junction, the thickness of the depletion region
pRACTICAL PHYSIC
tlow of eumnt. When the forward bias (the applied potent
reduced cdepletion region offers a low nsistance to the
the barrier potential, electrons and holes ditfuse easily rsuting in a shap increase in current through
ugh the
the juncti
I with applied forward bias (or
junction disd
voltage) V, called
Bias Characteristic. The variation of curent
Dlas Forward
characteristic, is shown in Fig. 8 (h) for a silicon diode, The curent increases very slowlyacrose
acros6 t foreane
certain voltage, a characteristic of the diode, is reached. After this characteristie voltage, the díode curnthe dinde
This characteristie voltage is called the theres e
rapidly, even for
very small inerease in the diode blas voltage.
Ge diode and 0.6 V fora Si diode thereshold (oe cu
or ne) voltage V The value of V, is 0.2 V for a

100

30

60
I (mA) 40 Ge

20

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

v (volts)

Fig. 8(b). The forward volt-ampere a germanium

characteristics of (1N270) and
and a silicon (1N3605) diode at 25°C.
Reverse Biasing. When a battery is comected to p-n junction diode in such a way that the positive terminalofthebate
cormected ton-side amd the negatioe terminal to the p-side, the junction diode is said to be reverse biased. A reversebiasedjian
diode is shown in Fig. 8 (c).

H
(i)
Fig. 8(c). A reverse biased PN junction diode. The dotted lines indicate
original depletion region.
When the diode is reverse biased, the
externally applied potential and the barrier potential are in the same direction
Due to this, thickness of depletion increases or resultant barrier
region potential increases making the diffusion of majority
carriers across the junction more difficult. The resistance offered
by the depletion region becomes high and conse
quently current drops to a negligibly small value. However, a very small amount of current flows very due to the motion of
(thermally generated) minority carriers, i.e., holes in the n-region and electrons in the p-region. This small current in
is called reverse saturation current
(=pA for a Ge diode and nA for Si diode, at room temperature). This current, diode
the
falling down the potential of charge carriers across the junction, is uninfluenced by magnitude of barrier involving
Reverse Bias Characteristics. The variation of current with potential.
applied reverse bias (or voltage), calledthe
haracteristic, is shown in Fig. 8 (d). When the diode is reverse biased, bias reverse
a small very current, called reverse saturation (or
 C A S SK I

dws through
ureni
also called peakowever
nere
when the applied rverse
voltage reaches
e clled the
ol mds the semiconiductig
of sioftage), the current suddenly incrase to a a cat
t the brea
b urrent ato material gets ruptured and are produre en
v l l a

es T y a vaue This large current may avalanche ot

on the amount or
an
alse of bi
incease
doping and varies from low of damage the diode The va
5V to high of 200 V
Roversebias

Fig. 8(d)
omplete characteristc curve or a p-n junction diode is shown in Fig, 8 (e).

(mA)

0.1 0.2 V (volt)

0.5
1.0
KA

)
Fig. 8(e). (9 The volt-ampere characteristic of an ideal p-n diode. (i) The volt ampere charactersticor
germanium diode redrawn to show the order of magnitude of currents: Note the expanded scae
for reverse currents. The dashed portion indicates breakdown at V

PROCEDURE

Forward Bias characteristics

shown in F1g. 8).
1. Connect the junction diode in forward biased mode using the circuit diagram

wwwwwww.

H
Fig. 8(f
 42 PIACTA PHYNG
of the rheostat hat initlallythe voltmeter shows e
Adjust the position of the variable contact
o
the oberva
Now
record the voltneterand millammeter readings inthe obieryatton tab
CeHse the voltage in stepn of 0.1 Vand
Reverse Bian Characteristient
bias mode using the eireuit diagramn
shown in Fiy.8 ).
Connect the junction diode in reverse

wwwwwww

L K

Fig. 8(0)
4. Starting from zero volt, increase the reverse bias potential in steps of 1V. Record the voltmeter and micro-amn
readings in the observation table. Normally, the applied reverse bias should not exceed breakdown voltagenmeterofte
diode, therefore stop as soon as there is large increase in current.
the
Draw forward bias characteristic curve taking voltage along + X-axis and current along + Y-axis, and reve
verse
bias characteristic curve taking voltage along-X-axis and current along-Y-axis
OBSERVATIONS
S. No. Forward Reverse Bias

Voltage (V) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Current (A)

1.

RESULT
The forward bias and reverse bias characteristic curves are drawn in the figure.

PRECAUTIONS
1. In forward bias condition, initially adjust rheostat position so that voltmeter reading is zero, Then, increasethe
voltages in the steps of 0.1 V.
2. In reverse bias, as higher biasing is used, initially adjust the voltage at 0.5 V and then increase the voltagein
steps of 1 V.
3, Unless permitted by your teacher, do not increase the reverse bias so much that diode undergoes breakdownas
it may damage the diode.

EXPERIMENT NO. 9