Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398
Review
Computational fluid
dynamics (CFD)
applications in spray
drying of food
products
Rinil Kuriakose and
C. Anandharamakrishnan*
Human Resource Development, Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR), Mysore 570 020, India
(Tel.: D91 821 2514310; fax: D91 821 2517233;
e-mail: anandharamakrishnan@cftri.res.in)
The application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in the
area of spray drying of food ingredients is reviewed. The results
from previous studies have shown that CFD can be useful tool for
predicting the gas flow pattern and particle histories such as
temperature, velocity, residence time and impact position.
Moreover, CFD can also be used for investigating different
chamber design on drying behaviour of food materials as well
as scale-up studies. This paper provides the aireparticle interac-
tions, different turbulence models, reference frames, reaction
engineering model used for spray-drying applications along
with the particle histories and different spray chamber configu-
rations. The recent developments in this research area such as
drying kinetics model, dropletedroplet interactions, unsteady
state simulations and integration of population balance model
are discussed. In addition, the current limitations and future
scope for the potential research are also highlighted.
Introduction
Spray drying is a well established method for converting
liquid feed materials into a dry powder form. Spray drying
is widely used to produce powdered food products such as
* Corresponding author.
0924-2244/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2010.04.009
whey, instant coffee, milk, tea and soups, as well as health-
care and pharmaceutical products, such as vitamins, en-
zymes and bacteria. Normally, spray dryer comes at the
end-point of the processing line, as it is an important step
to control the final product quality. It has some advantages
such as, rapid drying rates, a wide range of operating tem-
peratures and short residence times. In recent years, compu-
tational fluid dynamics (CFD) has been increasingly
applied to food processing operations. In spray-drying op-
erations, CFD simulation tools are now often used because
measurements of air flow, temperature, particle size and hu-
midity within the drying chamber are very difficult and ex-
pensive to obtain in large-scale dryer.
CFD is a simulation tool, which uses powerful computers
in combination with applied mathematics to model fluid flow
situations and aid in the optimal design of industrial pro-
cesses. The method comprises solving equations for the con-
servation of mass, momentum and energy, using numerical
methods to give predictions of velocity, temperature and
pressure profiles inside the system. It powerful graphics
can be used to show the flow behaviour of fluid with 3D im-
ages (Anderson, 1984; Scott & Richardson, 1997).
The fluid motion was studied mathematically by
Richardson in 1910 and later by Courant, Friedrichs, and
Lewy (1928). This basic study instigated the development
of powerful numerical techniques that have advanced the
numerical description of all types of fluid flow (Shang,
2004). CFD activity emerged and gained prominence with
availability of computers in the early 1960s and it is applied
to all aspects of fluid dynamics (Parviz & John, 1997).
Since the early 1970s, commercial software packages (or
computer codes) became available, making CFD an impor-
tant component of engineering practice in industrial, de-
fense and environmental organizations. By the 1990s,
advances in computing power produced a similar boom in
software development and solutions. Since then CFD has
been used extensively by the scientific community world-
wide. The reason for this interest is justified by the fact
that it is possible to model computationally the physical
fluid phenomena that are expensive and time consuming
to measure directly. For more detailed historical perspective
the books by Roache (1976) and Tannehill, Anderson, and
Pletcher (1997) are highly recommended. Today, CFD finds
extensive usage in basic and applied research, in design of
engineering equipment and in calculation of environmental
and geophysical phenomena.
384 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398
Although the origin of CFD can be found in the automo-
tive, aerospace, and nuclear industries and also may other
processing industries, it is only in the recent years that
CFD has been applied to the food processing area (Scott,
1994). The ability of CFD to predict the performance of
new designs or processes before they are ever manufactured
or implemented make them an integral part of engineering
design and analysis (Schaldach, Berger, Razilov, & Berndt,
2000). The general application of CFD to the food industry
was reviewed by many researchers (Anandharamakrishnan,
2003; Norton & Sun, 2006; Scott & Richardson, 1997; Sun,
2007; Xia & Sun, 2002). All the above reviews concluded
that CFD is a powerful and pervasive tool for process and
product improvement in food processing sector.
The main application of CFD includes baking process
(Mills, 1998e1999; Therdthai, Zhou, & Adamczak, 2003;
Vries, Velthuis, & Koster, 1994), refrigerated display cabi-
nets (Cortella, Manzan, & Comini, 1998; Foster, 1996), ther-
mal sterilisation (Abdul Ghani, Farid, Chen, & Richards,
1999a, 1999b, 2001; Datta & Teixeira, 1987), pasteurization
of egg (Denys, Dewettinck, Pieters, 2005; Denys, Pieters, &
Dewettinck, 2003, 2004), mixing (Sahu, Kumar,
Patwardhan, & Joshi, 1999; Scott, 1977), and refrigeration
(Davey & Pham, 1997, 2000; Hu & Sun, 1999, 2000;
Moureh & Derens, 2000; Mariotti, Rech, & Romagnoni,
1995), spray-freezing (Anandharamakrishnan, Gimbun,
Stapley, & Rielly, 2010), heating and cooling processes
(Wang & Sun, 2003), humidification of cold storage
(Verboven et al., 2008; Verboven, Nicolaı̈, Delele, Schenk,
& Ramon, 2009) is also noteworthy. The list given above is
non-exhaustive and for detailed review of CFD applications
to food processing, reader may refer elsewhere (Sun, 2007).
CFD modelling has widely been used for drying pro-
cess to study the simultaneous heat and mass transfer
problems (Masters, 1994; Mathioulakis, Karathanos, &
Belessiotis, 1998; Mirade & Daudin, 2000). The non-line-
arity and complex process involved during drying was re-
viewed by Kerkhof (1994). During 1970s a number of
simplified semi-empirical models was developed to under-
stand drying of specific product in a specific spray dryer
(Paris, Ross, Dastur, & Morris, 1971; Place, Ridgway, &
Danckwerts, 1959). The use of computational fluid dy-
namics in the area of spray drying was reviewed early
by Reay (1988) and Bahu (1992). Latter, Fletcher et al.
(2003) and Langrish and Fletcher (2001, 2003) compre-
hensively reviewed the applications of computational fluid
dynamics in spray drying of food ingredients to predict the
flow patterns and temperature distributions of gas and
droplets inside the drying chamber. More recently,
Langrish (2009) has discussed about the different levels
and scales of mathematical modelling that can be applied
to the spray-drying process. However, reference frames,
particle histories (temperature, velocity, residence time
and impact positions), reaction engineering approach,
and population balance modelling are overlooked in the
early reviews.
The objective of the current paper is to summarise the
application of CFD in spray drying using different turbu-
lence models and reference frames with their feasibility
along with particle histories. Moreover, the recent develop-
ments and future perspectives are also highlighted.
Spray drying
Spray drying is the process of transforming a feed (solu-
tion or suspension) from a fluid into a dried particulate form
by spraying the feed into a hot drying medium. Spray dry-
ing is a widely used industrial process for the continuous
production of dry powders with low moisture content
(Anandharamakrishnan, Rielly, & Stapley, 2007; Charm,
1971; Masters, 1991). As shown in Fig. 1 spray drying in-
volves four stages of operation: (1) atomisation of liquid
feed into a spray chamber, (2) contact between the spray
and the drying medium (3) moisture evaporation and (4)
separation of dried products from air stream.
Atomisation
Atomisation is a process, where the bulk-liquid breaks
up into a large number of small droplets. The choice of at-
omizer is most important in achieving economic production
of high quality products (Fellows, 1998). The different
types of atomizer are rotary atomizer, pressure nozzle at-
omizer and two-fluid nozzle atomizer (Masters, 1991;
Mujumdar, 1987).
Spray-air contact
During spray-air contact, droplets usually meet hot air in
the spraying chamber either in co-current flow or counter-
current flow. The large surface area of the droplets leads
to rapid evaporation rates, keeping the temperature of the
droplets at the wet-bulb temperature. In this period different
products exhibit different characteristics such as, expan-
sion, collapse, disintegration and irregular shape.
Separation of dried products
The dry powder is collected at the base of the dryer and
removed by a cyclone separator or screw conveyor or
a pneumatic system with a cyclone separator. Other
methods for collecting the dry powder are bag filters and
1
Feed Liquid
Furnace
Air
2
Exhaust gas
4
Spray-drying 3
Cyclone
chamber
separator
Product
Fig. 1. The process stages of spray drying.
 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398
electrostatic precipitators (Fellows, 1998). The selection of
equipment depends on the operating conditions such as par-
ticle size, shape, bulk density and powder outlet position.
Types of spray dryer
The two main designs of spray dryer commonly used are
the short-form and tall-form driers. Tall-form designs are
characterized by height-to-diameter aspect ratios of greater
than 5:1. Short-form dryers, have height-to-diameter ratios
of around 2:1. The short-form dryers are the most widely
used as they accommodate the comparatively flat spray
disk from a rotary atomizer. The flow patterns observed
in short-form dryers are more complex than those in tall-
form dryers, with many dryers having no plug-flow zone
and a wide range of gas residence times (Langrish &
Fletcher, 2001).
Computational fluid dynamics
CFD is a numerical technique for the solution of the
equations governing the flow of fluids inside defined flow
geometry. The flow of any fluid can be described using
the Navier’s stokes transport equations (Bird, Stewart, &
Lightfoot, 1960). These equations are derived by consider-
ing mass, momentum and energy balances in an element of
fluid, resulting in a set of partial differential equations.
They are completed by adding other algebraic equations
from thermodynamics such as the equation of state for den-
sity and a constitutive equation to describe the rheology.
Detail descriptions of CFD and analysis of pre-processing,
processing and post processing can be seen in standard text
books and published papers (Bakker, 2002; Fletcher, 2000;
Sun, 2007; Versteeg & Malalasekera, 1995; Xia & Sun,
2002). In recent years there was good progress in the devel-
opment of commercial CFD codes. Dombrowski, Foumeny,
and Riza (1993) extensively reviewed the various CFD co-
des with their applications and limitations.
Reference frames
The two most general two-phase modelling frames are
the EulerianeEulerian and the EulerianeLagrangian
methods. In the EulerianeEulerian frame, the dispersed
phase (droplets) are treated as a continuous (Eulerian)
phase, i.e. there are two Eulerian phases, one for the gas
and another for droplets, which are interacting and inter-
penetrating continua (Mostafa & Mongia, 1987). Each
computational cell contains certain fractions of gas and
droplets, and the transport equations are written in such
a way that the volume fractions of gas and liquid sum to
unity. If the computational cell consists of just a single
phase, the transport equations for the two phases revert to
the conventional single-phase system. The advantages of
the EulerianeEulerian approach are that it is usually rela-
tively cheap in terms of computational demands for one ad-
ditional set of equations and turbulence can be modelled
fairly simply. However, if a separate set of transport equa-
tions is solved for each particle size (single particle
385
diameter was used for the dispersed phase) then the Euler-
ian approach can be expensive. In addition there is some
uncertainty over the most appropriate Eulerian diffusion co-
efficients and heat transfer coefficients. Hence, the Eulerian
approach is best suited to flows with a narrow range of par-
ticle sizes where a high resolution of the particle properties
is not needed (Jakobsen, Sannaes, Grevskott, & Svendsen,
1997; Mostafa & Mongia, 1987).
In the EulerianeLagrangian particle tracking approach,
the gas phase is modelled using the standard Eulerian ap-
proach described above and the spray is represented by
a number of discrete computational ‘particles’. Individual
particles are tracked through the flow domain from their in-
jection point until they escape the domain in a Lagrangian
frame work (Nijdam, Guo, Fletcher, & Langrish, 2006).
The EulerianeLagrangian model has the advantage of be-
ing computationally cheaper than the EulerianeEulerian
method for a large range of particle sizes. It can also pro-
vide more details of the behaviour and residence times of
individual particles and can potentially approximate mass
and heat transfer more accurately. On the other hand, the
approach can be expensive if a large number of particles
have to be tracked and it is best when the dispersed phase
does not exceed 10% by volume of the mixture in any re-
gion (Bakker, 2002).
In both the EulerianeEulerian and the Euler-
ianeLagrangian methods, the exchange of momentum be-
tween particles and gas needs to be modelled. This
exchange can consist of several forces such as, drag, lift,
virtual mass, and wall forces. Mostafa and Mongia (1987)
concluded that the Eulerian approach performs better than
Lagrangian method. In contrast, Nijdam et al. (2006) found
that both Eulerian and Lagrangian modelling approaches
gave similar predictions for turbulent droplet dispersion
and agglomeration of sprays for a wide range of droplet
and gas flows. The two models were found to require sim-
ilar computing times for a steady axi-symmetric spray.
However, the authors preferred the Lagrangian models be-
cause of their wider range of applicability.
Air flow pattern
During spray drying the particle behaviour is dependent
on the air flow pattern. Earlier studies were based on the
semi-empirical models for understanding of the spray-dry-
ing process. Inside the spray chamber there is presence of
significant air flow instabilities due to the inlet swirl.
Hence, the effect of turbulence inside the spray chamber
should be considered.
Turbulence models
Most commercial CFD codes use turbulence models that
are based on the splitting up of instantaneous quantities
into a time-averaged and a fluctuating part by a process
known as Reynolds decomposition. Four turbulence
models are commonly used for simulating sprays: (i) stan-
dard ke3 (k e turbulence kinetic energy and 3 e turbulence
386 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398
dissipation rate) (Launder & Spalding, 1972, 1974) (ii)
RNG ke3, (Yakhot & Orszag, 1986) (iii) realizable ke3,
(Shih, Liou, Shabbir, & Zhu, 1995) (iv) Reynolds Stress
Model (RSM) (Launder, Reece, & Rodi, 1975). Three
models (standard, RNG, and realizable ke3) have similar
forms, with transport equations for k and 3. The standard
ke3 model focuses on the mechanisms that affect the turbu-
lent kinetic energy. It can be used over a wide range of tur-
bulent flows due to its robustness and reasonable accuracy.
In the realizable ke3 model, the term “realizable” means
that the model satisfies certain mathematical constraints
on the normal stresses, consistent with the physics of turbu-
lent flows. It provides better prediction for flows involving
rotation, boundary layers under strong adverse pressure
gradients, separation, and recirculation (Anderson, 1984;
Fletcher, 2000).
The RNG-based ke3 turbulence model is derived from
the instantaneous NaviereStokes equations, using a mathe-
matical technique called “renormalization group” (RNG)
methods. The analytical derivation results in a model with
constants different from those in the standard ke3 model
and additional terms and functions in the transport equa-
tions for k and 3. The effect of swirl on turbulence is in-
cluded in the RNG model, which enhancing accuracy for
swirling flows.
The Reynolds Stress Model has the same general form
as the instantaneous NaviereStokes equations, with the ve-
locities and other solution variables ensemble-averaged (or
time-averaged). The RSM is clearly superior for problems
where anisotropy of turbulence has a dominant effect on
the mean flow (e.g. highly swirling flows) (Bakker, 2002).
For turbulent flows, the standard ke3 model (k e turbulence
kinetic energy and 3 e turbulence dissipation rate) is the
most commonly used, because it converges considerably
better than Reynolds stress model (RSM) (Bakker, 2002).
The standard ke3 turbulence model is used commonly
where there is no swirling flow. The transport of the turbu-
lence kinetic energy k and its dissipation rate 3 is given as
follows:

  
v mt
ðrkÞ þ V$ðrk v Þ ¼ V$ mþ Vk þ Gk  r3 ð1Þ
vt sk
and

  
v mt 3 during spray drying with their findings.
ðr3Þ þ V$ðr3 v Þ ¼ V$ mþ V3 þ C13 ðGk Þ
vt s3 k
32
 C23 r ð2Þ
k
Gk is the generation of kinetic energy due to the mean
velocity gradients. The quantities sk and s3 are the turbu-
lent Prandtl numbers for k and 3, respectively and C13,
C23, are constant. The turbulent (or eddy) viscosity, mt is
calculated from k and 3 as follows
k2
mt ¼ rCm ð3Þ
3
For calculating an approximate solution of fluid flow
equations, the equations have to be made discrete. For
this, the flow domain is divided into number of control vol-
umes. This is called a grid and at each grid cell approxi-
mate solutions for the NaviereStokes and the continuity
equations are calculated.
A model which can predict the effects of turbulence (dif-
ferential Reynolds stress model) under strong swirling condi-
tions was reported by Oakley and Bahu (1991). Although the
model predictions showed good agreement with the experi-
mental data, the differential Reynolds stress model involved
a higher computational effort than the standard ke3 model.
Livesley et al. (1992) used the ke3 model in their work for
the simulation of industrial spray dryers handling solutions
and slurries. They also found satisfactory agreement between
the numerical solution and the experimental measurements.
However, Huang, Kumar, and Mujumdar (2004a) showed
that RNG ke3 model prediction was better for swirling
two-phase flow in the spray-drying chamber for drying of
maltodextrin e sucrose solution compared to standard ke3,
realizable ke3 and Reynolds stress models.
Oakley (2004) used four different models such as (i)
heat and mass balances, (ii) equilibrium-based models,
(iii) rate-based models, and (iv) CFD models for modelling
of spray-drying operations. Author compared the above
four models and described the relevance of each model
for practical applications. The importance of applied gas
turbulence model, drying kinetics, effect of atomizing air
and turbulent particle dispersion in the modelling of spray
dryers using liquid suspension of baker’s yeast as feed so-
lution was studied by Li and Zbicinski (2005). They simu-
lated a cocurrent spray dryer and determined the initial
parameters of discrete and continuous phases experimen-
tally to be used in the model. In a continuing work,
Zbicinski and Li (2006) presented conditions for accurate
CFD modelling during spray dying of maltodextrin solution
at different solid concentrations. They compared the simu-
lation results with the experimental data and concluded that
a maximum error of 20% will occur in the simulation re-
sults based on the discrete phase parameters. A brief review
of the air flow pattern studies in spray dryers was done by
Southwell and Langrish (2000). Table 1 summarises the
works performed on the CFD simulation of air flow pattern
Atomisation
The atomisation stage during spray drying is very impor-
tant since it affects the final particle size. A co-current
spray-dryer fitted with pressure nozzle was investigated
both in experiment and CFD simulation by Kieviet and
Kerkhof (1996) to develop a theoretical model for the pre-
diction of final product quality. Good agreement was ob-
tained between the experimental data and the simulation.
 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398 387

Table 1. Spray drying e air flow pattern studies.

Problem Model geometry Turbulence model Software Findings Authors

descriptions
Simulation of air 2D Standard ke3 and FLOW3D Non-swirling flow Oakley and Bahu
flow pattern with RSM spray chamber, the (1993)
experimental ke3 model gives
validation. good predictions of
gas velocity profiles,
whereas, for swirling
flows RSM model
gives better accurate
predictions.
Simulation of air 2D Standard ke3 FLOW3D Strongest oscillations Langrish et al. (1993)
flow pattern to find occur. Good
out the oscillations agreement between
in the flow field. hot-wire
anemometer velocity
measurements and
simulation results.
Effects of the air inlet 2D Standard ke3 CFX High swirl in the Langrish and
geometry and spray inlet air and large Zbicinski (1994)
cone angle on wall spray cone angle
deposition rates. gave the lowest wall
deposition rates in
both the experiments
and simulation.
Simulation of air 2D Standard ke3 CFX Good agreement Zbicinski (1995)
flow and particle between
trajectories in the measurements and
tall-form dryer with simulation results
experimental
validation.
Simulation of air 2D Standard ke3 CFX Model prediction Kieviet (1997)
flow pattern, agreed well with his
temperature, experimental
humidity, particle measurements of
trajectories and velocity, temperature
resistance time in and humidity.
a co-current spray
dryer fitted with
a pressure nozzle
Simulation studies 2D Standard ke3 CFX An increase in the Southwell, Langrish,
on the effects of amount of and Fletcher (1999)
increased turbulence evaporation resulted
in inlet air flow. directly from
enhanced inlet
turbulence.
Temperature and 2D Standard ke3 NIZO-DrySim The drying of Straatsma, Van
moisture content of droplets is Houwelingen,
the air with the influenced by Steenbergen, and De
trajectories of the particles surface to Jong (1999)
particles. surrounding air and
diffusion within the
particles.
Investigating the air 2D Standard ke3 Fluent The optimal Huang et al. (2003b)
flow pattern, chamber geometry
temperature, velocity will depends on the
and humidity profile feed properties,
at different spray atomizer type and
dryer chamber drop size distribution
configuration.

(continued on next page)

388 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398

Table 1 (continued)
Problem Model geometry Turbulence model Software Findings Authors
descriptions
Experimental and 3D RSM CFX 5.6 Comparison of with Langrish, Williams,
simulation studies of and without spray and Fletcher (2004)
inlet air swirl on the showed that the
stability of the flow introduction of spray
pattern in spray has significant effect
dryers. on the flow
behaviour. An
increase in swirl
angle changes the
internal flow pattern.
Simulation of a spray 3D Standard ke3, RNG Fluent 6.1 Realizable ke3 Huang et al. (2004a)
dryer with rotary ke3, realizable ke3 cannot be used to
atomizer. Kieviet’s and RSM simulate highly
(1997) spray dryer swirling two-phase
geometry was used. flow. RNG ke3
turbulent model
gives adequate
accuracy at
reasonable
computational time.
Simulation of spray 3D RNG ke3 Fluent More volume of Huang, Passos,
dryer fitted with drying chamber is Kumar, and
rotary atomizer. used by rotary Mujumdar (2005)
atomizer and
existence of strong
reverse flow just
beneath the rotating
disc.
Simulation of a spray 3D RNG ke3 Fluent Simulation results Huang et al. (2006)
dryer with pressure agreed well with
nozzle and rotary Kieviet (1997)
atomizer. Kieviet’s experimental results.
(1997) spray dryer
geometry was used.
Simulation of a spray 3D RANS Fluent Rotary atomizer has Ullum (2006)
dryer with rotary a big influence on
atomizer the flow pattern in
pilot scale spray
dryer, but its
influence decreases
with increase in size
of spray dryer.
Simulation of 3D Standard ke3 Fluent Good agreement Huang and
industrial scale spray with experimental Mujumdar (2007)
dryer with a new data. Off-design
drying kinetics performance of spray
model for a heat dryer was predicted
sensitive solution. to analyse the effect
of various operating
parameters on drying
performance
Evaluation of droplet 3D RNG ke3 Fluent The concept of Woo et al. (2008a)
drying models in particle rigidity
a spray dryer fitted prediction in a CFD
with rotary atomizer simulation was
using CFD explored and the
simulation effect of initial feed
moisture content on
the drying models
was also studied.
 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398 389

Table 1 (continued )
Problem Model geometry Turbulence model Software Findings Authors
descriptions
Modelling droplet 2D and 3D Standard ke3 Fluent 2D models can be Mezhericher
drying in a spray used for fast and et al. (2009)
dryer fitted with low-resource-
a pressure nozzle consumption
under steady and numerical
unsteady state. calculations with
some drawbacks. 3D
models can predict
the asymmetric flow
patterns and provide
actual 3D picture of
particle trajectories,
but require high
computing effort.
Simulation of 2D Standard ke3 Fluent Smaller spray cone Chen and Jin
industrial scale spray angle facilitates easy (2009a)
dryer attached with movement of
a Fluidized bed, particles to the
using Reaction fluidized bed. The
Engineering accuracy of REA
Approach (REA). model in predicting
the single droplet
drying kinetics was
also explained.

An ultrasonic nozzle spray dryer was studied numerically
by Huang, Kumar, and Mujumdar (2004b). Birchal,
Huang, Mujumdar, and Passos (2006) simulated a spray
dryer fitted with a rotary atomizer for drying of milk emul-
sion by using CFD and also by a model with simplified par-
ticle motion. Authors also discussed the advantages and
limitations of each model in the design and optimisation
of spray dryers. Effects of atomizers types (rotary disc
and pressure nozzle) on droplet behaviour was performed
using CFD by Huang, Kumar, and Mujumdar (2006) for
spray drying of maltodextrin. They concluded that pressure
nozzle may lead to a high velocity variation in the center of
the chamber than the rotary atomizer. Moreover, large recir-
culation of droplets was also found during pressure nozzle
atomisation.
Particle histories
The understanding of particle histories such as, velocity,
temperature, residence time and the particle impact position
are important to design and operating spray drying. More-
over, final product quality is depending on these particle
histories. These particle histories can be tracked with the
help of CFD simulations. Many of the early models were
developed for gas temperature and velocity profiles but,
very few articles have been reported on particles histories.
The importance of the particle histories and findings are
discussed in the following sub sections.
Aireparticle interaction
The primary problem in spray-drying modelling is the
coupling of equations in mass, momentum and energy
between the gas and the droplets. The phenomena of
mass transfer from droplet to gas were coupling by evapo-
ration, momentum exchange via drag and energy coupling
by heat transfer. Heat is transferred from the gas phase to
the droplets convectively and this leads to a decrease in
temperature of the gas this affects the viscosity and density
of the gas, which in turn may affect the gas flow field. This
then affects the droplet trajectories and the heat transfer rate
between the droplets and the gas (Crowe, Sharam, & Stock,
1977). Hence, all three equations (mass, momentum and
energy) are interdependent and should be included in the
gasedroplets interactions.
Crowe et al. (1977) first proposed the particle source in
cell (PSI-Cell) model. This is the basis for the discrete
phase model (DPM). The EulerianeLagrangian frame
(DPM) provides better residence times of individual parti-
cles with a large range of particle sizes. In the DPM, the
flow field is divided into a grid defining computational cells
around each grid point. Each computational cell is treated
as a control volume for the continuous phase (gas phase).
The droplets are treated as sources of mass, momentum
and energy inside the each control volume. The gas phase
is regarded as a continuum (Eulerian approach) and is de-
scribed by first solving the gas flow field assuming no drop-
lets are present. Using this continuous phase flow field,
droplet trajectories together with size and temperature his-
tories along the trajectories are calculated. The mass,
momentum and energy source terms for each cell through-
out the flow field is then determined. The source terms are
evaluated from the droplet equation and are integrated over
the time required to cross the length of the trajectory inside
390 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398

each control volume. The results are multiplied (scaled up) the effect of air inlet geometry and spray cone angle on
by the number flow rate of drops associated with this trajec- the deposition rate. They studied the particle impact posi-
tory (Crowe et al., 1977; Papadakis & King, 1988). tion and concluded that proper selection of chamber geom-
The gas flow field is solved again, incorporating these etry and cone angle will help in reducing the depositional
source terms and then new droplet trajectories and temper- problems and optimizing the performance of the system.
ature histories are calculated. This approach provides the In the CFD simulation combined Eulerian and Lagrang-
influence of the droplets on the gas velocity and tempera- ian model is used to obtain particle trajectories by solving
ture fields. The method proceeds iteratively calculating the force balance equation:
gas and particle velocity fields.

The range of droplet sizes produced by the atomizer is d u p 18m CD Re  rp  r g
¼ v  up þ g ð4Þ
represented by a number of discrete droplet sizes. Each ini- dt rp dp 24 rp
tial droplet size is associated with one trajectory, along
which the number flow rate of drops is constant, assuming where, v is the fluid phase velocity, up is the particle veloc-
that no coalescence or shattering occurs. Once the air ve- ity, rg is the density of the fluid and rp is the density of the
locities, temperatures, and humidity’s are postulated, the particle.
transport equations for the droplets of each size are inte- The particle force balance (equation of motion) includes
grated over time and position to yield droplet trajectories, discrete phase inertia, aerodynamic drag and gravity. The
velocities, sizes and temperatures. Calculations for droplets slip Reynolds number (Re) and drag coefficient (CD) are
of each initial size continue until the volatile fractions (e.g. given in the following equations.
water) in the droplets evaporate completely, exit the col-  
umn, or impact the column wall (Papadakis & King, 1988). rg dp  u p  v 
Re ¼ ð5Þ
The PSI-Cell model (Crowe et al., 1977) was used by m
Papadakis and King (1988) and they found good agreement
between the model and experimental results in a concurrent a2 a3
CD ¼ a 1 þ þ ð6Þ
spray dryer. O’Rourke and Wadt (1982) and Goldberg Re Re2
(1987) had further developed this model. The effect of swirl
on increase in residence time due to entrainment of parti- where, dp is the particle diameter, and a1, a2 and a3 are con-
cles and formation of central recirculation zone was ob- stants that apply to smooth spherical particles over several
served by Gupta, Lilley, and Syred (1984). However, all ranges of Reynolds number (Re) given by Morsi and
these studies are mostly simplified numerical models. Alexander (1972).
Oakley, Bahu, and Reay (1990) simulated the air flow in The velocity of particles relative to air velocity was used
a co-current cylinder-on-cone spray dryer using PSI-Cell in the trajectory calculations (equation (4)). Turbulent par-
model. The model’s predictions were compared to experi- ticle dispersion was included in this model as discrete eddy
mental measurements of the air flow using Laser Doppler concept (Langrish & Zbicinski, 1994). In this approach, the
Anemometry. Although that study did not include the influ- turbulent air flow pattern is assumed to be made up of a col-
ence of the spray on the air flow field, but both measure- lection of randomly directed eddies, each with its own life-
ments and simulations showed the presence of periodic time and size. Particles are injected into the flow domain at
oscillations in the size of the recirculation zones inside the nozzle point and envisaged to pass through these ran-
the drying chamber. The study also found that predictions dom eddies until they impact the wall or leave the flow do-
of the air flow patterns were sensitive to the values of tur- main through the product outlet.
bulence parameters (selected at the annular air inlet) of The heat and mass transfer between the particles and the
the standard ke3 turbulence model. Latter, Oakley and hot gas is derived following the motion of the particles.
Bahu (1993) validated the PSI-Cell model with experimen-   dmp
dTp
tal measurement. They also performed various works to as- mp cp ¼ hAp Tg  Tp þ hfg ð7Þ
dt dt
sess appropriate turbulence models and to test the validity
of the results against experimental data and concluded where, mp is the mass of the particle, cp is the particle heat
that CFD can be used for the determination of gas flow pat- capacity, Tp is the particle temperature, hfg is the latent heat,
tern, spray/gas mixing, particle temperature and moisture Ap is the surface area of the particle and h is the heat trans-
histories. Langrish, Oakley, Keey, Bahu, and Hutchinson fer coefficient
(1993) analysed low frequency oscillations in the flow field The heat transfer coefficient (h) is obtained from the
inside the drying chamber and their results are in agreement RanzeMarshall equation.
with the Oakley et al. (1990) observations. They found that
the ability to predict the onset of vortex breakdown is of hdp
Nu ¼ ¼ 2 þ 0:6ðRed Þ ðPrÞ ð8Þ
1=2 1=3
significant use in assessing the impact of the precessing kta
vortex core upon wall deposition, drying efficiency and
product quality. Langrish and Zbicinski (1994) studied where, Prandtl number (Pr) is defined as follows
 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398 391

cp m using different drying rate and turbulence models. They

Pr ¼ ð9Þ
kta found that the stochastic effect of turbulence flow has sig-
nificant effect on the particle path during the drying period.
where, dp is the particle diameter, kta is the thermal conduc- Anandharamakrishnan, Gimbun, Stapley, and Rielly (2008)
tivity of the fluid, m is the molecular viscosity of the fluid. studied the particle temperature in both short-form and tall-
The mass transfer rate (for evaporation) between the gas form spray dryer using CFD simulation for drying of whey
and the particles is calculated from the following equation. proteins. They found that due moisture evaporation of drop-
  lets, the temperature of droplets are high and is almost
dmp
¼ kc Ap Ys  Yg ð10Þ equal to the gas temperatures outside the core region. More-
dt over, the temperature of gas in the core spray region and the
where, Ys* is the saturation humidity, Yg is the gas humidity upper part of the chamber decreases due to the cooling ef-
and kc is the mass transfer coefficient and it can be obtained fects of evaporation. The particle nature was also affected
from Sherwood number by the outlet air temperature.

k c dp Particle residence time distribution (PRTD)

Sh ¼ ¼ 2 þ 0:6ðRed Þ ðScÞ ð11Þ
1=2 1=3
Di;m
where, Di,m is the diffusion coefficient of water vapour in
the gas phase and Sc is the Schmidt number, defined as
follows
m taken for droplets leaving the nozzle to impact on the
Sc ¼ ð12Þ
rg Di;m
The values of vapour pressure, density, specific heat and
diffusion coefficients can be obtained from various sources
like Perry and Chilton (1984), Incropera, Dewitt, Bergman,
and Lavine (2007), etc.
When the temperatures of the droplet has reached the
boiling point and while the mass of the droplet exceeds
the non-volatile fraction. The boiling rate model was ap-
plied (Kuo, 1986)
 
 
d dp 4kta pffiffiffiffiffiffi c g T g  Tp
¼ 1 þ 0:23 Re ln 1 þ ð13Þ
dt rp c g dp hfg
where, kta is the thermal conductivity of the gas and cg is
the heat capacity of the gas.
Particle temperature
The particle temperature is very important in case heat
sensitive products. Aroma loss and thermal degradation of
heat sensitive materials is affected by the residence time
and the temperature of particles. Crowe et al. (1977) pre-
dicted that the smaller size particles have higher tempera-
tures than the larger particles, because, the latter have
a smaller surface area to volume ratio and evaporate
more slowly. Kieviet (1997) studied the air flow pattern,
temperature, humidity, particle trajectories and residence
time in a 2D co-current spray dryer fitted with a pressure
nozzle using maltodextrin as feed solution. Author found
good agreement between the measured and modelled
data, and they concluded that the gradients in the center re-
gion of the drying chamber could be improved. The varia-
tion of particle temperature and gas temperature along the
particle trajectories during spray drying of skim milk solu-
tion (Huang, Kumar, & Mujumdar, 2004c) was studied
The particle residence time have a great impact on the
final powder quality and it also affect the product qualities
like solubility and bulk density. The residence time (RT) is
divided into two parts namely, primary and secondary res-
idence times. The primary RT is calculated from the time
wall or leave at the outlet. The secondary residence time
can be defined as the time taken for a particle to slide along
the wall from the impact position to the exit.
One of the earliest works to determine residence time dis-
tribution directly in a co-current spray dryer was performed
by Pham and Keey (1977). Latter, Kieviet and Kerkhof
(1995) determined the RTD of particles in a co-current spray
dryer during the drying of aqueous maltodextrin solutions.
Kieviet (1997) observed that during spray drying of malto-
dextrin solution, the larger diameter particles have longer
RT’s than smaller particles. He also found enormous differ-
ence between measured and predicted results due to particle
wall depositions and sliding movement. Ducept, Sionneau,
and Vasseur (2002) performed an experiment to determine
the RTD of particles and validated with the CFD predictions
in a superheated steam spray dryer. Authors concluded that
CFD is a valuable tool for studying particle size distribution
effects and flow rates. The residence time distribution of dif-
ferent sized particles in a spray dryer was studied by Huang,
Kumar, and Mujumdar (2003a) and they found that different
droplets follow different trajectories in the drying chamber.
Anandharamakrishnan et al. (2008) studied PRTD of whey
proteins in both short- and tall-form dryers and the residence
time (Fig. 2) indicates most of the particles have very low RT
during spray drying (short form). It was observed that a bent
outlet pipe inside the chamber increases the gas and particle
recirculation (Fig. 2); consequently, cold gas is mixed with
down-flowing hot inlet gas and dried particles will be ex-
posed to the high inlet gas temperatures. This recirculation
may lead to denaturation of proteins or inactivation of en-
zymes (Anandharamakrishnan, 2008). Hence, bend outlet
pipe needs to be avoided inside the chamber for producing
high quality spray dried food products. Moreover, they
found that large difference between the gas and particle res-
idence time. However, there is no direct measurement of
392 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398
Fig. 2. Particle trajectories coloured by residence time (s)
(Anandharamakrishnan et al., 2008).
primary RT available to confirm the predictions and this is an
interesting challenge for future research.
Particle impact positions
The knowledge of particle impact positions is important
for the design and operation of spray dryers as it influences
the final product quality. In an earlier numerical study
(Reay, 1988) has shown that most likely areas for wall de-
position are an annular area of the dryer roof and a region
below the atomizer where large particles are likely to de-
posit. Later, Kieviet (1997) investigated the interaction of
wall deposition with the residence time and the effect of
wall deposition on the product quality and yield during
spray drying of maltodextrin. Goula and Adamopoulos
(2004) determined how operating conditions can influence
the fouling and residue accumulation of the equipment dur-
ing the drying process. Recently, Anandharamakrishnan
et al. (2008) studied the particle impact position during dry-
ing of whey proteins from the simulation data using in-
house post-processor. Fig. 3 aeb shows the top and front
cross-sectional views of the simulated results
(Anandharamakrishnan et al., 2008). These figures indi-
cates that a large fraction of the particles (50%) strike the
conical part of the spray-dryer chamber (similar with the
earlier observation of Langrish & Zbicinski, 1994) and
23% of particles hit the cylindrical part of the wall, but
only a small proportion (25%) of the particles come out
of the outlet pipe line (the intended destination). A very
small 2% of particles hit the ceiling despite the large vol-
ume of re-circulated gas, but particles hitting the cone
and/or cylindrical wall (73%) should slide down to the
main outlet aided by mechanical hammer operations.
They also found that in a short-form dryer large fraction
of the particles strike the conical part of spray-dryer cham-
ber, while in tall-form dryer the particle stroked the cylin-
drical part of the wall. In the both form of dryers they
found less impact on the ceiling, despite of the recirculation
of gas in this zone.
Chamber design and flow configuration
The effect of different chamber geometries (cylinder-on-
cone, lantern, hour-glass and pure cone) on the drying per-
formance and the particle residence time was studied by
Huang et al. (2003a). They suggested that it is possible to
change the chamber geometry for better utilization of the
dryer volume. Similarly, a parametric study of gas flow pat-
terns and drying performance was investigated by the same
research group (Huang, Kumar, & Mujumdar, 2003b). The
use of CFD to obtain uniform flow distribution in a plenum
chamber with a single, off-axis, inlet pipe was studied by
Southwell, Langrish, and Fletcher (2001). The flow distri-
bution was investigated and the result was confirmed by ex-
perimental data for selected configurations. They concluded
that CFD can be used for several design alternatives for
overcoming poor flow distribution.
Apart from the conventional vertical design of the spray
dryers the use of horizontal design is gaining importance
nowadays. Huang and Mujumdar (2006) investigated a sin-
gle-stage and two-stage horizontal spray dryer using CFD.
They found that use of good chamber design and incorpo-
ration of fluidized bed will improve the drying perfor-
mance. In spray drying, the majority of works have been
performed on co-current flow. The modelling of air flow
patterns in a counter-current spray dryers (Harvie,
Langrish, & Fletcher, 2001), provided light into this area,
but has been lacked by experimental data for validation.
However, Bayly, Jukes, Groombridge, and McNally
(2004) has both measured and modelled air flow patterns
in a counter-current spray dryer using Reynolds Stress
Model for the gas turbulence and they found good agree-
ment with the measured results.
Recent developments
In the recent years, the application of Reaction Engineering
Approach (REA), drying kinetics model, dropletedroplet in-
teractions, unsteady state modelling and population balance
model for the simulation of spray dryers is increasing. In the
Reaction Engineering Approach, it assumes that evaporation
is an activation process to overcome an energy barrier, while
it is not the case for condensation or adsorption. REA is
a two-way model as compared to the one-way characteristic
drying rate curve (CDRC) for predicting the single droplet dry-
ing. The basic of REA was described by Chen, Pirini, and
Ozilgen (2001) and Chen and Xie (1997). This method de-
scribes the droplet drying trend, giving a detailed account of
the temperature changes that occurring within the droplet dur-
ing the drying period and it requires some experimental data to
 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398
Fig. 3. Particle impact positions (a) top view (b) front view (Anandharamakrishnan et al., 2008).
determine the model parameters. The REA model was used by
Chen and Xie (1997) for the simulation of drying of thin layer
food materials such as kiwifruit, silica gel, potato and apple sli-
ces. Moreover, Huang et al. (2004a) found that this approach
(REA) fits in well with the fluent commercial CFD code for
spray drying.
Chen and Lin (2004) compared the REA and CDRC for
drying of skim milk and whole milk droplets. The same
modelling procedure was used by Chen and Lin (2005) to
measure the process of single milk droplet drying under el-
evated humidity conditions by REA. They found that the
REA method gave better predictions of the droplet drying
than the CDRC method. A REA model for drying of aque-
ous lactose droplet was developed by Lin and Chen (2006)
using the experimental data obtained by the improved glass
filament method. The REA method was used for modelling
whey protein concentrate droplet drying (Chen & Patel,
2008; Lin & Chen, 2007). They found that the model
showed reasonably good agreement with the experimental
data. They concluded that the inlet air temperature, feed
temperature and droplet size had a significant impact on
the drying rate and the overall product quality. The drying
kinetics model based on REA is also found to be influenced
by the above parameters. A work was carried out to evalu-
ate the different drying models, namely REA, CDRC linear
and CDRC modified in a spray dryer fitted with rotary disc
atomizer by Woo et al. (2008a). Authors found that the
REA model can be used for prediction of particle surface
moisture of wet particles with better results. Chen (2008)
has reviewed the application of the REA model for
drying of thin layer materials and for solid droplets. The
similarities and differences between the two drying models
393
(CDRC and REA) were also discussed and the recent appli-
cation of the latter model in the area of milk production for
scale-up from lab to industrial scale was also noted.
Further, this REA based drying kinetics model can be in-
corporated into the CFD programs in future years to deter-
mine the wall deposition pattern, droplet residence time and
droplet trajectories during spray-drying operation.
Apart from the boiling-point evaporation model few works
have been performed in determination of the drying kinetics
during spray drying. The experimental determination of
spray-drying kinetics was performed by Zbicinski,
Strumillo, and Delag (2002). They determined the spray-dry-
ing kinetics as a function of atomisation ratio and drying agent
temperature. Zbicinski, Piatkowski, and Prajs (2005) contin-
ued the study and proved that based on the critical moisture
content of the material, the spray-drying kinetics could be de-
termined from the generalized drying curves. This lab scale
details can be used for scaling up of spray-drying process. Fur-
ther, Woo, Daud, Talib, and Tasirin (2008b) analysed the effect
of wall surface properties on the deposition problem during
spray drying using different drying kinetics. They concluded
that proper selection of dryer wall material will provide poten-
tial alternatives for reducing the deposition problem. More re-
cently, Roustapour, Hosseinalipour, Ghobadian, Mohaghegh,
and Azad (2009) performed a CFD study for the drying of
lime juice. They determined the drying kinetics based on ex-
perimental results of moisture content variation along the
length of chamber and numerically estimated residence time
of droplets. Authors found that an increase in initial droplet di-
ameter resulted in a lower particle residence time. A compar-
ison of two drying kinetics models namely, characteristic
drying curve (CDC) and REA was performed by Woo et al.,
394 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398
(2008c) and they found that the different responses of the REA
and CDC to different initial feed moisture conditions due to the
respective formulation of the driving forces in the two models.
Further, the authors extended REA model to simulate the par-
ticle surface moisture.
More recently, dropletedroplet interactions during the
spray drying was performed by applying the transient
mode of calculations (Mezhericher, Levy, & Borde,
2008). The droplet collisions influenced the temperature
and humidity patterns while their effect on velocity was
less marked. They investigated both insulated and noninsu-
lated spray chambers and reported that the insulation of
spray chamber will affect the air flow patterns and thereby
affecting the droplet trajectories. The probabilistic ap-
proach developed by O’Rourke (1981) was used by them
for determining the dropletedroplet interactions.
The unsteady state simulation of spray drying is new
area of research. Mezhericher, Levy, and Borde (2009)
modelled droplet drying in spray-drying chamber by apply-
ing the unsteady mode of calculations. They performed
both 2D and 3D analysis and concluded that the 3D model
predicts asymmetry of flow patterns in the spray chamber.
However, 2D axi-symmetric model can be used for fast
and low-resource-consumption numerical calculations.
Similarly, Woo et al. (2008a) also observed the same in
their unsteady state simulation. Chen and Jin (2009b) per-
formed transient 3D simulations in an industrial scale spray
dryer (15 m tall and 10 m wide). They observed that the
particles make the central jet oscillate more non-linearly
and the frequency of oscillation decreases with the increas-
ing feed rate. Recently, Woo et al. (2009) have performed
unsteady state simulations of spray drying and investigated
the effect of chamber aspect ratio and operating conditions
on flow stability. Authors observed that a large expansion
ratio produces a more stable flow due to the limitations
of the jet fluctuations by outer geometry constriction.
The modelling of spray dryers using population balance
method is gaining importance nowadays because this model
accounts for the droplet growth, coalescence and break up
during the spray-drying process. Nijdam, Guo, Fletcher,
and Langrish (2004) modelled the particle agglomeration
within the spray chamber using two different frameworks
namely, Lagrangian and Eulerian. They validated their pre-
diction using phase doppler anemometry (PDA) measure-
ment and they found that Lagrangian approach is more
suitable for modelling of agglomeration of particles in
terms of ease of implementation and range of applicability.
However, authors concluded that more work needs to be
performed to refine the turbulence models for the Lagrang-
ian approach in order to account for the various particle tur-
bulence phenomena and particleeparticle correlations.
Recently, Handscomb, Kraft, and Bayly (2009) included
source term for droplet coalescence and break up. This ap-
proach gives a better understanding of complexities of two-
phase flows in spray dryers. The model includes nucleation
and growth of suspended solids from an ideal binary
solution. Moreover, this approach may give opportunity
to perform the simulation of wet shells and puffing phe-
nomena during the period of drying for a better understand-
ing of the drying process.
Scope for future research
Still there is a scope for future research in this area for
optimisation of spray-drying process. The modelling of par-
ticle interactions (by four-way coupling between
gaseparticle and particleeparticle), particle coalescence
and break up is a great challenge for the modellers. The
modelling of turbulence using the Detached Eddy Simula-
tion (DES) is also gaining importance. The success of these
models depends on the experimental validations. The re-
duction of wall deposition (including the product nature)
and thermal degradation by modifying the air inlet geome-
try and spray pattern also offers scope for future research.
The prediction of the particle residence time (including
sliding movement of particles in the secondary RT) is cur-
rently lacking. Hence, there is scope for future research in
the area to overcome problems like agglomeration, wall de-
position, particle residence time, thermal degradation of
particles and aroma loss. Recently, Langrish (2007) also
observed the same. Thus modelling approach may leads
to the better productivity and high quality food products.
Conclusion
The objective of this review is to emphasis the impor-
tance of CFD in the modelling of the spray dryers. There
is considerable growth in the development and application
of CFD in the area of spray-drying to predict the complex
flow patterns. The EulerianeLagrangian model is suitable
for the spray-drying operations as it has the advantage of
being computationally cheaper than the EulerianeEulerian
method for a large range of particle sizes. The particle his-
tories prediction will give an idea regarding the drying be-
haviour based on particle temperature, the residence time
based on trajectories and the final product recovery based
on impact positions. The REA based drying kinetics model
can be used to determine the temperature change within the
droplet during drying. However, more works needs to be
performed with population balance modelling. Moreover,
some of the problems during spray drying of food products
have been highlighted. Now, with the increasing computing
power CFD will be a valuable tool for the food industry in
answering complex fluid flow, heat and mass transfer phe-
nomena and aid in better design and process control of
spray dryers.
Acknowledgements
Authors wish to thank Dr. V. Prakash, Director, CFTRI for
the support and encouragement in CFD simulation studies.
Anandharamakrishnan wishes to acknowledge Prof. C.D.
Rielly, Professor and Head, and Dr. Andy Stapley, Senior
Lecturer, Chemical Engineering Department, Loughborough
University, UK for their help.
 R. Kuriakose, C. Anandharamakrishnan / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 383e398
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