I.

Oil and gas maturation processes

A. Introduction

In general, the efficiency of origin, migration, and accumulation processes of hydrocarbons is very
poor.
e.g. Oil and gas are predominantly derived from decayed vegetables, plants and bacteria. 2% (percent) of the
organic matter that is dispersed in the fine grained rocks can becomes petroleum (oil and gas). Approx. 0.5
percent of this then ends up in a commercial reservoir accumulation.

In maturation the following processes must take place for oil and gas to mature.

• Accumulation. (amount, content)

• Preservation (deposition, environment)

• Generation (time, depth, burial.)

Along with mineral grains such as sands and muds, organic matter was deposited. The source of
gas and oil is this organic matter that accumulated, was buried (deep and slowly), preserved and
matured “cooked” for mature oil and gas to result.

Time, temperature and burial depth are also important factors to consider within the ancient
sedimentary rocks.

Maturation of organic matter deposited occurs mostly in finely grained marine sediments.

The most common organic rich sedimentary rock for oil and gas, is SHALE.

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 B. Maturation of Petroleum

Accumulation.

Organic rich sediments were typically deposited in anoxic silled basins, on shelf margins in
association with upwelling and oxygen minimum zones . Bacteria and algae attacked the organic
matter on a sea or lake floor in an oxygen free (nitrogen rich) environment. This formed an
unconsolidated deposit (sapropel). This is the first stage in the maturation process.

Rates of turnover of Sea biomass partly explains the importance and assumptions that small
plankton, algae, pollen etc are the main source materials for oil and gas. Seasonal or annual
blooms of plankton, algae, pollen etc. are invoked to account for distinct laminated features seen in
oil shales i.e. alternating clastic and / or organic laminae. In many oil shales remains of algae, spores,
pollen and plankton remains are commonly seen under microscope as much of the organic content
to support the assumption of accumulation of organic matter

Figure 1 : Accumulation of organic matter

Anaerobic conditions are required to prevent oxidation of the organic matter and to reduce bacterial

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degradation (accumulation loss).

Much organic source is found in stratified water bodies where oxygenated surface waters permit
plankton growth. As stated earlier, organic matter is sapropelic, supplied by phytoplankton.

The accumulation of such matter is aided when circulation of water is restricted to some extent so
that an oxygen deficiency exists on the bottom sediments to decompose the organic material. E.g.
lakes, fjords, silled basins (Black Sea), sediment starved basins (Gulf of California), and deep Ocean trenches
( Cariaco trench.)

Figure 2 : Volumes of oil and gas with depth.

As a result of poor circulation and restriction

the water bodies become stratified and the
sea or lake floor may become oxygen
deficient (dysaerobic) or totally anoxic.
Dysaerobic conditions occur where the sea
floor is within the oxygen minimum zone ,
generally in a depth range of 100-100m.

The low O2 results from bacterial

decomposition of organic matter sinking down
from fertile oxic surface waters. Where there
is oxygen deficiency on the sea floor, organic
matter will be preserved.

Note : In oil shales typically 4% -50% weight of rock volume will be produced, this represents
approx. 50 – 700 litres of oil per metric ton.

Most of the Earth’s oil and gas is thought to have been produced during the Jurassic and
Cretaceoua periods with less from the Carboniferous and Tertiary periods. Figure 3 illustrates
what is thought to have been distributed through Geological time.

Figure 3 : Distribution of source rocks through time and estimated resources

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Preservation

In many depositional environments, organic matter is decomposed and destroyed at sediments

surface. If the rate of organic matter accumulation is high, it can be preserved. The anoxic bottom
waters allow preservation of organic matter. Where there is oxygen deficiency on the sea floor,
organic matter will be preserved Where there are anoxic conditions on the sea floor, there is
usually too much H2S in the water and bethnic organisms are absent e.g. Black Sea and Cariaco
trench at this time.

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Generation.

For any given depth of burial or temperature to which it has been heated, the type of source rock
controls the chemical composition of oil and gas produced.

A diverse group of rocks contain organic matter that is mostly insoluble in organic solvents. Organic
matter produced is largely Kerogen. The most common source rock is black shale, though some oil
shales are rich Siltstones and another abundant source rock is organic rich Limestone's. The
organic matter in oil source rocks is finely disseminated so that the organisms from which it was
formed are difficult identify.

Diagenesis of organic material can begin very early at shallow burial depths of 10’s to 100’s of
metres and several millions of years in age. e.g. methane produced through bacterial fermentation.
Continuing burial diagenesis of deposited organic matter leads to the formation of Kerogen, the
type dependant on the organic matter contained in the source. Differences in composition of
Kerogen can lead to production of largely gas or to a variety of oil types, see table 1 and figures 4 & 5.

Type I Algae, bacteria Liptinite Oil prone

Type II Spores, cuticles Liptinite Waxy oil and condensate prone

Type III Land plants, cellulose Vitrinite Gas prone

Type IV ‘Dead carbon’ Inertnite No potential

Table 1 : Kerogen types

Burial to temperatures of 50-90°C causes thermocatalytic reactions in the Kerogen resulting in the
main constituents of crude oil being generated and matured. With increasing temperature, more
and more oil is generated until a maximum is reached. With further increasing temperature oil
generation reduces, gas quantities increase.

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Figure 4 : Kerogen types

Figure 4 illkustrates a Van Krevelen diagram

showing Kerogen types I, II & III and their
evolution paths with increasing burial as oil, wet
gas and dry gas are generated.

Figure 5 : Changes of Kerogen with maturation

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Figure 6 : Phases of oil maturation

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Time

Time is a vital factor in source rock maturation. Higher temperatures and greater burial depths are
required for generation from younger rocks compared with older rocks., which can thus reach
maturity at lower temperatures, see diagram of north sea examples enclosed, also see figure 3 and figure
10

Figure 7 : Time of rock source maturation

Figure 8 : Timing of generation from Upper Jurassic, North Sea.

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The Oil “maturation” Window

Finally in maturation, the “Oil Window” is considered the area of depth and range of temperature
in the Earth where oil is matured from source rocks

In the average sedimentary basin, oil maturation

begins at 120°F (50°C) peaks at 190°F (90°C) and
ends at 350°F (175°C). Above and below the Oil
Window natural gas is generated. E.g. Above we find
biogenic swamp gas and below it we find thermal gas.

In different regions it depends on the geothermal

gradients within the Earth's crust.

For an average sedimentary basin the heat gradient

is 1.4°F per 100 ft, North Sea 30°C / 1000m, with
the Oil Window starting at 5000 ft, 1500m, and
ending at approx. 20,000 ft, 6000m.

Increasing temperatures convert the heavy

hydrocarbons into lighter ones and ultimately to gas.

At higher temperatures above 500°F (

260°C), the organic material is
carbonised and destroyed as a source
material. Consequently, if source beds
become too deeply buried, no
hydrocarbons will be produced.

However, this also varies with the age of

the sediments as crude oil cannot exist
below the Oil Window. See figure opposite

For the reasons given therefore, some

sedimentary basins are unproductive,
since the basin might not have an organic
rich source rock that could generate
petroleum or may never have been
buried in the Oil Window.

Also, some basins are gas prone, that is

they only produce natural gas due to
nature of source e.g. coaly source rocks of
Eocene in parts of Indonesia/Far East.

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