Chapter 3

CHAPTER THREE
BRIDGE LOADING
&
DESIGN METHODS
2021-04-08 Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A.

OUTLINE
❖Introduction
❖Permanent Loads
❖Transient Loads
❖Dynamic Loads
❖Superimposed Deformations
❖Load Factors and Load
Combinations
❖Analysis of Loads in Bridge
Super Structure
2021-04-08
3.1 INTRODUCTION
❖ The bridge engineer must first list all the
possible loads on the bridge.
1. Permanent Loads:
▪ Dead Load of Structural Component
▪ Dead Load of Wearing Surface
▪ Dead Load of Earth fill
▪ Earth Surcharge
▪ Horizontal Earth Pressure
Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Cont.…
2. Transient Loads:
▪ Vehicle Live Loads
▪ Wind Loads
▪ Pedestrian loads
▪ Live load surcharge…
▪ Water Loads
▪ Centrifugal Forces
▪ Braking Forces
▪ Vehicular collision force
3. Dynamic Loads
▪ Earthquake load
Cont.…
4. Super imposed Deformation Loads:
▪ Thermal Forces
▪ Creep
▪ Shrinkage
▪ Settlement

3.1 PERMANENT LOADS
❖ Permanent gravity loads are the loads that
remain on the bridge for an extended period of
time or for the whole service life . Such loads
include:
A. Dead load of structural components and non
structural attachments--------------------------------(DC)
B. Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities----(DW)
C. Dead load of earth fill-----------------------------(EV)
D. Earth pressure load -------------------------------(EH)
E. Earth surcharge load ------------------------------(ES)
A. Dead Load of Structural Components
&Non Structural Attachments (DC)
❖ Dead load includes the self weight of:
▪ Structural component such as girder, deck (slab),
diaphragm (transverse beams) etc.

▪ Non structural components such as median,
railings, signs, post, etc.

B. Dead Load of Wearing Surface (DW)
❖ Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities

▪ It is the weight of the wearing surface (usually
asphalt) and utilities (pipes, lightings, etc.)
▪ Asphalt surface may be thicker than designed &
may gate laid on top of old layer over & over
▪ Density of asphalt paving material=2250kg/m3
▪ Average thickness of asphalt on bridge = 9cm

Table-Unit Weight of Materials

C. Dead Load of Earth Fill (EV)
❖ This vertical dead load of fill must be

considered for buried/covered structures such
as culverts due dead load of earth cover.
❖ It is determined by multiplying the unit weight
times the depth of the materials.
Culvert Structure
D. Earth Pressure Load (EH)
❖ Retained soil always exert horizontal active and

passive earth pressures on abutment based on
Coulomb theory.
❖ Coulomb theory is recommended by AASHTO for
masonry and RC abutment since this theory holds
better for the actual situation.
❖ Lateral earth pressure shall be assumed to be linearly
proportional to the depth of earth and taken as:

Cont.…
❖ Where;
p = lateral earth pressure (MPa)
k = coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as
ko, for walls that do not deflect or move, ka, for walls that deflect or
move sufficiently to reach minimum active conditions, or
kp, for walls that deflect or move sufficiently to reach a passive
condition
𝛾𝑠 = unit weight of soil (kg/m3)
z = depth below the surface of earth (mm)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/sec2)
❖ The resultant lateral earth load due to the weight of the backfill
shall be assumed to act at a height of H/3 above the base of the
wall.
Cont.…
❖At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, 𝒌𝒐
❖ Active Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, 𝒌𝒂
2021-04-08
Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A.
Cont.…
δ = friction angle between fill and wall taken, β =
angle of fill to the horizontal , θ = angle of back
face of wall to the horizontal (all are in degrees)

E. Earth Surcharge Load (ES)
❖ It is the result of a concentrated load or uniform load

placed near the top of a retaining wall.
❖ For Abutment , the approach slab is considered an
Earth surcharge load.
❖ Part or all of this load could be removed in the future
or the surcharge material (loads) could be changed.

Cont.…
❖ Where a uniform surcharge is present, a constant
horizontal earth pressure shall be added to the basic
earth pressure. This constant earth pressure may be
taken as:
∆p=ksqs…. (3.11.6.1-1)
❖ Where,
▪ ∆p= constant horizontal earth pressure due to uniform
surcharge (MPa)
▪ ks = coefficient of earth pressure due to surcharge
▪ qs = uniform surcharge applied to the upper surface of
the active earth wedge (MPa)
Cont.…
❖ For active earth pressure conditions, ks shall

be taken as ka, and for at-rest conditions, ks
shall be taken as ko. Otherwise, intermediate
values appropriate for the type of backfill and
amount of wall movement may be used.

3.2 TRANSIENT LOADS
❖ Transient loads are loads which changes its
magnitude and direction with time.
▪ Vehicular , & Pedestrian Live Loads
▪ Braking Forces
▪ Centrifugal Forces
▪ Vehicular Collision Force
▪ Live Load Surcharge
▪ Water Forces
▪ Wind Forces
Vehicular Live Loads (LL)
❖ Vehicular live loads can be described

interims of;
I. Vehicular Design loads
II. Dynamic Effects
III. Design lanes
IV. Multiple Presence
V. Fatigue Loads

I. Vehicular Design loads
❖ Vehicular live load is designated based on

AASHTO has three basic types of LL the HL-
93 loading (Stands for Highway Loading
year,1993)
1. Design Truck
2. Design Tandem
3. Design Lane Load

1. Design Truck
❖ Design Truck:-The weights and spacing of axles and

wheels for the design truck shall be as specified in
Figure (HS20-44).
▪ A Dynamic load allowance shall be considered
and the spacing between the two 145kN axles shall
be varied between 4300 and 9000mm to produce
extreme effect.

 Fig: Design Truck –(HS20-44)
Fig: Design Truck –

(HS20-44)

2. Design Tandem
❖ Shall consist of a pair of 110KN axles spaced 1200 mm apart. The

transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1800 mm. A
dynamic load allowance shall be considered and Leads larger
moment than the HS20-44 track for span length less than 10m.

3. Design Lane Load:
❖ The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3kN/m,

uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction.
❖ Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to
be uniformly distributed over a 3.0m width (3.1kN/m2).
❖ The force effects from the design lane load shall not be
subject to a dynamic load allowance. (AASHTO, ERA
Design manual)
❖ May be apply continuously or discontinuously over the
length of the bridge to produce maximum effect.

Fig: Design Lane Load
II. Dynamic Effect
Tyre Contact Area

❖ The tyre contact area of a wheel consisting of one
or two tires shall be assumed to be a single
rectangle, whose width is 510 mm, and whose
length is 250 mm
Dynamic Load Allowance (IM )
❖ The dynamic load allowance (IM) is an increment
to be applied to the static wheel load to account for
wheel load impact (Dynamic effect) from moving
vehicles.
Cont.…
❖ Dynamic load allowance consider for
▪ Design truck
▪ Design tandem
❖ Other than centrifugal and braking forces, shall be
increased by the percentage specified in AASHTO
Table 3.6.2.1-1 for dynamic load allowance.
❖ Sources of Dynamic Effects
▪ Hammering effect when wheels hit the
discontinuities on the road surface joints.
▪ Dynamic response of the bridge due to vibration
induced by traffic live load.
Cont.…
❖ Dynamic load allowance need not be
applied to:
▪ Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions
from the superstructure.
▪ Foundation components that are entirely below
ground level.
▪ Pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.

Cont.…
❖ Dynamic load allowance can be obtained
▪ The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as:
IM=(1 + IM/100)

III. Design Lanes
❖ Two terms are used in the lane design of a bridge:

▪ Traffic lane and
▪ Design lane
➢ Traffic lane
❖ The traffic lane is the number of lanes of traffic
that the traffic engineer plans to route across the
bridge.
❖ A traffic lane is typically 3600 mm by traffic
engineer.
Cont.…
➢ Design lane
❖ The design lane is the road width that used by
the bridge engineer for live-load placement.
❖ ERA 3.6.1.1.1 design manual uses a 3000-mm
design lane But AASHTO 3.6.1.1.1 design

manual uses a 3600-mm design lane width.

Cont.…
➢ Number of Design Lanes = Clear road width/3.6m
➢ Number of Traffic Lanes = Clear road width/3.6m
≥No of actual traffic lane

Where:-
w is the clear roadway width b/n curbs and/or barriers.
➢ For road width from 6m to 7.2m, there should be two
design lanes, each equal to ½ of the roadway width.

Cont.…
➢ The bridge width shall not be less than that of the approach
roadway section, including shoulders or curbs, gutters, and
sidewalks.
➢ The minimum width of bridge See Table 2.3.3.3-1 for a listing of
bridge configurations and corresponding widths.

Cont.…
Fig:- Number of Lanes

IV. Multiple Presence of Live Load
❖Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on

roadways with multiple design lanes but this is
unlikely that all adjacent lanes will be loaded
simultaneously. This will be considered by the
multiple presence factors.

Cont.…
❖When the loading condition includes the pedestrian
loads combined with one or more lanes of the
vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads shall be taken
to be one loaded lane, to account for the probability of
simultaneous lane occupation by the live load.

Cont.…
Multiple Presence of Vehicles

V. Fatigue Load
❖ Fatigue is tendency of a material to break when subjected

to repeated loading/unloading conditions.
❖ Fatigue load depends on two factors
1. Magnitude of live load:

▪ Use HS20-44 design truck(with out lane load) 9m b/n
145kN axles to get maximum effects of load.
2. Number of stress cycles under service load condition
▪ It is based on traffic survey use average daily truck traffic
in a single (one) lane (ADTTSL) only in one direction.

Cont.…

Cont.…
❖ In the absence of better information, single
lane average daily truck traffic shall be taken
as: ADTTSL

Cont.…

Cont.…

Cont.…
➢ Fatigue limit states are used to limit stress in steel
reinforcements to control concrete crack growth
under repetitive truck loading in order to prevent
early fracture failure before the design service life of a
bridge.

Braking Force (BR)
❖ Braking force is caused by deceleration (retardation)

of vehicle b/n it’s weight and friction force
❖ According to AASHTO Article 3.6.4 the braking force
shall be taken as the greater of:
1) 25% of the axle weights of design truck or tandem
2) 5% of the axle weights of design truck plus lane
load
3) 5% of the axle weights of design tandem plus lane
load

Cont.…
❖ These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at a
distance of 1800 mm above the roadway surface in
either longitudinal direction for sub structure ,pier
design.
❖ The kinetic energy is equated to the work performed by
the braking force giving

Cont.…
Fig: Breaking Force

Centrifugal Forces (CE)
➢ Centrifugal force is an outward force due to

inertia resistance of vehicles on curved
bridges.
➢ Centrifugal forces shall be applied
horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the
road way surface and used for sub-structure
design.

Cont.…
➢ Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the

product of the axle weights of the design
truck or tandem and the factor C, taken as:

Cont.…

Vehicular Collision (CT)
➢ Vehicular collision with barrier and pier
should be considered during design.
➢ Typically considered in the design of
substructures For piers & abutment located
within 9 m from edge of roadway or 15m from
the centerline of railway track.

Cont.…
➢ Need to consider, if structures pier ,abutment are
not protected by either
▪ Embankment
▪ Cross-resistant barriers 1.37m height located

within 3m
▪ Any barriers of 1.07m height located more
than 3m
➢ Unless protections are provided on pier ,a horizontal
collision force of 1800 kN applied at 1.2 m above the
ground should b considered .AASHTO Article 3.6.5
Cont.…
Fig:-vehicular collision for barrier
Fig:-Vehicular Collision Fig:-vehicular collision with pier

Pedestrian Live Loads (PL)
➢ A pedestrian load of 3.6 kN/m2 shall be applied to all
sidewalks wider than 0.6m and considered
simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.
➢ No IM factor (neglect dynamic effect of pedestrians)
➢ If load is applied on bridge restricted to pedestrian or
bicycle traffic , then 4.1kN/m2 is used.

Live Load on Deck and Railing
❖ Live load should be placed 30 cm from the

face of the curb or railing for design of the
deck over hang and 60 cm from the edge of
the design lane for the design of all other
component.
❖ The pedestrian railing must be designed for a
load of 0.73 N/mm both transversely and
vertically.

Cont.…
❖ The pedestrian railing must be designed to
sustain concentrated load of 890 N applied to the
top rail in any direction and at any location.

Live Load Surcharge (LS)
❖ A live load surcharge shall be applied where vehicular load is expected
to act on the surface of the backfill within a distance equal to one-half
the wall height behind the back face of the wall.

Cont.…
Fig-Applicability Range For Live Load Surcharge

Water Loads (WA)
❖ Water loads may be categorized into:
1. Static pressure (acting perpendicular to all surfaces)
2. Buoyancy (vertical uplift force)
3. Stream pressure (acting in the direction of the stream)
1-Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be
assumed to act perpendicular to the surface that is
retaining the water. AASHTO /ERA Article 3.7.1
P=γ g h
2-Buoyancy : is uplift vertical components of static
pressures force taken as the sum of acting on all
components below design water level.
Cont.…
3-Stream Pressure :-
❖ Longitudinal Stream Pressure: The longitudinal drag
force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal stream

pressure and the projected surface exposed. Stream
pressure in longitudinal direction P:-

Cont.…
❖ Lateral Stream pressure: uniformly distributed
pressure on substructure due to water flowing at an
angle(θ), to the longitudinal axis of the pier.

Wind Load (WS)
❖ Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): For small and

medium sized concrete bridges below 50m length the
wind load on structures shall be neglected.
❖ In the absence of more precise data, design wind
pressure (PD), shall be determined as: ERA section
3.8.1.2.1

Cont.…

Cont.…
Fig: Wind Load on Bridge

Cont.…
Fig: Wind Load on Bridge

3.3 DYNAMIC LOAD
❖ Earthquake Load (EQ)
▪ Earthquake loads are given by the product of the
elastic seismic response coefficient Csm and the

equivalent weight of the superstructure (w).

Cont.…

Cont.…

Cont.…
Table 3. 14 Bedrock Acceleration Ratio (ES EN
1998:2015 Table D1)
Zone 5 4 3 2 1 0
𝐚𝐠
𝛂𝟎 = ൗ𝐠 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.07 0.04 0
Ground Type A B C D E
S 1.0 1.35 1.5 1.8 1.6

3.4 SUPER-IMPOSED
DEFORMATION
❖ In bridge we have to consider the following forces due to
deformation:
1. Temperature
2. Creep and Shrinkage
3. Settlement
❖ Most bridges experience daily and seasonal temperature
variations thus
i. Uniform temperature change
ii. Gradient or non-uniform temperature change
❖ Force effects deformation, displacement of points of load
application, and support movements shall be included in the
analysis.
Temperature Change (TU)
❖ Uniform Temperature Change (TU):-This uniform
temperature change type can lengthens or shortens the
bridge or if the supports are constrained it will induce
reactions at the bearings/at structure. ΔL=αΔT*L , no
effect for simply supported.
❖ In the absence of more precise information, the
temperature ranges shall be as specified in Table3.12.2-1

Cont.…
❖ Non-uniform temperature change (TG):-This non-
uniform heating causes the temperature to increase
more in the top portion of the system than in the bottom
and the girder attempts to bow upward as shown in the
figure.

Cont.…
❖ A = 0.3m for concrete super structure with depth >0.4m
and A = depth – 0.1m for depth < 0.4m .

Creep and Shrinkage (CR & SR)
➢ Creep (CR) is defined as the gradual,

continuing irreversible change in the dimensions
of a member due to the sustained application of
load.
➢ Shrinkage(SR) is reduction of concrete volume
due to evaporation during fresh and hardening
stage. You can read more on AASHTO 5.4.2.3.2
& 5.4.2.3.3.

Settlement (SE)
➢ Settlement (SE); Force effects due to extreme

values of differential settlements among
substructures and within individual substructure
units shall be considered.
➢ Estimates of settlement for individual
substructure units may be made in accordance
with the provisions in AASHTO 2010 Article
10.7.2.3. and this load effects may be included
in the bridge design.
3.5 LOAD FACTORS & LOAD
COMBINATIONS
❖ In LRFD method, load factors are applied to the loads
and resistance factors to the resistances or capacities of
sections.
❖ Load combinations (Q) in LRFD:-
Q=η∑ γiQi ;η- Load multiplier and γi- Load factor
❖ Load Factor(Yi)- A statistically based multiplier applied to
force effects accounting primarily for the variability of loads,
the lack of accuracy in analysis, and the probability of
simultaneous occurrence of different loads.
❖ Load Modifier(η)- A factor accounting for ductility,
redundancy, and the operational classification of the bridge.
Cont.…
❖ STRENGTH I: Basic load combination relating to the normal
vehicular use of the bridge without wind.
❖ STRENGTH II: load combination for special vehicles specified
by owner with out wind.
❖ STRENGTH III: load combination where the bridge is
subjected to high wind (> 90 km/h) and no live load.
❖ STRENGTH IV: load combination for long span bridges (>67
m span) which has large ratio of DC to LL.
❖ STRENGTH V: load combination where bridge and traffic on
the bridge is subjected to wind velocity of 90 km/h
Cont.…
❖ EXTREME EVENT I - Load combination including
earthquake
❖ SERVICE I: load combination for normal operation of the
bridge and for checking compression in prestressed concrete.

❖ SERVICE II: This service limit state refers to the load
combination relating only to steel structures and is intended to
control yielding and slip of slip critical connections.
❖ SERVICE III: This service limit state refers to the load
combination relating only to tension in pre-stressed concrete
structures with the objective of crack control.
Load type and their Abbreviation
Where (see following text): SE = settlement
BR = vehicular braking force SH = shrinkage
CE = vehicular centrifugal force TG = temperature gradient
CR = creep EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting
CT = vehicular collision force from the construction process
DC = dead load of structural components EQ = earthquake load
DD = down drag ES = earth surcharge load
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities EV = vertical dead load of earth fill
EH = horizontal earth pressure load TU = uniform temperature
FR = friction WA = water load and stream pressure
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance WL = wind on live load
LL = vehicular live load WS = wind load on structure
LS = live load surcharge PL = pedestrian live load

Table 3.4.1-1-Load Factor
Load Combinations
❖ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM (Strength I)
❖ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.4WS (Strength III)
❖ 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 1.4WS (Strength III)
❖ 1.50DC + 1.50DW (Strength IV)
❖ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.35(LL+IM) + 0.4(WS+WL)(Strength V)
❖ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0EQ (Extreme I)
❖ 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0EQ (Extreme I)
❖ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0 (CT or CV) (Extreme I)
❖ 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0 (CT or CV) (Extreme I)
➢ Slabs and girders designs, consider DC, DW and
(LL+IM)
❖ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM) (Strength I)
❖ 1.50DC + 1.50DW (Strength IV)
❖ 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 1.00(LL+IM) (Service I)
Load Multiplier(η)
❖ The ultimate design load acting on a member will be the
summation of the relevant characteristic load combinations
multiplied by their respective partial safety factors(η).
η = ηd ηr ηi ≥ 0.95
ηI = Importance factor
ηD = Ductility factor (Brittle v.s Ductile failure)
ηR = Redundant factor
ηI = Importance factor
❖ For strength and extreme event limit states
▪ 1.05 for bridge considered of operational importance e.g. the only
bridge crossing the river
▪ 1.00 for typical bridges
▪ 0.95 for bridge considered non important -For all other ----limit
states 1.00 for all bridges.
Ductility factor (ηD )
❖ The structural system shall be proportioned and detailed to
ensure the development of significant and visible inelastic
deformations at the strength and extreme event limit states
before failure that the structure can redistribute the load to
other portions that have reserve strength.
❖ For strength limit states
▪ 1.05 for non ductile components
▪ 1.00 for conventional designs complying with AASHTO
▪ 0.95 for ductile components for which additional ductility

enhancing measures have been specified beyond required
by AASHTO.
▪ For all other limit states-1.00

Cont.…
➢ ηR = Redundant factor
▪ Bridge redundancy is the capability of a bridge structural
system to carry loads after damage to or the failure of one or
more of its member due to Multiple load path and continuous
structures should be used.
❖ A statically indeterminate structure is redundant, that is, it has
more restraints than necessary to satisfy conditions of
equilibrium and will increase its margin of safety of bridge.
❖ For strength limit states
▪ 1.05 for non-redundant members e.g. a simple span bridges
▪ 1.00 for conventional level of redundancy
▪ 0.95 for redundant member e.g. multi-girder continuous beam bridge
▪ For all other limit states-1.00

Table 5.6(AACRA)-Load Factor For Strength Limit State

Resistance Factors(φ)
❖ Resistance factors are different for different types of action
(moment or shear, for example) and for different types of
materials (steel or concrete). They are specified under each
section of materials
Types φ
for Strength limit state
For flexure and tension of RC 0.9
For flexure and tension of PSC 1.0
For shear and torsion 0.9
For bearing on concrete 0.7
Axial compression by spiral 0.85
for Serviceability and Fatigue limit state φ=1
3.6 ANALYSIS OF LOADS IN
BRIDGE SUPER STRUCTURE
❖ In Bridge analysis we must find maximum response
due to all loading using some methods.
❖ Dead load(DC,DW) –maximum bending moment and
shear force is occurred at mid , end span respectively.

Cont.…
❖ Live Load-The maximum effect of these 3 cases is used for
the design.
▪ Combo1: one HS20 truck plus Design lane load
▪ Combo2: one design tandem plus Design lane load
▪ Combo3: (for negative moments at interior support of
continuous beams) place two HS20 design truck, one on each
adjacent span but not less than 15m apart ( measure from
axle of one truck to the rear axle of another truck), with
uniform lane load. Use 90% of their effects as the design
moments / shear.
❖ The loads in each case must be positioned such that they
produce maximum effects (max M or max V).

Combo1: One HS20 Truck Plus Design Lane Load
Combo2: One Design Tandem Plus Design Lane Load

Comb-3:-Two HS20 Design Truck, 15m Apart
➢1.Live Load Placement – to get maximum Transverse

effect in the Direction. 30cm for Deck overhanging and
60cm for general bridge design.
Fig:-Transverse Placement of Live Load
Conti…
2. Live Load Placement – Longitudinal to find

maximum moment and shear in span by:-
▪ Influence Line (IL) – Simple and Continuous
spans
▪ Design Equation – Simple span only
▪ Design Chart – Simple span only
❖ Influence line is a graphical method for finding the
variation of the structural response” at a point as a
concentrated live load moves across the structure.

Conti…
❖ Design Equation – Using Barre’s Theorem for

simply supported spans and simplified
equation.
❖ Design Chart –is meant to used for
preliminary designs

1. Influence Line Method
Fig:-Maximum Positive Moment In Span 1
Fig:-Maximum Shear Moment In Support 2

Fig:-Influence Line For Shear-due To Lane Load
Fig:-Influence Line For Shear Force Due To Tandem Load
Fig:-Influence Line For Moment Due To Tandem Load
2. Design Equation
❖ Using Barre’s Theorem for Simply Supported Spans:
▪ The absolute maximum moment in the span occurs under the
closet to the resultant force & placed in such a way that the
centerline of the span bisects the distance b/n second axle load &
the resultant.

Cont.…

Cont.…

3. Design Chart Method
➢ Design chart is meant to used for preliminary
designs.
❖ We assume that maximum occurs at mid span - this
produces slightly lower than max. moment than the
design equation method. However, the error is usually
small.
❖ Maximum shear occurs at support. However, the chart
doesn’t have x=0ft. The closest is 1ft from support.
❖ In general, the bridge girder much higher than 1ft.
Therefore, shear at 1ft is still higher than the shear at
critical section for shear (at d) so we are conservative
here
Cont.…

Cont.…

Cont.…
 Design Chart for Negative Moment due to Live Load
Combination 3 at Interior Support of Continuous Beams with
Equal Spans.

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CHAPTER THREE

2021-04-08 Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A.

▪ Dead Load of Wearing Surface

▪ Dead Load of Earth fill

▪ Horizontal Earth Pressure

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

diaphragm (transverse beams) etc.

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ This vertical dead load of fill must be

❖ Retained soil always exert horizontal active and

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, 𝒌𝒐

❖ Active Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, 𝒌𝒂

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ It is the result of a concentrated load or uniform load

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ For active earth pressure conditions, ks shall

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ Vehicular live loads can be described

III. Design lanes

IV. Multiple Presence

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ Vehicular live load is designated based on

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ Design Truck:-The weights and spacing of axles and

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fig: Design Truck –

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ Shall consist of a pair of 110KN axles spaced 1200 mm apart. The

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3kN/m,

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Tyre Contact Area

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ Two terms are used in the lane design of a bridge:

design lane But AASHTO 3.6.1.1.1 design

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

≥No of actual traffic lane

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fig:- Number of Lanes

❖Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Multiple Presence of Vehicles

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ Fatigue is tendency of a material to break when subjected

1. Magnitude of live load:

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

❖ Braking force is caused by deceleration (retardation)

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fundamental of Bridge Design Yesuf A. 2021-04-08

Fig: Breaking Force