Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics

ME 306 Fluid Mechanics II • Ideal gas equation of state is

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
where 𝑅 is the gas constant.
Part 4
• By defining specific volume as 𝑣 = 1/𝜌 ideal gas law becomes
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
Compressible Flow
• For an ideal gas internal energy (𝑢) is a function of temperature only.
• Ideal gas specific heat at constant volume is defined as
These presentations are prepared by
𝑑𝑢
Dr. Cüneyt Sert 𝑐𝑣 =
Department of Mechanical Engineering
𝑑𝑇
Middle East Technical University • 𝑐 𝑣 is also a function of temperature, but for moderate temperature changes it can be
Ankara, Turkey taken as constant. In this course we’ll take 𝑐 𝑣 as constant.
csert@metu.edu.tr • Change in internal energy between two states is (considering constant 𝑐 𝑣)

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝑐 𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
4-1 4-2

Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (cont’d) Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (cont’d)
• Enthalpy is defined as • For air
𝑝 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅
ℎ = 𝑢 + = 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑇
𝜌
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
• For an ideal gas enthalpy is also a function of temperature only. 1.005 0.287
𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔𝐾
• Ideal gas specific heat at constant pressure is defined as 0.718
𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑑ℎ
𝑐𝑝 = • Specific heat ratio is (also shown with 𝛾)
𝑑𝑇
𝑐𝑝
• 𝑐 𝑝 will also be taken as constant in this course. For constant 𝑐 𝑝 change in enthalpy is 𝑘=
𝑐𝑣
ℎ 2 − ℎ 1 = 𝑐 𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
which has a value of 1.4 for air.
• Combining the definition of 𝑐 𝑣 and 𝑐 𝑝
• Combining the above relations we can also obtain
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑢
𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = − = 𝑅 𝑅𝑘 𝑅
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑐𝑝 = , 𝑐𝑣 =
𝑘−1 𝑘 −1

4-3 4-4
 Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (cont’d) Mach Number and the Speed of Sound
• Entropy change for an ideal gas is expressed with 𝑇𝑑𝑠 relations • Compressibility effects become important when a fluid moves with speeds comparable
to the local speed of sound (𝑐).
1 1
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝 𝑑 , 𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑑𝑝 • Mach number is the most important nondimensional number for compressible flows
𝜌 𝜌
𝑀𝑎 = 𝑉 / 𝑐
• Integrating these 𝑇𝑑𝑠 relations for an ideal gas
• 𝑀𝑎 < 0.3 Incompressible flow (density changes are negligible)
𝑇2 𝜌1 𝑇2 𝑝2
𝑠 2 − 𝑠 1 = 𝑐 𝑣 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑅 𝑙𝑛 , 𝑠 2 − 𝑠 1 = 𝑐 𝑝 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑅 𝑙𝑛 • 0.3 < 𝑀𝑎 < 0.9 Subsonic flow (density changes are important, shock waves
𝑇1 𝜌2 𝑇1 𝑝1
do not develop)
• For an adiabatic (no heat transfer) and frictionless flow, which is known as isentropic
• 0.9 < 𝑀𝑎 < 1.1 Transonic flow (shock waves may appear and divide the flow field
flow, entropy remains constant.
into subsonic and supersonic regions)
Exercise : For isentropic flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heat values, derive • 1.1 < 𝑀𝑎 < 5.0 Supersonic flow (shock waves may appear, there are no
the following commonly used relations, known as isentropic relations
subsonic regions)
𝑘/(𝑘−1) 𝑘
𝑇2 𝜌2 𝑝2 • 𝑀𝑎 > 5.0 Hypersonic flow (very strong shock waves and property
= =
𝑇1 𝜌1 𝑝1 changes)
4-5 4-6

Speed of Sound (𝑐) Speed of Sound (cont’d)

• Speed of sound is the rate of propagation of a pressure pulse (wave) of infinitesimal • To obtain a relation for the speed of sound consider the following experiment
strength through a still medium (a fluid in our case).
• A duct is initially full of still gas with properties 𝑝,𝜌, 𝑇 and 𝑉 = 0
• It is a thermodynamic property of the fluid.
• For air at standard conditions, sound moves with a speed of 𝑐 = 343 m/s. 𝑝 𝑇
𝜌 𝑉=0
Exercise: a) What’s the speed of sound in air at 5 km and 10 km altitudes?

b) What’s the speed of sound in water at standard conditions? • The piston is pushed into the fluid with an infinitesimal velocity.
• A pressure wave of infinitesimal strength will form and it’ll travel in the gas with the
speed of sound 𝑐.
• As it passes over the gas particles it will create infinitesimal property changes.

Wave front moving with speed 𝑐

𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝑝
𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝜌
𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇
𝑐 𝑇
4-7 0 + 𝑑𝑉 𝑉=0 4-8
 Speed of Sound (cont’d) Speed of Sound (cont’d)
• For an observer moving with the wave front with speed 𝑐, wave front will be stationary Exercise: Using conservation of mass and momentum on the CV of the previous slide,
and the fluid on the left and the right would move with relative speeds derive the following expression for the speed of sound.

𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑑𝑝
𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝜌 𝑐= Propagation of a sound wave
𝑑𝜌
𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑠 is an isentropic process

𝑐 − 𝑑𝑉 𝑐
Stationary wave front with respect Exercise : In deriving the speed of sound equation, we did not make use of the energy
to an observer moving with it equation. Show that it can also be used and gives the same result.

• Consider a control volume enclosing the stationary wave front. The flow is one-
Exercise : What is the speed of sound for a perfectly incompressible fluid.
dimensional and steady. It has one inlet and one exit.

Exercise : Show that speed of sound for an ideal gas is given by

𝑐 − 𝑑𝑉 𝑐
Inlet and exit cross sectional areas 𝑐 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇
are the same (𝐴) 4-9 4-10

Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (cont’d)

• Consider a point source generating small pressure pulses (sound waves) at regular • Case 2 : Source moving with less than the speed of sound (𝑀𝑎 < 1)
intervals.
• Waves are not symmetric anymore.
• Case 1 : Stationary source
• An observer will hear different sound frequencies depending on his/her location.
• Waves travel in all directions symmetrically.
• This asymmetry is the cause of the Doppler effect.
• The same sound frequency will be heard everywhere around the source.

4-11 4-12
 Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (cont’d)
• Case 3 : Source moving the speed of sound (𝑀𝑎 = 1)
• The source moves with the same speed as the sound waves it generates.
• All waves concentrate on a plane passing through the moving source creating a
Mach wave, across which there is a significant pressure change.
• Mach wave separates the field into two as zone of silence and zone of action.
Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (cont’d)
• Case 4 : Source moving with more than the speed of sound (𝑀𝑎 > 1)
• The source travels faster than the sound it generates.
• Mach cone divides the field into zones of action and silence.
• Half angle of the Mach cone is called the Mach angle 𝜇.

Zone of Zone of 𝜇
Zone of Zone of
action silence
action silence

𝑉 = 𝑐 𝑉 >𝑐

• First aircraft exceeding the speed of sound : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_X-1

4-13 4-14

Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (cont’d) 1D, Isentropic, Compressible Flow

Exercise : For ‘‘Case 4’’ described in the previous slide show that • Consider an internal compressible flow, such as the one in a duct of variable cross
sectional area
sin 𝜇 = 1/𝑀𝑎
Exercise : A supersonic airplane is traveling at an altitude of 4 km. The noise
generated by the plane at point A reached the observer on the ground at point B after
20 s. Assuming isothermal atmosphere, determine
a) Mach number of the airplane
b) distance traveled by the airplane before the observer hears the noise
c) velocity of the airplane
• Flow and fluid properties inside this duct may change due to
d) temperature of the atmosphere
F/A-18 breaking • Cross sectional area change
𝐿 = 5 km the sound barrier
• Frictional effects NOT the subject of ME 306.
A
• Heat transfer effects Without these the flow is isentropic.

𝐻 = 4 km
• In ME 306 we’ll study these flows as 1D and consider only the effect of area change,
Ground http://en.wikipedia.org i.e. assume isentropic flow.
B
4-15 4-16
 1D, Isentropic, Compressible Flow (cont’d) Stagnation Enthalpy
𝑉2
• The sum ℎ + is known as stagnation enthalpy and it is constant inside the duct.
• Conservation of energy for a control volume 2
enclosing the fluid between sections 1 and 2 is 𝑉2
ℎ0 = ℎ + = constant along the duct
1 2 2
stagnation
enthalpy
𝑉22 𝑉12
𝑞 −𝑤 = ℎ2 + + 𝑔𝑧2 − ℎ 1 + + 𝑔𝑧1
2 2 • It is called ‘‘stagnation’’ enthalpy because at a stagnation point velocity is zero and the
=0 enthalpy of the gas is equal to ℎ 0.
Heat transfer is zero for
adiabatic flow. Also there is no For gas flows potential energy change
work done other than the flow is usually negligibly small compared to
work. enthalpy and kinetic energy changes. If the fluid is sucked into the duct
from a ‘‘large’’ reservoir, the
reservoir can be assumed to be
at the stagnation state.
𝑉12 𝑉22
• Energy equation becomes ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2 2 Large reservoir with
negligible velocity
4-17 4-18

Stagnation State Stagnation State (cont’d)

• Stagnation state is an important reference state for compressible flow calculations. • Isentropic deceleration can be shown on a ℎ − 𝑠 diagram as follows

• It is the state achieved if a fluid at any other state is brought to rest isentropically. ℎ
• For an isentropic flow there will a unique stagnation state. 𝑝0 Stagnation state
𝑉0 = 0, ℎ 0, 𝑝 0,
ℎ0
𝑇0, 𝑠 0, etc.
State 1 State 2
𝑉1, ℎ1, 𝑝1, 𝑇1 , etc. 𝑉2, ℎ2, 𝑝2, 𝑇2, etc. 𝑉2 Isentropic
∆ℎ = deceleration
2
𝑝 Any state
1 2 ℎ 𝑉, ℎ, 𝑝,
𝑇, 𝑠, etc.
Hypothetical 𝑠
Hypothetical isentropic
isentropic deceleration
• During isentropic deceleration entropy remains constant.
deceleration 0
Unique stagnation state 02 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑉0 = 0, ℎ0, 𝑝0, 𝑇0 , etc. • Energy conservation: ℎ0 + =ℎ+ → ∆ℎ = ℎ 0 − ℎ =
2 2 2
4-19 4-20
 Stagnation State (cont’d) Stagnation State (cont’d)
Exercise : For the isentropic flow of an ideal gas, express the following ratios as a Exercise : An airplane is crusing at a speed of 900km/h at an altitude of 10 km.
function of Mach number and generate the following plot for air with𝑘 = 1.4. Atmospheric air at −60 ℃comes to rest at the tip of its pitot tube. Determine
the temperature rise of air.

−1 Read about heating of space shuttle during its reentry to the earth’s atmosphere.
𝑇 𝑘−1 1.0
= 1+ 𝑀𝑎2 𝑇 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_thermal_protection_system
𝑇𝑜 2
𝑇0 𝜌
𝜌0 𝑝
−𝑘/(𝑘−1)
𝑝 𝑘 −1 0.5 𝑝0 Exercise : An aircraft cruises at 12 km altitude. A pitot-static tube on the nose of
= 1+ 𝑀𝑎 2 the aircraft measures stagnation and static pressures of 2.6 kPa and 19.4 kPa,
𝑝𝑜 2
respectively. Calculate

−1/(𝑘 −1) a) Mach number of the aircraft

𝜌 𝑘 −1
= 1+ 𝑀𝑎 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 b) speed of the aircraft
𝜌𝑜 2
𝑀𝑎
c) stagnation temperature that would be sensed by a probe on the aircraft.

4-21 4-22

Stagnation State (cont’d) Simple Area Change Flows (1D Isentropic Flows)
Exercise : Using the incompressible form of the Bernoulli’s equation, derive an Exercise : Consider the differential control volume shown below for 1D, isentropic
expression for 𝑝 0/𝑝 for incompressible flows. Compare it with the one given in flow of an ideal gas through a variable area duct. Using conservation of mass, linear
Slide 4-21. Determine the Mach number below which two equations agree within momentum and energy, determine the
engineering accuracy.
a) Change of pressure with area
b) Change of velocity with area
2.0
1.8
Compressible 𝑥
𝑝0 1.6
(Slide 4-21)
𝑝 1.4
Incompressible 𝑑𝑥
1.2 (BE)
1.0 𝑝 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
𝜌 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌
𝑀𝑎 𝑉 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉
ℎ ℎ + 𝑑ℎ
𝐴 𝐴 + 𝑑𝐴
4-23 4-24
 Simple Area Change Flows (cont’d) Simple Area Change Flows (cont’d)
• Results of the previous exercise are • Sonic flow is a very special case. It can occur

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑉 • when the cross sectional area goes through a minimum, i.e. 𝑑𝐴 = 0

= 1 − 𝑀𝑎 2 , =− 1 − 𝑀𝑎2
𝐴 𝜌𝑉2 𝐴 𝑉

Subsonic Flow 𝑀𝑎 < 1 Supersonic Flow 𝑀𝑎 > 1

Diffuser Sonic flow may occur at the throat.

𝑑𝑝 > 0 𝑑𝐴 > 0 𝑑𝐴 < 0

• or at the exit of a subsonic nozzle or a supersonic diffuser
𝑑𝑉 < 0
𝑀𝑎 < 1
Nozzle
Sonic flow may occur at these exits.
𝑑𝑝 < 0 𝑑𝐴 < 0 𝑑𝐴 > 0
𝑑𝑉 > 0 𝑀𝑎 > 1
4-25 4-26

de Laval Nozzle (C-D Nozzle) Critical State

Exercise : The nozzle shown below is called a converging diverging nozzle (C-D nozzle
or Con-Div nozzle or de Laval nozzle).
Using the table of Slide 4-25 show that it is the only way to
• isentropically accelerate a fluid from subsonic to supersonic speed.
• isentropically decelerate a fluid from supersonic to subsonic speed.
• Critical state is the special state where the Mach number is unity.
• It is a useful reference state, similar to the stagnation state. It is useful even if there is
no actual critical state in a flow.
• It is shown with an asterisk, like 𝑇 ∗, 𝑝 ∗ , 𝜌 ∗, 𝐴∗ , etc.
• Ratios derived in Slide 4-21 can also be written using the critical state.

𝑘/(𝑘 −1) 𝑘/(𝑘 −1)

𝑝𝑜 𝑘 −1 𝑝𝑜 𝑘 −1
= 1+ 𝑀𝑎 2 = 1+
𝑝 2 𝑝∗ 2
de Laval nozzle 𝑀𝑎 = 1
𝑇𝑜 𝑘 −1 2
𝑇𝑜 𝑘 −1
= 1+ 𝑀𝑎 = 1+
𝑇 2 𝑇∗ 2
1/(𝑘−1 ) 1/(𝑘−1)
𝜌𝑜 𝑘 −1 𝜌𝑜 𝑘 −1
= 1+ 𝑀𝑎 2 = 1+
𝜌 2 𝜌∗ 2

4-27 4-28
 Critical State (cont’d) Isentropic Flow Table
Exercise : Similar to the ratios given in the previous slide, following area ratio is also a • It provides the following ratios at different Mach numbers for a fixed 𝑘 value.
function of 𝑀𝑎 and 𝑘 only. Derive it.
𝑇 𝑝 𝜌 𝐴 𝑚 𝑅𝑇0
For 𝑘 = 1.4 𝑇0 𝑝0 𝜌0 𝐴∗ 𝐴𝑝 0
3.0

𝑘+1
2.5
𝑘−1 2 2(𝑘−1)
𝐴 1 1 + 2 𝑀𝑎 𝐴 2.0
=
𝐴 ∗ 𝑀𝑎 𝑘 +1 𝐴 ∗ 1.5
2
1.0
0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
𝑀𝑎

Exercise : Derive an expression in terms of 𝑀𝑎 and 𝑘 for the following non-

dimensional mass flow rate.
𝑚 𝑅𝑇0
𝐴𝑝 0 4-29
Aksel’s Fluid Mechanics textbook
4-30

Exercises for Simple Area Change Flows Exercises for Simple Area Change Flows (cont’d)
Exercise : A converging duct is fed with air from a large reservoir where the Exercise : (Fox) Air flows isentropically in a channel. At an upstream section 1, Mach
temperature and pressure are 350 K and 200 kPa. At the exit of the duct, cross- number is 0.3, area is 0.001 m2, pressure is 650 kPa and temperature is 62 ℃. At a
sectional area is 0.002 m2 and Mach number is 0.5. Assuming isentropic flow downstream section 2, Mach number is 0.8.
a) Determine the pressure, temperature and velocity at the exit. a) Sketch the channel shape.
b) Find the mass flow rate. b) Evaluate properties at section 2.
c) Plot the process between sections 1 and 2 on a 𝑇 − 𝑠 diagram.
Exercise : Air is flowing isentropically in a diverging duct. At the inlet of the duct,
pressure, temperature and velocity are 40 kPa, 220 K and 500 m/s, respectively. Inlet
and exit areas are 0.002 m2 and 0.003 m2.
a) Determine the Mach number, pressure and temperature at the exit.
b) Find the mass flow rate.

4-31 4-32
 Shock Waves Shock Waves (cont’d)
• Sound wave is a weak wave, i.e. property changes across it are infinitesimally small.
• ∆𝑝 across a sound wave is in the order of 10 −9 − 10 −3 atm.

• Shock wave is a strong wave, i.e. property changes across it are finite.
• Shock waves are very thin, in the order of 10 −7 m.
• Fluid particles decelerate with millions of 𝑔’s through a shock wave.
Oblique shock wave attached to the Detached curved shock wave ahead
• Shock waves can be stationary or moving.
sharp nose of a bullet moving at of a blunt nosed object moving at
• They can be normal (perpendicular to the flow direction) or oblique (inclined to the supersonic speed. supersonic speed.
flow direction).
• A shock wave can be thought as a tool used for a flow to adjust itself to downstream
conditions.
Normal shock wave in a supersonic
nozzle. Flow is from left to right. Extra
waves are due to surface roughness
• In ME 306 we’ll consider stationary normal shock waves for 1D flows inside ducts.
4-33 White’s Fluid Mechanics textbook 4-34

Formation of a Strong Wave Formation of a Strong Wave (cont’d)

• A strong wave is formed by the accumulation of several weak compression waves. • First wave will cause an increase in temperature behind it.
• Compression waves are the ones across which pressure increase and velocity decrease • Second wave will move faster and eventually may catch the first one.
in the flow direction.
𝑐2 > 𝑐1
• Sound wave is a weak compression wave.
• A third one, which is not shown, will move even faster and may catch the first two
waves.
• Consider a piston pushed with a finite velocity 𝑉 in a cylinder filled with still gas. 𝑐3 > 𝑐2 > 𝑐1
• We can decompose piston’s motion into a series of infinitesimally small disturbances. • Weak compression waves have a chance to accumulate into a strong wave of finite
strength.
• Weak compression waves will emerge from the piston, one after the other.
• Weak expansion waves that’ll be generated by pulling the piston to the left will not
• The first two of such waves are sketched below.
form such a strong wave.
Accumulated
Second wave front First wave front
strong wave
𝑉 𝑐2 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝑐1 𝑝 𝑝 + ∆𝑝 𝑝
𝑉
𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 + ∆𝑇 𝑇
𝑑𝑉 𝑉=0 ∆𝑉 𝑉=0
4-35 4-36
 Normal Shock Wave Stagnation State of a Non-isentropic, Adiabatic Flow
𝑥 𝑦 • Stagnation state concept can also be used for non-isentropic flows, but there will be
• Consider a stationary normal shock wave in a
multiple such states.
duct of variable cross sectional area.
• If the flow is adiabatic ℎ 0 , 𝑇0 and 𝑐 0 will be unique, but not other stagnation
• Upstream and downstream states are denoted properties such as 𝑝 0 or 𝜌 0.
by 𝑥 and 𝑦.
State 1 State 2
• Due to very sudden, finite property changes, the process across the wave is 𝑉1, 𝑝1, ℎ1, 𝑇1, etc. 𝑉2, 𝑝2, ℎ2, 𝑇2, etc.

considered to be non-isentropic. But it is considered to be adiabatic.

1 2
• There are two different stagnation states, state 0𝑥 for the flow before the shock and
state 0𝑦 for the flow after the shock. Non-isentropic,
Isentropic
Isentropic adiabatic flow
𝑝 0𝑥 ≠ 𝑝 0𝑦 and 𝜌 0𝑥 ≠ 𝜌 0𝑦 (such as the one deceleration
deceleration
• However, because of the adiabatic assumption, stagnation temperatures and across a shock)
Stagnation state of state 2
enthalpies are the same. Stagnation state of state 1 𝑉0 = 0, 𝑝02, 𝜌02, ℎ0, 𝑇0 , etc.

𝑇0𝑥 = 𝑇0𝑦 = 𝑇0 and ℎ 0𝑥 = ℎ 0𝑦 = ℎ 0 𝑉0 = 0, 𝑝01, 𝜌01, ℎ0, 𝑇0 , etc.

4-37 4-38

Shock Wave on the 𝑇 − 𝑠 Plane Property Changes Across a Shock Wave

• Governing equations for the 1D flow inside the control volume enclosing the shock
𝑇 𝑝0𝑥 𝑝0𝑦 wave are
𝑇0𝑥 = 𝑇0𝑦
𝑥 𝑦

𝑝𝑦
𝑦 𝑇𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
Shock

𝑥 𝑇𝑥 • Continuity : 𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑥𝑉𝑥 𝐴 = 𝜌 𝑦𝑉𝑦 𝐴 where 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑦

𝑝𝑥
𝑠 • Momentum : 𝑝𝑥 − 𝑝 𝑦 𝐴 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑦 − 𝑉𝑥
𝑠𝑦 − 𝑠𝑥
𝑉𝑥2 𝑉𝑦2
• Energy : ℎ0 = ℎ𝑥 + = ℎ𝑦 +
2 2

• A similar one can be drawn on the ℎ − 𝑠 plane. • Second Law : 𝑠𝑦 > 𝑠𝑥

4-39 4-40
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (cont’d) Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (cont’d)
𝑘
• For the flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heats, we can work on the equations 𝑘+ 1 𝑘−1 1
𝑝0𝑦 𝑀𝑎2𝑥 2𝑘 𝑘 −1 1−𝑘
of the previous slide to get the following (study the details from text books) • Stagnation pressure ratio : = 2 𝑀𝑎2𝑥 −
𝑝0𝑥 𝑘 − 1 𝑘 +1 𝑘 +1
1+ 𝑀𝑎2𝑥
2
𝑘 − 1 𝑀𝑎2𝑥 + 2
• Donwstream Mach number : 𝑀𝑎𝑦 = 𝐴 ∗𝑦 𝑝0𝑥
2𝑘𝑀𝑎2𝑥 − (𝑘 − 1) • Critical area ratio : =
𝐴 ∗𝑥 𝑝0𝑦
𝑘 −1 2𝑘
𝑇𝑦 1+ 𝑀𝑎2𝑥 𝑀𝑎2𝑥 − 1 𝑠𝑦 − 𝑠𝑥 𝑝0𝑦
• Temperature ratio : 2 𝑘−1 • Entropy change : = −𝑙𝑛
= 2 𝑅 𝑝0𝑥
𝑇𝑥 𝑘 +1
𝑀𝑎2𝑥
2(𝑘 − 1)
𝑝𝑦 2𝑘 𝑘 −1 • These relations are functions of 𝑀𝑎𝑥 and 𝑘 only. They are usually plotted or tabulated.
• Pressure ratio : = 𝑀𝑎2𝑥 −
𝑝𝑥 𝑘 + 1 𝑘 +1

𝜌𝑦 (𝑘 + 1)𝑀𝑎2𝑥
• Flow before the shock and after the shock are isentropic, but not across the shock.
• Density ratio : =
𝜌𝑥 2 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑀𝑎2𝑥 • 𝑇0 is the same before and after the shock, due to adiabatic assumption (𝑇0𝑥 = 𝑇0𝑦 ).
• 𝑝 0 changes across the shock (𝑝 0𝑥 ≠ 𝑝 0𝑦 ).
𝑉𝑦 𝜌𝑥
• Velocity ratio : =
𝑉𝑥 𝜌𝑦 • Critical states before and after the shock are different. This is seen from 𝐴∗𝑥 ≠ 𝐴∗𝑦 )
4-41 4-42

Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (cont’d) Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (cont’d)
• Tabulated form of these normal shock relations look like the following • Across a normal shock wave
For 𝑘 = 1.4
6
𝑝𝑦 𝐴 𝑦∗ 𝑝0𝑥 𝑀𝑎, 𝑉, 𝑝 0 decreases
=
𝑝𝑥 𝐴 ∗𝑥 𝑝0𝑦
5 𝑝, 𝑇, 𝜌, 𝐴∗, 𝑠 increases
𝑉𝑥 𝜌𝑦 𝑇0 remains the same
4 =
𝑉𝑦 𝜌𝑥

3 𝑇𝑦 • Kinetic energy of the fluid after the shock

𝑇𝑥
wave is smaller than the one that would
2
𝑝0𝑦 be obtained by a reversible compression
1 𝑝0𝑥 between the same pressure limits.
𝑀𝑎𝑦
• Lost kinetic energy is the reason of
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 temperature increase across the shock
Aksel’s book
𝑀𝑎 𝑥
wave.
4-43 4-44
 Normal Shock Wave (cont’d) Normal Shock Wave (cont’d)
Exercise : (Munson) A total pressure probe is inserted into a supersonic air flow. A Exercise : (Fox) Air with speed 668 m/s, temperature 5 oC and pressure 65 kPa goes
shock wave forms just upstream of the stagnation point. The probe measures a through a normal shock wave.
stagnation pressure of 410 kPa. The stagnation temperature at the probe tip is a) Determine the Mach number, pressure, temperature, speed, stagnation pressure
measured with a thermocouple and found to be 555 K. The static pressure upstream and stagnation temperature after the shock wave,
of the shock is measured with a wall tap to be 83 kPa. Determine the Mach number b) Calculate the entropy change across the shock wave.
and the velocity of the flow. c) Show the process on a 𝑇 − 𝑠 diagram.

Exercise : Supersonic air flow inside a diverging duct is slowed down by a normal
shock wave. Mach number at the inlet and exit of the duct are 2.0 and 0.3. Ratio of
the exit to inlet cross sectional areas is 2. Pressure at the inlet of the duct is 40 kPa.
Assuming adiabatic flow determine the pressure after the shock wave and at the exit
of the duct.
4-45 4-46

Operation of a Converging Nozzle Operation of a Converging Nozzle (cont’d)

• Consider a converging nozzle. • First set 𝑝 𝑏 = 𝑝 0. There will be no flow.
• Gas is provided by a large reservoir with stagnation properties, 𝑇0 and 𝑝 0. • Gradually decrease 𝑝 𝑏. Following pressure distributions will be observed.
• Back pressure 𝑝 𝑏 is adjusted using a vacuum pump to obtain different flow conditions
inside the nozzle.
• Exit pressure 𝑝 𝑒 and back pressure 𝑝 𝑏 can be equal or different.

𝑝0 1 : No flow (𝑝 𝑏 = 𝑝 0)
𝑇0 𝑝𝑏 Subcritical
2 : 𝑝∗ < 𝑝𝑏 < 𝑝0
𝑝0 regime
𝑉=0 𝑝𝑒 𝑝∗ 3 : Critical (𝑝 𝑏 = 𝑝 ∗)
Supercritical
𝑀𝑎 = 1 4 : 𝑝𝑏 < 𝑝∗ regime
(choked flow)
4-47
𝑥 4-48
 Operation of a Converging Nozzle (cont’d) Operation of a Converging Nozzle (cont’d)
• When air is supplied from a stagnation reservoir, flow inside a converging nozzle always Variation of 𝑝 𝑒 with 𝑝 𝑏 Variation of 𝑚 with 𝑝 𝑏
remains subsonic. 𝑝𝑒 𝑚
• For the subcritical regime, mass flow rate increases as 𝑝 𝑏 decreases. 𝑝0 1 4 3
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
• State shown with * is the critical state. When 𝑝 𝑏 is lowered to the critical value 𝑝 , exit ∗ 2
4 3
Mach number reaches to 1 and flow is said to be choked.

• If 𝑝 𝑏 is lowered further, flow remains choked. Pressure and Mach number at the exit do 𝑝𝑏 1 𝑝𝑏
𝑝∗ 𝑝0 𝑝∗ 𝑝0
not change. Mass flow rate through the nozzle does not change.

• For 𝑝 𝑏 < 𝑝 ∗, gas exits the nozzle as a supercritical jet with 𝑝 𝑒 > 𝑝 𝑏. Exit jet undergoes a • Case 1 is the no flow case.

non-isentropic expansion to reduce its pressure to 𝑝 𝑏. • From case 1 to case 3, lowering 𝑝 𝑏 decreases 𝑝 𝑒 and increases 𝑚.

𝑘/(𝑘−1 )
• Case 3 is the critical case with minimum possible 𝑝 𝑒 and maximum possible 𝑚.
𝑝∗ 2 𝑝∗
• From slide 4-28 = . For air (𝑘 = 1.4)choking occurs when = 0.528.
𝑝0 𝑘 +1 𝑝0 • Cases 3 and 4 are choked flow with 𝑀𝑎𝑒 = 1.
4-49 4-50

Operation of a Converging Nozzle (cont’d) Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle

Exercise : (Aksel’s book) A converging nozzle is fed with air from a large reservoir • We first set 𝑝 𝑏 = 𝑝 0 and then gradually decrease 𝑝 𝑏.
where the pressure and temperature are 150 kPa and 300 K. The nozzle has an exit
cross sectional area of 0.002 m2. Back pressure is set to 100 kPa. Determine Throat
a) the pressure, Mach number and temperature at the exit.
b) mass flow rate through the nozzle.
𝑝

Exercise : (Aksel’s book) Air flows through a converging duct and discharges into a 𝑝0 1 : No flow (𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝0)
2 : Subsonic Flow
region where the pressure is 100 kPa. At the inlet of the duct, the pressure, 3 : Initial choked flow (𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 = 1)
temperature and speed are 200 kPa, 290 K and 200 m/s. Determine the Mach 4 : Flow with shock
5y : Shock at the exit Choked
number, pressure and temperature at the nozzle exit. Also find the mass flow rate per 𝑝∗
flow.
unit area. 6 : Overexpansion Same 𝑚
7 : Design condition
8 : Underexpansion
4-51
𝑥 4-52
 Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (cont’d) Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (cont’d)
𝑝
• Flow inside the converging section is always subsonic. Throat
• At the throat the flow can be subsonic or sonic. 𝑝0 1
2
3
• The flow is choked if 𝑀𝑎throat = 1. This corresponds to the maximum 𝑚 that can pass 4
5y
𝑝∗
through the nozzle. 6
• Under choked conditions the flow in the diverging part can be subsonic (case 3) or 7
8
𝑥
supersonic (cases 6, 7 ,8).
• Depending on 𝑝 𝑏 there may be a shock wave in the diverging part. Location of the Variation of 𝑝 𝑒 with 𝑝 𝑏 Variation of 𝑚 with 𝑝 𝑏
shock wave is determined by 𝑝 𝑏. 𝑝𝑒 𝑚
• Design condition corresponds to the choked flow with supersonic exit without a shock. 𝑝0 1
3 2 7 5y 3
• Overexpansion (𝑝 𝑒 < 𝑝 𝑏): Exiting jet finds itself in a higher pressure medium and 4 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 8
5y 6 4
contracts. Underexpansion (𝑝 𝑒 > 𝑝 𝑏): Exiting jet finds itself in a lower pressure 8 2
𝑝 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 5x
medium and expands. For details and pictures visit http://aerorocket.com/Nozzle/Nozzle.html 76
𝑝𝑏 1 𝑝𝑏
and http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/propulsion/q0224.shtml 𝑝0 𝑝0
4-53 4-54

Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (cont’d) Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (cont’d)

Exercise : Air is supplied to a C-D nozzle from a large reservoir where stagnation
2&3 pressure and temperature are known. Determine
𝑝 a) the Mach number, pressure and temperature at the exit
Throat 4 b) the mass flow rate
𝑝0 1
2
3
4 5
5y
𝑝∗
6 𝐴𝑡 = 0.0022 m2 𝐴𝑒 = 0.0038 m2
7
6
8 𝑇0 = 318 K
𝑥
𝑝 𝑏 = 30 kPa
𝑝 0 = 327 kPa
7

http://aerorocket.com
4-55 4-56
 Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (cont’d)
Exercise : Air flows in a Conv-Div nozzle with an exit to throat area ratio of 2.1.
Properties at a section in the converging part are measured as follows.
a) Determine the ranges of back pressure for different flow regimes.
b) If a shock wave is observed where the area is twice of the throat area, determine
the back pressure.

𝑝 1 = 128 kPa
𝑇1 = 294 K
𝑉1 = 135 m/s

4-57