We’ve been working with the effects of magnetic fields

without considering where they come from. Today we

learn about sources of magnetic fields.

Today’s agenda:

Magnetic Fields Due To A Current.

You must be able to calculate the magnetic field due to a moving charged particle.

Biot-Savart Law.
You must be able to use the Biot-Savart Law to calculate the magnetic field of a current-
carrying conductor (for example: a long straight wire).
But first, a note on the right hand rule.

the three-fingered axis system is often (but not 

always) be the most useful. 
“In F = IL  B and F = qv  B does it matter 
which finger is used for what?”

F = IL  B F = qv  B

    
   
No, as long as
  
you keep the
  
right order. All
three of these   
will work:
 
This works: 


This doesn’t:  Switching only two is wrong!

Today’s agenda:
Magnetic Fields Due To A Current.
You must be able to calculate the magnetic field due to a moving charged particle.

Biot-Savart Law.
You must be able to use the Biot-Savart Law to calculate the magnetic field of a current-
carrying conductor (for example, a long straight wire).
Biot-Savart Law: magnetic field of a current element

Let’s start with the magnetic field of a moving charged particle.

r It is experimentally
B observed that a moving
point charge q gives rise
to a magnetic field
r̂
+ v μ 0 qv  rˆ
B= 2
.
4π r

0 is a constant, and its value is

0=4x10-7 T·m/A

Remember: the direction of r is always from the source point (the thing that
causes the field) to the field point (the location where the field is being measured.
Example: proton 1 has a speed v0 (v0<<c) and is moving along
the x-axis in the +x direction. Proton 2 has the same speed
and is moving parallel to the x-axis in the –x direction, at a
distance r directly above the x-axis. Determine the electric and
magnetic forces on proton 2 at the instant the protons pass
closest to each other.
y

FE
The electric force is v0
2
1 q1q2 ˆ E
FE = 2
r r
4   r
r̂
1
1 e ˆ 2 v0 x
FE = 2
j
4   r
z
At the position of proton 2 there is a magnetic field due to
proton 1.
 q1 v1  rˆ
B1 =
4 r2

 ev 0 ˆi  ˆj y
B1 =
4 r2
FE
  ev 0 ˆ v0
B1 = k 2
2
4 r
B1 r
r̂
1
v0 x

z
Proton 2 “feels” a magnetic force due to the magnetic field of
proton 1.

FB = q2 v 2  B1

FB = ev 0 ( )ˆ    ev 0 ˆ 
−i  
 4 r
2
k

y

FE
 e2 v 20 ˆ
v0 FB
2
FB = 2
j
4 r
B1 r
What would proton 1 “feel?” r̂
Caution! Relativity overrules Newtonian mechanics! 1
However, in this case, the force is “equal & opposite.” v0 x

z
 Both forces are in the +y direction. The ratio of their
magnitudes is
   e2 v 02 
 2  FB 1
FB  4  r  =     v 20  = 2
= FE c
FE  1 e2 
 2  y
 4   r 
Later we will find that FE
v0 FB
2 2
FB v
Thus = 0
2
FE c B1 r
r̂
If v0 =106 m/s, then 1
v0 x
FB
=
(10 ) 6 2

= 1.11  10 -5

FE ( 3 108 )2 z
Today’s agenda:
Magnetic Fields Due To A Current.
You must be able to calculate the magnetic field due to a moving charged particle.

Biot-Savart Law.
You must be able to use the Biot-Savart Law to calculate the magnetic field of a current-
carrying conductor (for example, a long straight wire).
From the equation for the magnetic field of a moving charged
particle, it is “easy” to show that a current I in an infinitesimally
small length dl of wire gives rise to a little bit of magnetic field.

r μ 0 I d  rˆ
dB dB =
4π r 2

r̂ I The Biot-Savart Law

dl
Applying the Biot-Savart Law

μ 0 I ds  rˆ r
dB  dB = 2
ˆ
where r =
4π r r
r
 μ 0 I ds sin θ
dB =
r̂ 4π r2
ds
B =  dB
I
Example: calculate the magnetic field at point P due to a thin
straight wire of length L carrying a current I. (P is on the
perpendicular bisector of the wire at distance a.)

y μ 0 I ds  rˆ
P dB =
dB 4π r 2
r
a
ds  rˆ = ds sinθ kˆ
r̂  x
 μ I ds sinθ
ds z dB = 0
I 4π r 2
x
L
ds is an infinitesimal quantity in the direction of dx, so
μ 0 I dx sinθ
dB =
4π r2
 a 2 2 μ 0 I dx sinθ
sinθ = r = x +a dB =
r 4π r2

y
P μ 0 I dx a μ 0 I dx a
dB dB = =
4π r 3
4π ( x 2 + a2 )3/2
r
a
r̂  x μ 0 I dx a
L/2
 B=
ds z
I
-L/2 4π
(x +a )
2 2 3/2

x
L μ 0I a L/2 dx
4π -L/2 ( x 2 + a2 )3/2
B=
 μ 0I a L/2 dx
4π -L/2 ( x 2 + a2 )3/2
y B=
P
dB
r
a
r̂  x
 dx x
z
ds  =
x
I (x 2
+a )
2 3/2
a (x +a
2 2
)
2 1/2

L
L/2

μ 0I a x
B=
4π a2 ( x 2 + a2 )1/2
-L/2

 
μ 0I a  L/2 -L/2 
= −
4π  a2 (L/2 )2 + a2 1/2 
( ) ( )
1/2
a ( -L/2 ) + a
2 2 2
 
 y  
P μ 0I a  2L/2 
dB B=
4π  a2 (L2 /4 + a2 ) 
1/2
r  
a
r̂  x μ 0I L 1
 B=
ds z 4πa (L2 /4 +a2 )1/2
I
x
μ 0I L 1
B=
2 πa L2 + 4a2

μ 0I 1
B=
2 πa 4a2
1+ 2
L
 y
P
dB
r μ 0I 1
a B=
2 πa 4a2
r̂  x 1+ 2
 L
ds z
I
x

μ 0I
When L→, B = .
2 πa

μ 0I
or B =
2 πr
Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Wire

We’ve just derived the equation for the magnetic

field around a long, straight wire I
μ0 I r
B=
2 πr
B
with a direction given by a “new” right-hand
rule. The magnetic field is not constant.
At a fixed distance r from the wire,
the magnitude of the magnetic B
I
field is constant.
The magnetic field direction is always
tangent to the imaginary circles drawn
around the wire, and perpendicular to the radius
“connecting” the wire and the point where the field is being
calculated.
Example: calculate the magnetic field at point O due to the
wire segment shown. The wire carries uniform current I, and
consists of two straight segments and a circular arc of radius R
that subtends angle .

A´

A The magnetic field due to wire

ds
segments A’A and CC’ is zero
r̂ C´
I because ds is parallel to r̂ along
 C these paths.
R
 A´
Important technique, handy for
exams:
A
ds Along path AC, ds is
r̂ C´ perpendicular to r̂.
I
 C
R ds  rˆ = -ds kˆ If we use the “usual” xyz axes.

Thanks to Dr. Waddill for the use of the diagram. ds  rˆ = ds

μ 0 I ds  rˆ
dB =
4π r 2

μ 0 I ds
dB =
4π R 2
 μ 0 I ds
A´ dB =
4π R 2

A μ 0 I ds
ds B=
4π R 2
r̂ C´
I μ 0I

2 
C B= ds
R 4πR

μ 0I
2 
B= R dθ
4πR

μ 0I
B=
4πR  dθ

μ 0I
B= θ
4πR
 Magnetic flux density, B

• Magnetic flux density B is related to the magnetic field

intensity H in the free space by

B = 0 H Weber/m2 or Tesla (T)

1 Tesla = 10,000 Gauss.
where 0 is the free space permeability, given in units of
henrys per meter, or
0 = 10-7 H/m.

• Magnetic flux  (units of Webers) passing through a

surface is found by  =  B dS
Gauss’s law for magnetic fields

 B dS = 0
or
 B = 0.

 D d S = Qenc Gauss’s law for electric

fields
 D = Vfree .
HWA solid conductor of circular cross section is
made of a homogeneous nonmagnetic material. If
the radius a = 1 mm, the conductor axis lies on the
z axis, and the total current in the direction a z is 20
A, find
a) H at  = 0.5 mm

b) B at  = 0.8 mm

c) The total magnetic flux per unit length inside the

conductor
Maxwell’s equations for static fields

Integral form Differential form

 D d S = Qenc  D = v

 B dS = 0  B =0

 E dL =0  E = 0

 H d L = I enc  H = J
The scalar and vector magnetic
potentials (1)
• Scalar magnetic potential (Vm) E = −V is the
simple practical concept to determine the electric
field. Similarly, the scalar magnetic potential, Vm,
is defined to relate to the magnetic field H but
there is no physical interpretation.
Assume
H = −Vm

 H = J =  (−Vm ) = 0
To make the above statement true, J = 0.
The scalar and vector magnetic
potentials (2)
From  B = 0 H = 0

0 (−Vm ) = 0

2Vm = 0

Laplace’s equation
This equation’s solution to determine
the potential field requires that the potential
on the boundaries is known.
The scalar and vector magnetic
potentials (3)
◼ The difference between V (electric potential) and Vm
(scalar magnetic potential) is that the electric potential is a
function of the positions while there can be many Vm values
for the same position.
 H d L = I enc
 The scalar and vector magnetic
potentials (4)

While for the electrostatic case

 E = 0

 E dL = 0
a
Vab = −  E d L does not depend on path.
b

For the magnetostatic case where the current density is not zero
magnetic field intensity is not conservative.
a
Vm _ ab = −  H d L does depend on path.
b
The scalar and vector magnetic
potentials (5)
◼ Vector magnetic potential (A) is useful to find a
magnetic filed for antenna and waveguide.
From  B =0

Let assume B = ( A)

so  (  A) = 0
1
and H=  A
0
1
 H =  A = J  0
0
The scalar and vector magnetic
potentials (6)

◼ It is simpler to use the vector magnetic potential to determine

the magnetic field. By transforming from Bio-savart law,
we can write
0 Id L
A=  .
4 R

0 Id L
The differential form dA= .
4 R
Ex: Determine the magnetic field from the
infinitesimally small length line of current
using the vector magnetic potential
d L = dza z
z
Find A at point P(, , z)
P 0 Idza z
+z
2
dA=
4  2 + z 2
2
 z
y 1 1  dAz 
 then d H = d A = −  a
 0 0   
I  dz
x

dH = a
3/ 2 
(
4  2 + z 2 )
Vector magnetic potential for other
current distributions
• For current sheet
0 KdS
A = S
4 R
• For current volume
0 Jdv
A =  vol
4 R
Today’s agenda:

Force Between Current-Carrying Conductors.

You must be able to begin with starting equations and calculate forces between current-
carrying conductors.

Magnetic Fields Due To A Current Loop.

You must be able to apply the Biot-Savart Law to calculate the magnetic field of a current
loop.
Magnetic Field of a Current-Carrying Wire

It is experimentally observed that parallel wires exert forces on

each other when current flows.

I1 I2 I1 I2

F12 F21 F12 F21

   
We showed that a long straight wire carrying a current
I gives rise to a magnetic field B at a distance r from I
the wire given by μ0 I
B=
2 πr B
r
The magnetic field of one wire exerts a force on a
nearby current-carrying wire.
The magnitude of the force depends on
d the two currents, the length of the wires,
I1 I2 and the distance between them.
L μ I I L
F12 F21 F= 0 1 2
2 πd
The wires are electrically neutral,
  so this is not a Coulomb force.
Example: use the expression for B due to a current-carrying
wire to calculate the force between two current-carrying wires.
d
F12 = I1L1  B2
I1 I2
μ I L
Bˆ 2 = 0 2 kˆ F12
2 πd
B2
μ I
F12 = I1Ljˆ  0 2 kˆ y
2 πd L1 L2
 
μ 0 I1I2L ˆ
F12 = i
2 πd x
F12 μ 0 I1I2 ˆ
The force per unit length of wire is = i.
L 2 πd
 y d
F21 = I2L 2  B1 I1 I2
μ I L
B1 = - 0 1 kˆ x F12 F21
2 πd
 μ I  B1
F21 = I2Ljˆ   − 0 1 kˆ 
 2 πd 
μ IIL L1 L2
F21 = - 0 1 2 ˆi  
2 πd
The force per unit length of wire is d
F21 μ 0 I1I2 ˆ I1 I2
=- i. L
L 2 πd F12 F21
If the currents in the wires are in the opposite
direction, the force is repulsive.
y
L1 L2
 
 μ 0 I1I2L
F12 = F21 =
2 πd d
I1 I2
4 π 10-7 I1I2L -7 L
F12 = F21 = = 2 10 I1I2 F12 F21
2πd d

The official definition of the Ampere: 1 A is

L1 L2
the current that produces a force of 2x10-7
N force per meter of length between two  
long parallel wires placed 1 meter apart in
empty space.
Today’s agenda:

Force Between Current-Carrying Conductors.

You must be able to begin with starting equations and calculate forces between current-
carrying conductors.

Magnetic Fields Due To A Current Loop.

You must be able to apply the Biot-Savart Law to calculate the magnetic field of a current
loop.
 Magnetic Field of a Current Loop
A circular ring of radius a carries a current I as shown.
Calculate the magnetic field at a point P along the axis of the
ring at a distance x from its center.

Complicated diagram! y
You are supposed to
dl
visualize the ring I r̂ dB
 dBy
lying in the yz plane. r
a
dl is in the yz plane. r̂r 90-  x
is in the xy plane and x P dBx
is perpendicular to dl. z

Thus d  rˆ = d .

Also, dB must lie in the xy plane (perpendicular to dl) and is

perpendicular to r.
 μ 0 I d  rˆ y
dB =
4π r 2
dl
I r̂ dB
 dBy
μ0 I d r
dB = a
4π r 2 90-  x
x P dBx
μ0 I d z
dB =
4π ( x 2 + a2 )

μ0 I d μ0 I d a
dB x = cos =
4π ( x + a )
2 2
4π ( x 2 + a2 ) ( x 2 + a2 )1/2

μ0 I d μ0 I d x
dB y = sin =
4π ( x + a )
2 2
4π ( x 2 + a2 ) ( x 2 + a2 )1/2

By symmetry, By will be 0. Do you see why?

 y

I dl
r̂ r dBy
dBz x
x P dBx
z

When dl is not centered at z=0, there will be a z-component

to the magnetic field, but by symmetry Bz will still be zero.
 y
μ0 I a d
dB x =
4π ( x 2 + a2 )3/2 dl
r̂ dB
I  dBy
a r

Bx =  dB x 
90- x
x P dBx
ring
z

I, x, and a are constant as you integrate around the ring!

μ0 Ia μ0 Ia
Bx = 
4π ( x 2 + a2 ) ring
3/2
d =
4π ( x 2 + a2 )3/2
2a

μ 0 I a2
Bx =
2(x + a 2
)
2 3/2
 y
At the center of the
ring, x=0. dl
I r̂ dB
 dBy
2 r
μ0 I a a
B x,center =
2 (a )
2 3/2 
90- x
x P dBx
z

μ 0 I a2 μ0 I
B x,center = =
2a3 2a

For N tightly packed concentric rings (a coil)…

μ0 N I
B x,center =
2a
 Physical view of curl

a) Field lines indicating divergence A simple way to see the

b) Field lines indicating curl direction of curl using
right hand rule
 Stokes’s Theorem
• Stokes’s Theorem relates a closed line integral
into a surface integral

( )
 H d L =   H dS