Ethics

1
Morality

Module 3 Morality

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Compare and contrast the two fundamental questions
2. Explain the norms of morality
3. Identify defective moralities

The Two Fundamental Questions

Two important questions are raised: "What is Morality" and "What is the meaning of life?".
The first question pertains to the rightness or wrongfulness of an act and what is the basis of the
judge concerned. The second is about human existence's summum bonum (ultimate good). What
is the very reason why man exists in this world? These are ethical questions that, up to this time,
baffled sages and peons alike and remain unanswered.
In a nutshell, those two questions are related – Ethics is about morality which is the basis of
good, every time we decide on dilemmas using morality, men experience happiness, and that is
"good." The more we attain happiness by being good – the closer we are to the Ultimate Good. To
sum it up, both questions boil down to two words, "goodness" and "purpose," a thing that is of use
is good for it has served its purpose. For example, a politician is good if he has fulfilled his promise
to the people after serving his term of office. In doing so by being useful to his constituent, he felt
that he lived a worthy life. This will then be a step to reaching his ultimate goal – the ultimate
good. A good life will ultimately lead to ultimate happiness.

The Norms of Morality

Rationally speaking, man acts according to his nature, which human nature quantifies as
justification as to why an act, good or bad, is performed. In doing so, it conflicts with the higher
intelligence endowed to men. Is man basically good? We can say yes but in what context of
goodness is a man supposed to follow? Man's morality follows a proximate and ultimate norm, so
where does human nature come in? The proximate norm there is to follow human nature, which is
the low end of a human being. As mentioned earlier, man has baser tendencies that are human
nature equivalent to brutes that may come in the form of stimuli.
On the other hand, the ultimate norm is to follow divine nature, making decisions based on
morality. For example, the stimulus of hunger based on proximate norm means to eat the food
regardless of whether it is for somebody else, spoilt or poisonous. Human nature dictates that man
has to satiate his hunger no matter what and may be considered moral if we are to consider
human nature. If the man decides to study the situation by not initially grabbing the "opportunity,"
then he acts in relation to the ultimate norm.
However, we are not discarding human nature as a basis of human existence. Man is a
social animal which is the nature of man's need for the association. In truth, we can never reach
divine status, but we must remember that there is no conflict between the Natural and Eternal
Course Module
laws (the Law of God). The Natural is patterned after the Eternal Law. Man must adhere to his
nature of man, which is using his intellect, unlike human nature, which is only to follow his
passions.
Defective Norms of Morality
Human Nature is a simple foundation of man, but there are philosophies, and they are:
1. Hedonism – this is also known as the Philosophy of Pleasure that pleasure alone is the
primary purpose of man's existence. Man indeed desires happiness, but a happy life
need not be composed of pleasure alone. True happiness is seeking good, but wallowing
in pleasure made man’s life baser than brutes.
2. Utilitarianism – is simply the end of action must be good. If it is not, then the action is
unjustified. The word "utility" means that anything that is of use to the agent is moral.
There are two types of utilitarianism, and they are individual utilitarianism and social
utilitarianism – the first is known as egoism which is the definition given – the agent is
the one who will gain. Altruism is the other term for social utilitarianism, but the
receiving factor is the society where the agent belongs.
3. Moral Rationalism – states that human reason is the only foundation of morality as
postulated by German Philosopher Immanuel Kant which he dubbed as "Categorical
Imperative." However, as Kant further explained, we must do good because we ought to
be good. He is implying blind obedience. In his philosophy, "autonomy of reason," since
reason creates the law, it is "reasonable" for men to obey it without question or
ambiguity. The general rule is that everyone thinks the same, for men, are reasonable,
so conflict is a remote possibility.
4. Moral Positivism – states that morality is adherence to State Laws as philosophized by
the English sage Thomas Hobbes. The State is the foundation of morality since laws are
geared toward the common good. An act is moral if he obeys the law and evil if he
disobeys it. Compared to Moral Rationalism, where reason is the law, Moral Positivism
only has the State Law as its source of morality.
5. Moral Evolutionism – In relation to Sociologist Herbert Spencer, morality, just like
evolution, is ever-changing until it reaches its perfect form. Friedrich Nietsche added
that man was born with hardly any basis for right and wrong, and their collective lives
are a never-ending struggle for change until they reach perfection.
6. Moral Sensism – Contrary to Moral Evolutionism, men are born with a special moral
sense (not reason) that is comparable to the five senses. For example, man can easily
differentiate noise from music, salty from sweat, and pleasant and unpleasant, which
may also serve as a means to moral judgment.
7. Communism - Although this is more of an economic theory, its social implication cannot
be denied and is geared toward a classless society. They believed in the philosophy of
material dialectics, which means two material things are the only ingredients necessary
for change. They deny the existence of God, free will, and immortality, for they do not
matter is immaterial. Ergo, anything that will lead to a classless society is good and
moral, and anything otherwise is evil and immoral.
 Ethics
3
Morality

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. Agapay, Ramon B.; Ethics and the Filipinos; Mandaluyong Metro Manila, National
Book Store Inc.
2. Babor, Eddie R.; Ethics – The Philosophical Discipline of Action; Manile, Rex Book
Store
3. Montemayor, Felix; Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro Manila; National Book
Store

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