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Epidemiology of Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases and Conditions
Epidemiology of Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases and Conditions
Discuss in brief the modifiable & non-modifiable risk factors in Coronary Heart
Disease. Explain some of the steps taken to prevent Coronary Heart Disease.
Modifiable Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease
- Cigarette smoking
- High Blood Pressure
- Elevated serum cholesterol
- Diabetes
Community Medicine - Obesity
- Sedentary habits
Epidemiology of Chronic Non- - Stress
Communicable Diseases and Non-modifiable Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease
Population Strategy:
- CHD is a mass disease and thus the strategy should be based on mass approach focusing
mainly on the control of underlying causes in the whole populations
- This approach is based on the principle that small changes in risk factor levels in total
populations can achieve the biggest reduction in mortality
- The aim should be to shift the whole risk-factor distribution in the direction of “biological
normality”
- The specific interventions are
o Dietary changes
Reduction of fat intake to 20-30% of total energy intake
Consumption of saturated fat is limited to 10% of total energy intake
Reduction of dietary cholesterol
Increase in complex carbohydrate consumption
Avoidance of alcohol consumption
o Smoking
To achieve the goal of smoke-free society, comprehensive health
programmes would be required
o Blood Pressure
Small reduction of blood pressure by even 2-3mmHg would produce a large
Atul K Shankar reduction in the incidence of cardiovascular complications
31 The goal would be to reduce the mean population blood pressure levels
This involves a multifactorial approach based on a prudent diet
o Physical Activity SHORT NOTES
Regular physical activity should be a part of normal daily life
It is important to encourage children to take up physical activities that they Diet in Coronary Heart Disease
can continue throughout their life The dietary changes required in Coronary Heart disease is a principal preventive strategy in the
prevention of CHD.
High-Risk Strategy:
WHO consider the following dietary changes to be appropriate for high incidence populations:
- Identifying Risk
o High risk intervention can only start one those at high risk is identified - Reduction of Fat Intake to 20-30% of total energy intake
o By means of measuring blood pressure and serum cholesterol, it is possible to - Consumption of Saturated fats must be limited to less than 10% of total energy intake
identify individuals at special risk o Some of the reduction in saturated fat may be made up by mono- and poly-
o Individuals at special risk include unsaturated fats
Smokers - Reduction of dietary cholesterol to below 100 mg per 1000 kcal per day
Familial history of CHD - An increase in complex carbohydrate consumption (i.e. vegetables, fruits, whole grains,
Diabetes legumes)
Obesity - Avoidance of alcohol consumptions; reduction of salt intake to 5 grams daily or less
Young women using oral contraceptives
Risk Factors of Diabetes Mellitus
- Specific Advice
- Agent Factors
o Having identified the high-risk group, next step is to bring them under
o Pancreatic disorders
preventative care and motivate them to take positive action against all the
o Defects in the formation of insulin
identified risk factors
o Destruction of beta cells
o High risk approach suffers from disadvantage that the intervention may be
o Decreased insulin reactivity
effective in reducing the disease to the same extent in the general population
o Genetic defects
Secondary Prevention: - Host Factors
o Age – prevalent in middle years of life
- Must be seen as a continuation of primary prevention
o Sex – equal male to female ratio
- It forms an important part of an overall strategy
o Genetic factors and markers
- The aim is to prevent the recurrence and progression of CHD
o Immune mechanisms
- It is a rapidly expanding field with much research in progress
o Obesity
o Drug trials
o Maternal diabetes
o Coronary surgery
- Environmental Risk Factors
o Use of Pacemakers
o Sedentary Lifestyle
- The principles are same as those set out for the population and high-risk strategy
o Diet
- Most promising results have come from beta-blockers which appear to reduce the risk of
o Dietary Fibre
CHD mortality
o Malnutrition
- Despite advances in treatment, mortality of an acute heart attack is still high
o Alcohol
Vision 2020 o Viral infections
- Known as ‘VISION 2020 : The Right to Sight o Chemical Agents
- It is a global initiative to eliminate avoidable blindness o Stress
- It was launched by WHO on 18th February 1999 - Social Factors
- One significant way in which this initiative differs from previous ones is that the concept o Occupation
centres around Rights issues o Marital status
- Recognition of sight as a fundamental human right by all countries can be an important o Religion
catalyst of initiatives for prevention and control of blindness o Economic status
- The objective is to assist member countries in developing sustainable systems which will o Education
enable them to eliminate avoidable blindness from major causes o Urbanization
o Cataract o Lifestyle changes
o Xerophthalmia
Avoidable Blindness Obesity
- The concept of avoidable blindness has gained increasing recognition during the years Obesity is defined as an abnormal growth of the adipose tissue due to an enlargement of fat cell
- Many causes of blindness lend themselves to prevention or control by treating the cases of size or an increase in fat cell number or a combination or both.
infectious diseases, or by controlling the organisms which cause the infection, or by
It is expressed in terms of BMI (body mass index), with overweight is usually due to obesity but
improving safety conditions
can arise from other causes such as abnormal muscle development or fluid retention.
- The components for action in national programmes include
o Initial Assessment - Prevalence
First step is to assess the magnitude, geographic distribution and causes o Obesity is the most prevalent form of malnutrition
of blindness within the country o As a chronic disease, it is prevalent in both developed and underdeveloped
This is essential for setting the priorities and development of appropriate countries, and increasingly affecting children
intervention programmes o One of the most significant contributors to ill health
o Methods of Intervention - Epidemiology
Primary Eye Care o Age
Essential drugs such as topical tetracycline, vitamin A capsules, Obesity can occur at any age, and increases with age
eye bandages, shields, are provided to locally trained primary Most adipose cells are formed early in life and obese infant lays down more
health workers of these cells than the normal infant
These aid in first line, grassroot health care of eye conditions o Sex
Secondary Care Women generally have a higher rate of obesity than men
Definitive management of common blinding conditions o Genetic Factors
This is provided in PHCs and district hospitals There is a genetic component to the etiology of obesity
May involve the use of mobile eye clinics o Physical Inactivity
Tertiary Care Regular physical exercise is protective against unhealthy weight gain
Services are established in the national or regional capitals Major reduction in activity without the relative reduction in energy intake
Provides sophisticated eye care such as retinal detachment is a major cause of increased obesity
surgery, corneal grafting and other complex forms of o Socio-economic Status
management Relationship of obesity to social class is well established
Other measures of rehabilitation include education of the blind in Obesity has been found to be more prevalent in the lower socio-economic
special schools and utilization of there services groups
Specific Programmes o Eating habits
Trachoma control Eating habits are established very early in life
School eye health services Diet containing more energy than needed leads to prolonged post-
Vitamin A prophylaxis prandial hyperlipidaemia and to the deposition of triglycerides in the
adipose tissue
Occupational eye health services
o Psychological Factors
o Long Term Measures
Overeating can be a symptom of depression, anxiety, frustration and
Aimed at improving the quality of life and modifying or attacking the
lonliness in childhood as it is in adult life
factors responsible for persistent eye health problems
- Assessment of Obesity
health education is an important long-term measure in order to
o Body Weight
create community awareness of the problem
Body Mass Index = Weight/Height
motivate community
Ponderal Index = Height / Cube root of body weight
accept total eye health care programmes
Brocca Index = height - 100
secure community participation 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−150
o Evaluation Lorentz’s Formula = Height – 100 - 2 (𝑤𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛) 𝑜𝑟 4 (𝑚𝑒𝑛)
Integral part of intervention programmes Corpulence Index = Actual weight / desirable weight
Measures the extent to which ocular diseases and blindness have been Should not exceed 1.2
alleviated, assess the manner and degree to which programmes are o Skinfold Thickness
carried out, and determine the nature of changes produced o Waist Circumference and Waist Hip Ratio
Danger Signals of Cancer Importance of Tracking of Blood Pressure
The early warning signs, or ‘danger signals’ of cancer are: - If blood pressure levels of individuals were followed up over a period of years from early
childhood into the adult life, then those individuals whose pressure were high in the
- Lump or hard area in the breast
distribution, would continue in the same track as adults
- Change in a wart or mole
- Low blood pressure levels tend to remain low, and high levels tend to become higher as
- Persistent change in digestive and bowel habits
individuals grow older
- Persistent cough or hoarseness
- this phenomenon of persistence of rank order is described as tracking
- Excessive loss of blood at a monthly period or a loss of blood outside of the usual cycle
- this knowledge can be applied in identifying children and adolescents at risk of
- Blood loss from any natural orifice
developing hypertension at a future date.
- Swelling or sore that does not get better
- Unexplained loss of weight Assessment of Obesity
Body Weight
Screening Methods for Cancer
Screening for Cancer Cervix: - Body Mass Index = Weight/Height
- Ponderal Index = Height / Cube root of body weight
- Prolonged early phase of cancer in situ is detected by the Pap smear
- Brocca Index = height – 100
- This requires excessive resources in terms of labs, equipment and personnel 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−150
- This has led to an alternative screening methods - Lorentz’s Formula = Height – 100 – 2 (𝑤𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛) 𝑜𝑟 4 (𝑚𝑒𝑛)
o Visual Inspection with Acetic Acid (VIA) - Corpulence Index = Actual weight / desirable weight
o VIA with Magnification (VIAM) o Should not exceed 1.2
o Visual Inspection Post-application of Lugol’s Iodine (VILI)
Skinfold Thickness
Screening for Breast Cancer:
- Large proportion of total body fat is located just under the skin
- The basic techniques for early detection of breast cancer are: - The method most used is measurement of skinfold thickness
o Breast Self-examination by the patient - It is a rapid and non-invasive method for assessing body fat
Probably the only feasible approach to wide population coverage - The measurement may be taken at all the 4 sites – mid-triceps, biceps, subscapular,
o Palpation by a physician suprailiac regions
Unreliable for large fatty breasts - The sum of measurements should be less than 40 mm in boys and 50 mm in girls
o Thermography - In extreme obesity, measurements may not be impossible
Has the advantage that patient is not exposed to radiation - The main drawback is poor repeatability
o Mammography
Waist Circumference and Waist Hip Ratio
- The use of mammography has 3 potential drawbacks;
o Exposure to radiation - Waist Circumference
o Mammography requires technical equipment of a high standard and radiologists o Measured at the mid-point between the lower border of the rib cage and the iliac
with very considerable experience crest
o Biopsy from a suspicious lesion may end up as a false-positive in as many as 5-10 o It is a convenient and simple measurement that is unrelated to height, correlates
cases closely with BMI and WHR
o It is an appropriate index of intra-abdominal fat mass and total body fat
Screening for Lung Cancer:
- There is an increased risk of metabolic complications for men with a waist circumference
- At present there is only 2 techniques for screening for lung cancer or more than 102 cm and women with a circumference of more than 88 cm
o Chest Radiograph
Other Measures:
o Sputum Cytology
- Mass radiography has been suggested for early diagnosis at six monthly intervals - Total body water
- It is doubtful whether the disease satisfies the criteria of suitability for screening - Total body potassium
- Total body density
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ESSAY
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Community Medicine - Agent Factors
o Agent
the causative agent of tuberculosis is Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Epidemiology of Communicable Diseases it is a facultative intracellular parasite
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it is readily ingested by phagocytes and is resistant to intracellular
Atul K Shankar killing
31 o Source of Infection
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there are 2 sources of infection – human and bovine
the most common source of infection in humans is in a patient whose
sputum is positive for tubercle bacilli and who has either received
no treatment or has not been treated fully
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they can discharge the bacilli in their sputum for years
some bacilli multiply quickly and some slowly
more rapid multipliers are more susceptible to bactericidal drugs
the slow multipliers are the source of dormant bacilli
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dormant bacilli can stay alive but does not cause infection to
the human until the conditions are favourable when they
multiply again and cause infection
the bovine source is usually infected milk
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no definite evidence that bovine TB is a problem due to
practice of boiling milk before consumption
o Communicability
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patients are infective as long as they remain untreated
effective anti-microbial treatment reduces infectivity
- Host Factors
o Age
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tuberculosis affects all ages
developing countries show a sharp rise in infection rates from
childhood to adolescence
o Sex
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more prevalent in males
o Hereditary
not a hereditary disease
twin studies show that inherited susceptibility is an important risk
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factor
o Nutrition
malnutrition is believed to predispose to tuberculosis
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it affects the development, outcome and spread of disease
o Immunity
man has no inherited immunity but is acquired by BCG vaccine or
natural infection
Target Group
- Social Factors
o TB is a social disease with medical aspects - overwhelming majority of patients of pulmonary TB have one or more of the
o considered a barometer for social welfare symptoms referable to chest
o social factors include
- the chest symptoms develop early before the disease has gone onto advanced stage
poor quality of life
poor housing and overcrowding - this is the most fertile group for case-finding
population explosion Intensified TB Case Finding
malnutrition
smoking and alcohol abuse - primary objective of detecting TB cases early by active case finding in targeted
lack of education groups and to initiate treatment promptly
large families - it can target people who anyway have sought health care with or without
early marriages symptoms of TB
o these factors are interrelated and contribute to occurrence and spread of TB
- decisions on when and how to screen for TB will depend on the vulnerable group,
- Mode of Transmission
capacity of the health system and availability of resources
o TB is transmitted by droplet infection and droplet nuclei generated by
sputum positive patients with pulmonary tuberculosis Screening Strategies
o to transmit infection, particles must be fresh enough to carry viable
organisms 1) Community screening is done by
o coughing generates the highest number of droplets o inviting people to attend screening at a mobile facility or a fixed facility
frequency and vigour and ventilation of environment influences o invitations may target specifically people within a given group
transmission of infection 2) Institutional Screening
o TB is not transmitted by fomites o health care facilities
o Patients with extrapulmonary TB constitute a minimal hazard of systematically performing active screening of vulnerable individuals
transmission of infection o congregate settings
systemically perform active screening of vulnerable individuals in
- Incubation period
shelters, old age homes, refugee camps, correctional facilities
o the time from receipt of infection to the development of positive
tuberculin test ranges from 3-6 weeks Case Finding Tools
o the development of disease is dependent on closeness of contact, extent
of disease and sputum positivity of source - Sputum Examination
o incubation period may be weeks, months or years. o sputum examination by direct microscopy is the method of choice
o it enables us to discover the epidemiologically most important cases of
CONTROL OF TUBERCULOSIS
pulmonary TB
Tuberculosis control means the reduction in the prevalence and incidence of disease in the
Tuberculin Test
community. The basic principles of prevention and control are the same as for any infectious
disease. - test to diagnose tuberculosis in a suspected patient
The control measures consist of a: - discovered by Von Pirquet in 1907
- positive result is accepted as evidence of past or present TB infection
- Curative Component – case finding and treatment - only means of estimating the prevalence of infection in a population
- Preventive component – BCG vaccination
Directly Observed Treatment Short Course (DOTS) Chemotherapy:
Case Finding
- strategy to ensure cure by providing the most effective medicine and confirming
- the first step in a TB control programme is early detection of sputum positive that it is taken
cases - only strategy to be documented to be effective worldwide on a programme basis
- this should be an intensive, ongoing programme
- health worker watches the patient swallow the drug in his presence, after which - Immunity
the patient is given a multiblister combipack to consume at home. o maternal antibodies disappear during the first 6 months of life
- The patient must return with an empty combipack when they come to collect the o immunity following infection is solid although reinfection can occur as
medicine for the next week immunity for one type of polio does not protect the patient from the
other 2 types
Describe the epidemiology of Poliomyelitis. Add a note on the ‘Pulse o type 2 virus antigen is the most effective
Polio Immunization Programme’. Environmental Factors
Agent Factors
- polio is more likely to occur during the rainy monsoon season
- Agent - 60% of cases recorded were during July and September
o the causative agent of poliomyelitis is poliovirus which has 3 serotypes; 1, 2
- environmental sources include
and 3
o Contaminated water, food and flies
o most outbreaks of paralytic polio are due to type 1 virus
- Polio survives for a long time in cold conditions
o poliovirus can survive for long periods in the external environment
in a cold climate, it can survive for 4 months in water and 6 months in - Overcrowding and poor sanitation provide opportunities for exposure to infection
faeces
Mode of Transmission
o it is well adapted for the faeco-oral route of transmission
o virus is rapidly deactivated by pasteurisation - Faeco-oral Route
- Reservoir of Infection o main route of spread in developing countries
o man is the only known reservoir of infection o the infection may spread directly through contaminated fingers where
o most infections are subclinical hygiene is poor, or indirectly through contaminated water, milk, foods,
o it is mild and subclinical cases play a dominant role in the spread of flies and articles of daily use
infection - Droplet Infection
o they constitute the submerged portion of the iceberg (see ICEBERG o this may occur in acute phase of disease when the virus occurs in the
PHENOMENON) throat
o there are no chronic carriers o close personal contact with an infected person facilitates droplet spread
o no animal source has yet been demonstrated o this mode of transmission may be more important in developed countries
- Infectious Material where faecal transmission is remote
o virus is found in faeces and oropharyngeal secretions of an infected
person Incubation Period
- Period of communicability
- usually 7-14 days
o the cases are most infectious from 7-10 days before and after onset of
symptoms Clinical Spectrum
Host Factors - Inapparent Infection
o there are no presenting symptoms
- Age
o recognition only by virus isolation or rising antibody titres
o disease occurs in all age groups
- Abortive Polio
o children are usually more susceptible than adults
due to acquired immunity of the adult population o causes only a mild or self-limiting illness due to viraemia
o in India, polio is a disease of infancy and childhood o the patient recovers quickly
most vulnerable age is between 6 months and 3 years o diagnosis is not made clinically as recognition is only made by viral
isolation or rising antibody titres
- Sex
- Non-Paralytic Polio
o more prevalent in males than females
3:1 ratio o presenting features are stiffness and pain in the neck and back
o disease lasts 2-10 days
- Risk Factors
o recovery is rapid
o fatigue, trauma, intramuscular injections, operative procedures
o disease is synonymous with aseptic (viral) meningitis Enumerate the Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs). Describe the
- Paralytic Polio
syndromic management of STDs in detail.
o virus invades the CNS and causes varying degrees of paralysis
Classification of Sexually Transmitted Diseases
o there is history of fever at time of onset of paralysis which is suggestive of
polio
- Bacterial Agents
o other associated symptoms are malaise, anorexia, nausea, vomiting,
o Neisseria gonorrhoeae
headache, sore throat, constipation, abdominal pain
o Chlamydia Trachomatis
o paralysis is characterized as descending
o Treponema pallidum
Pulse Polio Immunization Programme o Haemophilus ducreyi
o Mycoplasma hominis
- Government of India conducted the first round of PPI consisting of 2 immunization o Ureaplasma urealyticum
days 6 weeks apart on 9th December 1995 and 20th January 1996 o Calymmatobacterium granulomatis
- the first PPI targeted all children under 3 years irrespective of immunisation o Shigella
schedule o Campylobacter
o Group B Streptococci
- later, it was decided to extend the age group from under 3 to under 5
o Bacterial vaginosis-associated organisms
- the term ‘pulse’ is used to describe the sudden, simultaneous, mass
- Viral Agents
administration of OPV on a single day during the low transmission period
o Herpes Simplex Virus
(November to February)
o Human Herpes Virus type 5 (Cytomegalovirus)
- the dose of OPV during PPIs are extra doses to supplement and not replace the
o Hepatitis B Virus
doses already received
o Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)
- children including 0-1 should receive their routine immunization and their PPI o Molluscum contagiosum virus
- important improvement is the use of vaccine vial monitors o Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
o Colour monitors are put on the vaccine bottles - Protozoal Agents
o each label has a circle of deep blue colour o Entamoeba histolytica
o inside the circle there is white square which gradually changes to blue, if the o Giardia lamblia
vaccine bottle is exposed to higher temperatures o Trichomonas vaginalis
o when the colour of the white square becomes blue, vaccine should be
- Fungal Agents
considered ineffective
o Candida albicans
o this quality assurance ensures that the children will have better protection
- Ectoparasites
against polio
o Phthirus pubis
- AFP Surveillance
o Sarcoptes scabiei
o PPI is supported by AFP surveillance system since 1997
o it is being conducted through network of surveillance medical officers Syndromic Approach to Sexually Transmitted Diseases
SMOs are specially trained and responsible for a defined area
they are located at the state HQ and at regional places in cases of - syndromic approach is scientifically derived and offers accessible and immediate
larger states treatment, that is effective and efficient
- management of STDs using flowcharts is more cost-effective than diagnosis based
on lab tests
- many different agents cause STDs, however, some agents give rise to similar or
overlapping clinical manifestations
- e.g.
o Urethral discharge in males
o Vaginal Discharge
o Lower abdominal pain in females
o genital ulcers
o scrotal swelling o treat female partners on same lines after ruling out pregnancy and history
o inguinal bubo of allergies
o advise sexual abstinence during the course of treatment
SYNDROMIC MANAGMENT OF URETHRAL DISCHARGE IN MALES o provide condoms, educate about correct and consistent use,
Urethral discharge confirmed by Lab Investigations include SYNDROMIC MANAGEMENT OF VAGINAL DISCHARGE
clinician - Gram stain examination of urethral smear will show Causative Organisms
gram negative intracellular diplococci in gonorrhoea
- in non-gonococcal cases, more than 5 neutrophils per Vaginitis: T. vaginalis, C.albicans, G. vaginalis
- Treatment for gonorrhoea and
oil immersion field in the smear, or more than 10
chlaymidial infection Cervicitis: N. gonorrhoeae, C. Trachomatis, T.
neutrophils per high power field in the sediment of the
- Health education and counselling vaginalis, HSV
first void urine are observed
- Examine and treat sexual
partners
History Examination
Lab Investigations
Follow up, 7-14 days after treatment - Menstrual history to rule out - Per speculum examination to
pregnancy differentiate between vaginitis - wet mount microscopy of
Clinical Cure - Nature and type of discharge and cervicitis discharge for T vaginalis and
- Genital Itching - cervical erosion/ cervical clue cells
Discharge persists
- Burning micturition and ulcer/ Mucopurulent cervical - 10% KOH mount for C.
Assess: treatment compliance increased frequency discharge albicans
Assess: treatment compliance poor and re-infection likely - Presence of ulcer or swelling - Bimanual pelvic examination - Gram’s stain for clue cells in
good and re-infection unlikely - Genital complaints in sexual to rule out PID bacterial vaginosis
partners - If speculum examination is not - Gram’s stain of endocervical
Restart the treatment protocol - Low backache possible, treat for both vaginitis smear to detect Gonococci
and cervicitis
Refer
Treatment
- Notification and treatment of sexual partners of men with Urethritis are the
highest priority - Vaginitis
- Treatment o Tab. Secnidazole 2 gm orally, single dose OR Tab. Tinidazole 500mg
o as dual infection is common, treatment should cover therapy for both orally, twice daily for 5 days
gonorrhoeal and chlamydial infections o Tab. Metoclopramide 30 mins before Tab. Secnidazole, to prevent
o Uncomplicated infection regimen gastric intolerance
Tab. Cefixime 400mg orally, single dose + Tab. Azithromycin 1gm o Treat for candidiasis with Tab. Fluconazole 150mg orally single
orally, single dose UNDER SUPERVISION dose or local Clotrimazole 500 mg vaginal pessaries once
advise the patient to return after 7 days of start of therapy for follow - Cervical Infection
up o Tab. Cefixime 400mg orally, single dose
o if symptoms persist, patient should be treated for Trichomonas vaginalis o PLUS Azithromycin 1 gram, 1 hour before lunch
If discharge or only dysuria persists after 7 days, Tab. Secnidazole 2 o if vomiting within 1 hour, given anti-emetic and repeat
gm orally, single dose
o if symptoms still persist, refer to higher centre ASAP
o If individual is allergic to Azithromycin, give Erythromycin 500mg 4 times a Management in Pregnant Women Specific Guidelines for Partner Managment
day for 7 days
- Per speculum examination should be done to - Treat current partner only if no improvement
- Syndrome specific guidelines for partner management rule out pregnancy complications after treatment
o treat all recent partners - Treatment for vaginitis - If partner is symptomatic, treat client and
o In 1st trimester, local treatment with partner using the protocols
Clotrimazole for candidiasis and - Advise sexual abstinence during course of
Metronidazole for Trichomonas or BV treatment
o In 2nd and 3rd trimesters, oral - Provide condoms, educate about proper and
Metronidazole is given consistent use
o transfusion recipients of blood and blood products
o haemophiliacs
o clients of STD
Environmental Factors
Mode of Transmission Leprosy is clinically characterized by one or more of the following cardinal features
- most organisms that causes diarrhoea are transmitted primarily or exclusively by - Hypopigmented patches
the faecal-oral route - Partial or total loss of cutaneous sensation in the affected areas
- may be water-borne, food borne, or direct transmission which implies an array of - Presence of thickened nerves
other faecal-oral routes such as via fingers, fomites, dirt - Presence of acid-fast bacilli in the skin and nasal smears
Control of Diarrhoeal Diseases Agent Factors
Incubation Period
- Leprosy has a long incubation period of an average of 3-5 years for lepromatous
cases
Host Factors - Tuberculoid leprosy has a shorter incubation period
o Symptoms can take up to 20 years to manifest
- Age
- Failure to recognise the early symptoms or signs may contribute to an assumed
o Leprosy is not associated with children
o Can take place at any time depending upon the opportunities for exposure prolonged incubation period in some patients
o Disease is acquired commonly during childhood in endemic areas - Leprologists prefer the term latent period to incubation period due to the long
o Presence of leprosy in child population is of epidemiological significance duration
- Sex Mode of Transmission
o Both incidence and prevalence of leprosy is higher in males than females
o Excess of male cases is attributed to greater motility and increased - Droplet Transmission
opportunities for contact in many populations o There is growing evidence that leprosy is transmitted by droplet infection
- Migration o With this realization, there has been increased emphasis on the respiratory
o Leprosy is considered to be a rural problem tract as the portal of entry
o However, due to movement of population from the rural to urban areas, o The possibility of this route of transmission is based on
leprosy is slowly developing into an urban problem Inability of the organisms to be found on the surface of the skin
- Prevalence Pool Demonstration of a large number of organisms in the nasal
o Prevalence pool is in a constant flux resulting from inflow and outflow of discharge
cases The high proportion of morphologically intact bacilli in the nasal
- Inactivation of Disease secretions
o Where leprosy treatment facilities exist, inactivation or cure due to specific The evidence that M. leprae could survive outside the human host
treatment is an important mode of elimination of cases from the prevalence for several hours or days
pool - Contact Transmission
- Immunity o Numerous studies indicate that leprosy is transmitted from person-to-
o It is well-established that only few persons exposed to infection develop person by close contact between an infectious patient and a healthy but
disease susceptible person
o Large proportion of early lesions of lesion heal spontaneously o This contact may be direct or indirect
Suggesting immunity acquired through these lesions - Other routes
o Subclinical infections are far more common than what was believed o Insect vectors
Believed to contribute to active immunity o Tattooing needles
- Genetic Factors
National Leprosy Eradication Programme
The “National Leprosy Control Programme” (NLCP) was started in 1955 as a programme o Patient can be carrier of several plasmodial species at the same time
to achieve control of leprosy through early detection of cases and DDS monotherapy o Children are more likely to carry the gametocyte form and are therefore
on an ambulatory basis. In 1980, the government constituted a ‘Working Group’ who better reservoirs than adults,
advised a revised strategy based on ‘multidrug chemotherapy aimed at leprosy o Certain conditions must be satisfied to make an ideal reservoir
eradication through reduction in the sources of infection, and breaking the chain of Both sexes of gametocytes must be present for further
transmission of disease. The “National Leprosy Eradication Programme” (NLEP) was development to occur
formed in 1983 to combat leprosy and aim for eradication by the turn of the century. Gametocytes must be mature
Gametocytes must be viable
The components of the programme are: Gametocytes must be present in sufficient density to infect the
mosquitos
- Decentralized integrated leprosy services through general health care system
- Period of Communicability
- Capacity building of all general health services functionaries
o Malaria is communicable as long as the mature, viable gametocytes exist
- Intensified information, education and communication in the circulating blood in sufficient density to infect vector mosquitoes
- Prevention of disability and medical rehabilitation o In vivax infections, gametocytes appear in the blood 4-5 days after the
- Intensified monitoring, supervision and surveillance appearance of the asexual parasites
o Gametocytes are the most numerous during the early stages of the infection
After the introduction of multidrug therapy, recorded case load of leprosy came down o RELAPSES
from 57.6 per 10,000 in 1981 to less than 1 at a national level in 2005. 34 states have Usual for vivax and ovale to relapse more than 3 years after the
declared leprosy elimination with only 2 yet to declare elimination; Chhattisgarh and Dadra patients first attack
& Nagar Haveli. Recurrences of falciparum disappear within 1-2 years
P. malariae cause prolonged, low-level asymptomatic
Describe the epidemiology and control of Malaria in India. parasitaemia
Agent Factors
Host Factors
- Agent
o Malaria in man is caused by 4 distinct species of Plasmodium; P. vivax, P. - Age
falciparum, P. ovale, P. malariae o Malaria affects all ages
o P. vivax has the widest geographic distribution throughout the world o New-borns are considerably resistant to P. falciparum
o In India, the most prevalent species are P. falciparum and P. vivax Due to high concentration of foetal haemoglobin during the first
o The largest focus of P. malariae is in the Tumkur and Hassan Districts of months of life, suppressing the development of P. falciparum
Karnataka - Sex
o P. ovale is a rare species in man and many restricted to tropical regions and o Males are more frequently exposed to risk of acquiring malaria due to their
Africa. ‘outdoor lifestyle’
Cases have also been reported in Vietnam - Race
o Severity of malaria is related to the species of Plasmodium. o Individuals with sickle cell trait are have a milder infection of P. falciparum
o Plasmodium undergoes 2 cycles; Asexual and Sexual than those with normal haemoglobin
o During the asexual cycle (Schizogony), it undergoes multiplication in the o Persons with Duffy negative are resistant to P. vivax infection
liver parenchymal cells (Hepatic Phase), and maturation and
- Pregnancy
differentiation in the red blood cells (Erythrocytic Phase) into micro- and
o Increases the risk of malaria in women
macrogametocyte
o Malaria during pregnancy causes intrauterine death of the foetus
o These gametocytes enter the Sexual Cycle (Sporogony) when they are
o It may also cause premature labour or abortion
taken up by mosquitoes during blood meal, and undergo sexual replication
o Primigravid mothers are at greatest risk
and development into an oocyst which bursts releasing sporozoites. These
- Socioeconomic development
sporozoites enter the salivary gland and are discharged into the human
o Malaria is more prevalent in under developed societies
during the next blood meal and the cycle continues
- Housing
- Reservoir of Infection
o Ill-ventilated and ill-lit houses provide ideal indoor resting places for
o With the exception of chimpanzees in tropical Africa, there is no other
mosquitos
animal reservoir of human plasmodia
o Malaria is acquired by mosquito bites inside the house - Altitude
- Population Mobility o Anophelines are not found at altitudes above 2000-2500 metres
o People migrating from one place to another may import malarial parasites Due to unfavourable climatic conditions
to a place where it has been controlled and reintroduce malaria into - Man-made malaria
these areas o Burrow pits, garden pools, irrigation channels and engineering projects have
- Occupation led to the breeding of malarial vectors and subsequent increase in malaria
o Malaria is predominantly a rural disease and as such is common seen o Malaria consequent of such endeavours is known as man-made malaria
among individuals in the agricultural industry
Mode of Transmission
- Human Habits
o Sleeping outdoors, nomadism, refusal to accept spraying of houses, - Vector Transmission
replastering of walls and personal protection measures (nets, bug spray) o Malaria is transmitted by bite of certain species of infected, female,
o These measures influence the man-vector contact anopheline mosquitoes
- Immunity o Single infected vector may infect several persons
o Epidemic of malaria is influenced by the immunity of the population o Mosquitoes are not infective until the sporozoites are present in its salivary
o Immunity is only acquired after repeated infections and exposure to the gland
parasite - Direct Transmission
o Therefore, in endemic areas, a state of collective immunity develops o Malaria may be induced by hypodermic intramuscular and intravenous
slowly injections of blood or plasma
As a result, only infants, children, new-borns, travellers and o Blood transfusions poses a problem as the parasites keep their infective
migrants are affected the most. activity for at least 14 days in blood bottles stored at 4°C
o Infants born to immune mothers are protected during the first 3-5 months due o Persons living in endemic areas or has had malaria should not be accepted
to the presence of maternal IgG antibody as blood donor until 3 years after recovery
o Active immunity is species-specific; immunity to one species does not
- Congenital Malaria
protect you from the other species of plasmodia.
o Congenital infection of a new-born from the blood of the mother may also
Environmental Factors occur, but rare due to the effect of the foetal haemoglobin
The Strategic Action Plan for malarial control in India was developed by the Directorate of Describe the epidemiology of Dengue Fever. Mention the measures to
National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme.
control and prevent the epidemic of Dengue Fever.
The strategies for prevention and control of malaria and its transmission are: Dengue Fever is a self-limiting disease and represents the majority of cases of dengue
infection. A prevalence of Aedes aegyptii and Aedes albopictus with the circulation of
- Surveillance and Case Management dengue virus of more than one type tends to be associated with outbreaks of DHF/DSS
o Case detection (passive and active)
o Early diagnosis and complete treatment Agent Factors
o Sentinel surveillance
- Agent
- Integrated Vector Management
o The dengue virus forms a distinct complex within the flavivirus genus
o Indoor residual spray (IRS)
based on antigenic and biological characteristics
o Insecticide treated bed nets (ITNs) and long-lasting insecticidal nets
o There are 4 serotypes which are designated as DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3,
o Anti-larval measures including source reduction
and DENV-4
- Epidemic preparedness and early response o Infection with one serotype confers lifelong immunity to that specific
- Supportive interventions serotype
o All 4 serotypes are similar antigenically but different enough to elicit cross- - The rural spread of the vector is associated with development of rural water
protection for only a few months after infection by any one serotype supply schemes, improved transport systems, scarcity of water and lifestyle
o Pathogenesis of severe syndrome involves pre-existing dengue antibody changes
Virus antibodies are formed within a few days of second dengue
infection and that the non-neutralizing antibodies promote infection of Control of Dengue Fever
higher numbers of mononuclear cells, followed by the release of
cytokines, vasoactive mediators and procoagulants - Mosquito Control
o Vectors of DF and DHF breed in and around houses
Leading to DIC seen in haemorrhagic fever syndrome
o In principle, it can be controlled by individual and community action,
- Vector
using anti-adult and antilarval measures
o Aedes aegyptii and Aedes albopticus are two most important vectors of
- Vaccines
dengue
o They both carry high vectorial competency for dengue virus o CYD-TDV
o Aedes aegyptii is highly domesticated, strongly anthropophilic, nervous Prophylactic, tetravalent, live attenuated viral vaccine
feeder (It bites more than one person to complete its blood meal) and is a Developed by Sanofi Pasteur in December 2015
discordant species (requires more than one feed to complete the Consists of 3 injections of 0.5 mL administered at 6-month intervals
gonotropic cycle) Available as a single dose vial or in a multidose (5-dose) vial
o This habit results in the generation of multiple cases and clustering of It is a freeze-dried product to be reconstituted before injection
dengue cases in the cities. with sterile solution of 0.4% Sodium Chloride (single dose) or 0.9%
o Aedes albopticus partly invades peripheral areas of the urban cities Sodium Chloride (multidose)
It is an aggressive feeder It is administered subcutaneously
Concordant species It is contraindicated in
Does not require a second blood meal to complete the Individuals with severe allergy to dengue vaccine
gonotropic cycle Individuals with congenital or acquired immune deficiency
Individuals with HIV, asymptomatic or symptomatic
Transmission of Disease Pregnant or breastfeeding women
- Other measures
- Aedes mosquito becomes infective by feeding on a patient from the day before
o Isolation of patient under bed nets during the first few days
onset to 5th day of illness (Viraemia stage)
o Individual protection against mosquitoes
- After an incubation period of 8-10 days, the mosquito becomes infective and is able
to transmit the infection Global Strategy for Dengue Protection and Control: 2012-2020
- Once it is infective, it remains so for life
- The Global Strategy promotes coordination and collaboration among multisectoral
- The genital tract gets infected and transovarian transmission of dengue virus
partners on integrated vector management
occurs when the virus enters the fully developed eggs at the time of oviposition.
- The goals are
Environmental Factors o To reduce dengue mortality by at least 50% by 2020
o To reduce dengue morbidity by at least 25% by 2020
- Population of Aedes mosquitos fluctuates with rainfall and water storage o To estimate the true burden of the disease by 2015
- Its life span is influenced by temperature and humidity
- It breeds in the containers in and around the house
- It is a domestic breeder and there endophagic and endophilic SHORT NOTES
- An increase of 2°C will shorten the extrinsic incubation period of the DENV
Multidrug Therapy of Leprosy
- Mosquitos will tend to bite more frequently due to dehydration and thus increases
Objectives:
the man-mosquito contact
- Failure of the urban authorities to provide civil amenities and poor public health - To interrupt transmission of the infection in the community by sterilizing infectious
infrastructure increases the potential for vector breeding and makes the patients as rapidly as possible with bactericidal drugs
environment transmission conducive
- To ensure a rapidly detection and treatment of cases to prevent deformities
- To prevent drug resistance o Clofazimine – 300mg once monthly supervised, and 50mg daily self-
administered
Drugs used: If clofazimine is unacceptable, ethionamide 250-375 mg self-
administered is suggested
- Rifampicin
o Only drug that is highly bactericidal against M. leprae
- For Paucibacillary Leprosy in adults
o Single dose of 1500mg can kill up to 99% of viable organisms
o Rifampicin – 600mg once monthly, supervised
o It is now an essential drug in chemotherapy of leprosy
o Dapsone – 100mg (1-2mg/kg bodyweight) daily, self-administered
o When given alone, resistance to the drug develops and is hence given in
combination with other drugs
- For multibacillary leprosy in children
- Dapsone
o Rifampicin – 450mg once monthly, supervised
o Has been in use globally for control of leprosy for more than 30 years
o Dapsone – 50mg daily, self-administered
o It is an important drug in the MDT of leprosy
o Clofazimine – 150mg once a month, supervised, 50 mg every other day
o It is cheap and effective in the correct dosage (1-2mg/kg body weight)
o When given orally, it is completely absorbed from the gut and fairly well
- For paucibacillary leprosy in children
tolerated
o Shown to have a weak bactericidal action against M. leprae o Rifampicin – 450mg once monthly supervised
o Dapsone – 50mg daily, self-administered
- Clofazimine
o Originally synthesised for treatment of TB, but was found to be more effective
against leprosy
Pulse Polio Immunisation Programme
o Has both anti-leprosy and anti-inflammatory properties
o Has the added advantage in suppressing and preventing reactions - Government of India conducted the first round of PPI consisting of 2 immunization
days 6 weeks apart on 9th December 1995 and 20th January 1996
- Ethionamide and Protionamide
o Bactericidal drugs killing 98% of organisms in 4-5 days - the first PPI targeted all children under 3 years irrespective of immunisation
o Virtually interchangeable and gives rise to cross-resistance with each other schedule
o Both more expensive and more toxic than dapsone - later, it was decided to extend the age group from under 3 to under 5
- Quinolones - the term ‘pulse’ is used to describe the sudden, simultaneous, mass
o Ofloxacin is the most preferred administration of OPV on a single day during the low transmission period
o 22 doses can kill 99.9% of viable organism (November to February)
- Minocycline - the dose of OPV during PPIs are extra doses to supplement and not replace the
o Most lipid soluble of the tetracyclines doses already received
o Inhibits bacterial protein synthesis - children including 0-1 should receive their routine immunization and their PPI
o May strengthen the MDT and thereby shorten the duration of treatment - important improvement is the use of vaccine vial monitors
needed for leprosy o Colour monitors are put on the vaccine bottles
- Clarithromycin o each label has a circle of deep blue colour
o Member of the macrolide group of antibiotics o inside the circle there is white square which gradually changes to blue, if the
o Displays a significant bactericidal activity vaccine bottle is exposed to higher temperatures
o Daily administration of 500mg killed 99% of viable organisms within 28 o when the colour of the white square becomes blue, vaccine should be
days in lepromatous leprosy considered ineffective
o this quality assurance ensures that the children will have better protection
against polio
WHO Recommended Chemotherapy Regimens:
Preventive Measures
- Isolation
o Infectious patients must be isolated
o Patients who are susceptible to infection should not be placed in beds next to
patients who are a source of infection
- Hospital Staff
o Rash
o Impaired kidney and liver functions
Grading of Deformities in Leprosy - There is no specific treatment for this disease
- Mortality can be reduced and spread of disease can be prevented by instituting
specific infection control measures
- There is no vaccine against the Ebola virus
TEST SIGNIFICANCE
ELISA Screening test for HIV infection; sensitivity >
99.9%.
Western Blot Confirmatory test for HIV
Complete Blood Count Anaemia, Neutropenia, Thrombocytopenia is
common with advanced HIV
Absolute CD4 Lymphocyte Count Most widely used predictor for HIV
progression
CD4 Lymphocyte Percentage Percentage may be more reliable than the
CD4 count
HIV viral load tests Test that measure the amount of actively
replicating HIV virus; Correlates with disease
progression and response to anti-retroviral
drugs
B2 – Microglobulin Cell surface protein indicative of macrophage
– monocyte stimulation; not useful with IV
drug users
P24 Antigen Indicates Active HIV replication; tends to be
positive prior to seroconversion and with
advanced disease
Ebola
- Ebola is a new breed of deadly haemorrhagic fever which appeared for the first
time in Zaire and Sudan in 1976. Post-exposure Prophylaxis of Rabies
- It has an incubation period of 2-21 days and is not infective during this period General Consideration
- Asymptomatic cases are also not infective - The vast majority of persons requiring anti-rabies treatment are those bitten by a
- The virus is transmitted through direct contact with the blood, organs, body suspected rabid animal
secretions or other body fluids of infected animals like chimpanzees, gorillas, - The aim is to neutralize the inoculated virus before it can enter the nervous system
monkeys, fruit bats
- It is well established that combination of single dose of rabies immunoglobulin
- Human to human transmission is through blood or bodily fluids of an infected with local treatment of the wound
symptomatic person or through exposure to objects
- It is not transmissible through air, water or food Local Treatment of Wound
- Characteristic features include
- Prompt and adequate local treatment is the first requisite and is of utmost
o Sudden onset of fever
importance
o Intense weakness
o Muscle pain - Purpose is to remove as much virus as possible from the site of inoculation
o Headache before it can be absorbed on nerve endings.
o Sore throat - Is of maximal value when applied immediately after exposure but it should not be
o Vomiting and diarrhoea neglected if time has elapsed
- Measures include
o Cleansing
o Chemical Treatment
o Suturing
o Antibiotics and anti-tetanus measures
Immunization
Mode of Transmission
Initial Infection:
- Sexual Transmission
o AIDS is a sexually transmitted disease - infected people have no symptoms for the first 5 years
o it can spread via unprotected vaginal, oral or anal sex - they appear healthy
o size of risk is affected by number of factors - once infected, people are infected for life
presence of STD
- HIV antibodies take between 2-12 weeks to appear in the blood
sex and age of uninfected partner
o this period is known as WINDOW PERIOD
type of sexual act
stage of illness of the infected partner Asymptomatic Carrier State:
virulence of the HIV strain
o anal intercourse carries a higher risk of transmission than vaginal - infected people have antibodies, but no overt signs of disease
intercourse because it is more likely to injure tissues of the receptive - there is persistent generalized lymphadenopathy
partner - it is not clear how long the carrier state lasts
o the risk of transmission is greater where there are abrasions of the skin or
mucous membrane AIDS-related Complex
o exposed adolescent girls and women are more prone to HIV
o HIV infected people are more infectious to others in the very early stages, - person with ARC has illnesses caused by damage to the immune system
before the antibody production and when the infection is well advanced, as - they may exhibit one or more of the clinical signs
the level of virus in the blood is higher than at other times o Unexplained diarrhoea for more than a month
- Blood Contact o Fatigue
o AIDS is also transmitted by contaminated blood o Malaise
o it is highly infective when introduced in large quantities directly into the o Loss of more than 10% body weight
blood stream o fever
o the risk of contracting HIV infection is estimated to be over 95% o Night sweats
o this route of transmission is common among recreational drug users who - patients with 2 or more of these manifestations and a decreased number of T-
inject drugs into their system helper lymphocytes are considered to have AIDS-related complex
- Maternal-Foetal Transmission
AIDS:
o HIV may pass from an infected mother to her foetus, through the placenta
or to her infant during delivery or by breastfeeding - the end-stage of HIV infection
o transmission accounts for 1/3 to 2/3 of overall numbers infected
- opportunistic infections commonly occur at this stage
o risk of infection is higher in newly infected, or if she has already developed
AIDS - death is due to uncontrolled or untreatable infection
o HIV infected infants progress rapidly to AIDS - TB and Kaposi Sarcoma is usually seen early
o can be prevented entirely by anti-retroviral drug prophylaxis - Serious fungal infections such as Candida, Cryptococcus, Penicillosis, and
o no evidence of spread to health care workers in their professional contact parasitic infections such as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia or Toxoplasma
with AIDS patients gondii encephalitis tends to occur
- To interrupt transmission of the infection in the community by sterilizing infectious - For multibacillary Leprosy in adults
patients as rapidly as possible with bactericidal drugs o Rifampicin – 600mg once monthly, under supervision
- To ensure a rapidly detection and treatment of cases to prevent deformities o Dapsone – 100mg daily, self-administered
o Clofazimine – 300mg once monthly supervised, and 50mg daily self- Classification and Management of Acute Respiratory Infection in a young
administered
If clofazimine is unacceptable, ethionamide 250-375 mg self- infant under 2 months of age.
administered is suggested SIGNS - stopped feeding well
- convulsions
- For Paucibacillary Leprosy in adults - abnormally sleepy or difficult to wake
o Rifampicin – 600mg once monthly, supervised - stridor in calm child
o Dapsone – 100mg (1-2mg/kg bodyweight) daily, self-administered - wheezing
- fever or low body temperature
CLASSIFY AS: VERY SEVERE DISEASE
- For multibacillary leprosy in children
TREATMENT - refer urgently to the hospital
o Rifampicin – 450mg once monthly, supervised
- Keep the young infant warm
o Dapsone – 50mg daily, self-administered
- Give the first dose of antibiotic
o Clofazimine – 150mg once a month, supervised, 50 mg every other day