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Topics covered
A. Thermal Equillibrium Temperature scales
B. Thermal Expansion
C. Heat and Internal Energy
D. Specific Heat and Calorimetry
E. Latent Heat and Phase Changes
F. Transport of Heat Energy
XII. Thermal Physics
A. Thermal Equilibrium.
XII–1
XII–2
◦
ii) C ⇐⇒ K:
TC = T − 273.15 . (XII-2)
Solution (a):
We need to come up with a formula that changes ∆TF to ∆TC and then
to ∆T (where T is measured in Kelvin). Using Eq. (XII-1) we can write
9
(TF )1 = (TC )1 + 32
5
and
9
(TF )2 = (TC )2 + 32 .
5
Subtracting equation (1) from (2) yields
9
(TF )2 − (TF )1 = [(TC )2 − (TC )1 ]
5
9
∆TF = ∆TC ,
5
since the two ‘32’s cancel with each other. We are given a temperature
difference of ∆TF = 57.0◦ F, so from the equation above we get
5 5
∆TC = ∆TF = (57.0) = 31.7◦ C .
9 9
XII–3
Solution (b):
From the same argument above, Eq. (XII-2) gives
B. Thermal Expansion.
∆L = α L◦ ∆T . (XII-3)
∆A = γ A◦ ∆T . (XII-4)
∆V = β V◦ ∆T . (XII-5)
Solution:
Use Eq. (XII-3) here. ∆T = 35◦ C – (–20◦ C) = 55◦ C, L◦ = 518 m, and
α = 11 × 10−6 ◦ C−1 from Table 10.1 on page 313 in the textbook. This
gives a length change of
which is the heat capacity per unit mass, so we can write the
heat equation as
Q = m c ∆T . (XII-8)
a) In the cgs system, c is measured in cal/g ◦C.
Solution:
The mechanical energy transformed into internal energy of the bullet is
1 1 1 2 1
!
Q = (KEi ) = mvi = mvi2 ,
2 2 2 4
where m is the mass of the bullet and vi = 300 m/s is the initial speed
of the bullet. From Table 11.1 on page 335 in the textbook, the specific
heat of lead is 128 J/kg·◦ C. Using Eq. (XII-8), the change in temperature
of the bullet is
Q 1
mvi2 vi2 (300 m/s)2
∆T = = 4
= = ◦
= 176◦ C .
mc mc 4c 4 (128 J/kg · C)
Solution:
From Table 11.1 in the textbook, the specific heat of iron (Fe) is 448
J/kg·◦ C and water is 4186 J/kg·◦ C. Using Eq. (XII-11) we get an equi-
librium temperature T of
with
b) Mathematically:
Q = ±m L . (XII-12)
iv) You use the ‘+’ sign when energy is being added
during a phase change (i.e., melting or boiling).
T (oC)
E
D
100 STEAM
2 C WATER +
50 STEAM
1
B WATER
0
A ICE +
ICE
WATER
-30
62.7 396.7 815.7 3076
Q (J) = Heat
b) In states ‘A,’ ‘C,’ and ‘E,’ the heat equation follows Eq.
(XII-8).
c) In states ‘B’ and ‘D,’ the phase change states, the heat
equation follows Eq. (XII-12).
QC = mwcw (T2 − TB )
QB = (m0i + m0w ) Lf (positive since energy is being added)
QA = mi ci (TB − T1 ) .
Here, ci and cw are the specific heats of ice and water,
Lf is the latent heat of fusion of water, mw is the initial
mass of the water, mi = mw is the final mass of the ice,
m0i + m0w = mw is the mass of the water freezing into ice,
XII–12
Note that since T1 < 0, −mw ci T1 > 0 and hence the right-
hand side of this equation will always be positive.
Solution:
Let’s assume that the large block of ice does not completely melt as a
result of the bullet embedding itself, then the kinetic energy of the bullet
XII–13
will go towards heating the block of ice. Also, the temperature of the
bullet will heat the ice block. Let mmelt be the amount of mass in the
ice block that melts, mb = 3.00 gm = 3.00 × 10−3 kg be the mass of the
bullet, Tb = 30.0◦ C be the initial temperature of the bullet, vb = 240 m/s
be the initial speed of the bullet, and T = 0◦ C be the final temperature of
the bullet (since it will cool to the same temperature of the block of ice).
Using the tables from the textbook, the latent heat of fusion of water is
Lf = 3.33 × 105 J/kg and the specific heat for lead is cb = 128 J/kg·◦ C.
Using the conservation of energy (and noting that J/kg = m2 /s2 ), we get
Qgain = Qloss
Qmelt = KEb + Qb-loss
1
mmelt Lf = mb vb2 + mbcb (Tb − T )
2
2
v /2 + cb (Tb − T )
mmelt = mb b
Lf
◦ ◦ ◦
2
(240 m/s) /2 + (128 J/kg · C)(30 C − 0 C)
= (3.00 gm) 5
3.33 × 10 J/kg
= 0.294 gm .
1. Thermal energy (i.e., heat) can only flow by one of three dif-
ferent mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation
transport.
∆Q = P ∆t . (XII-14)
∆Q Th − Tc
!
Pcond = = KA . (XII-15)
∆t L
XII–15
Th
(on back A
side)
Tc
Heat Flow
(if Th > Tc)
Solution:
Listing our given parameters, we first need to convert some of
these input parameters to SI units:
102 cm 4.186 J
cal J
!
K = 0.200 = 83.7 .
cm · ◦ C · s 1m 1 cal m · s · ◦C
Th = 200◦ C, Tc = 20◦ C, C = 800 cm = 8.00 m is the circumference
of the pipe, ` = 50.0 m is the length of the pipe, and the thickness
of the insulation is L = 1.50 cm = 0.0150 m. Since the problem
gives us the circumference of the pipe, the total surface area of
the pipe is this circumference times the length of the pipe:
Using Eq. (XII-15) then gives the heat-loss rate via conduction
as
Th − Tc
!
Pcond = KA
L
◦ ◦ !
J 200 C − 20 C
!
= 83.7 ◦
(400 m2 )
m · s· C 0.0150 m
= 4.02 × 108 J/s = 402 MW .
XII–17
v) T ≡ temperature [K].
or
Prad = σAeT 4 − σAeT◦4 ,
Prad = 0 =⇒ T = T◦ ,
Solution:
We will assume the Sun’s shape to be a sphere, where the surface area of
a sphere is
Making use of Eq. (XII-17), the total power (energy per second) that the
Sun radiates to space is
W
!
4 −8 18
Pem = σAeT = 5.67 × 10 2 4 (6.09 × 10 m2 )(0.965)(5800 K)4
m ·K
= 3.77 × 1026 W .