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Licenciado para - Denise vilela - 11169521495 - Protegido por Eduzz.
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Licenciado para - Denise vilela - 11169521495 - Protegido por Eduzz.com
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A. Sentence Composition ........................................................................................................... 4
B. Paragraph Writing ................................................................................................................... 12
C. Writing Styles ...........................................................................................................................14
D. Essay Structure .........................................................................................................................22
E. Essay Flow and Connectivity .................................................................................................28
F. Essay Planning .......................................................................................................................... 29
G. Literary Devices ...................................................................................................................... 32
H. Sources of Information .......................................................................................................... 37
I. Essay Practice ............................................................................................................................ 40
J. Mistakes in Writing .................................................................................................................. 41
2
Preface
This course is designed to help you learn or review the basics of English writing. The struc-
ture of the course builds on each topic presented.
It is suggested that you go through each page step-by-step.
By completing the course you should have a clear idea on:

Using structures of English writing
Planning and writing essays
Common errors made in English writing
Course Content
A. Sentence Composition
B. Paragraph Writing
C. Writing Styles
D. Essay Structure
E. Essay Flow and Connectivity
F. Essay Planning
G. Literary Devices
H. Sources of Information
|. Essay Practice
J. Mistakes in Writing
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A. Sentence Composition - The basic to the advanced
The Simple Sentence
In English, the most simple sentence is:
Subject + Verb + Object

John + walks + to school.
There are different “tools” to use in grammar to change the most basic sentences:
A. Time of action = Verb tenses
B. Still or moving = Simple verb or continuous verb
C. Active or passive subject
Time of Action — English Tenses
There are three verb forms in English:
Present Past Past Participle
Work Worked Worked (regular -ed verb)
Eat Ate Eaten (Irregular verb)
Cut Cut Cut (Extraordinary verb)
Note: There is no future tense in English, the future is expressed with the preposition
“will” before the verb.
Ex: I will walk to school.
4
Changing Time of Action
Name Structure Example Explanation
Simple present subject +verb Susan plays in the A general action

+ object living that usually
room happens
Simple Past subject + past verb Susan played in the An action that hap-
+ object living room. pened in the past
and stopped
Simple Future subject + will Susan will play in the An action that will
+ verb + object living room happen in the future
Still or Moving?
The simple form of verbs represent a still action, like a picture (it represents a general idea
— like a timeless picture).
Ex. I walk to work
The continuous form of verbs: (verb+ing), represents a moving action, like a video.
Ex. I am walking to work
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Active or Passive?
ACTIVE - Most sentences are active. This means that the subject ol the sentence is the
agent of the action - the verb. *Academic papers usually need the active voice,
Example: Jonn — drives his mother to school
Subject+ verb + object (agent)
In this example, John is the doer of the acton. He is steering and accelerating the car.
PASSIVE: Many sentences are passive. This means that the object becomes the subject of
the sentence (frst part in the sentence) and is NOT fhe agent of the action (not the doer of
the verb).
Example: Jonn is driven to school. (by his mother).
Object + “be” + past participie verb + object. + (agent) (as subject)
In this exampie, John is NOT the doer of the action, his mother is steering and accelerating
the car.
Note: In passive sentences the agent (his mother) can be taken out of the sentence - this
is done to put emphasis on the object and not the agent.
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Grammar Combos!
Now that you know: Time of Action, Changing Time of Action, Still or Moving, Active or
Passive, you can make combo sentences by combining these! For example:
A. Present + Moving (Continuous) + Perfect:

I have been studying astronomy.
B. Past + Passive + Perfect:

I had been promoted at work (by my boss).
All kinds of combos are possible!
Exercise: Try 10 Combos:

A. Name the combo
B. Write the sentence
The Advanced Sentence
Sentences answer questions — simple sentences answer a few questions and advanced
sentences answer several questions at once.
Simple sentence: This is an apple. Answers the question: What is this?
Advanced sentence: This is an apple which many people buy

because of its delicious taste. Answers the questions: What is this? Who buys it? Why is it
bought?
There are many ways to make advanced sentences. This section teaches the two most
important: using adjective clauses and using conjunction’s.
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The Descriptive Sentence
The most basic way to make a sentence descriptive is by using adjectives and adverbs
(The tall man reached high in the sky).
Adijective clauses are phrases which create adjectives to describe the
subjects and objects of sentences in more detail.
With people use “who”, with objects use “which”, with places use “where”, with time use
“when”. Examples:
A. People who use computers regularly should sit straight in their

chair. (Who use computers regularly” is an adjective clause for, “people”.)
B. Cars which have old tires are dangerous. (“Which have old tires”, is an adjective clause
for, “cars”.
C. Places where lots of greenery can be found are relaxing. (“Where

lots of greenery can be found”, is an adjective clause for , “places”.)
D. Days when the weather is warm are nice for picnics. (“When the
weather is warm is an adjective clause for “days”.)
Advanced Sentences: Join Ideas - Conjunctions
- Another way to answer more questions in one sentence is to use conjunctions. Conjunc-
tions are words that “glue” together ideas which share a relationship.
- The relationship between ideas and sentences can be: addition, cause and effect, time,
opposition, and condition.
- There are three families of words that join these relationships in ideas into longer sen-
tences. They are: coordinating, correlative and subordinating conjunctions.
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Coordinating Conjunctions
The family of coordinating conjunctions includes the following words: for, and, nor, but, or,
yet, so. These words join similar sentence elements. Look at the examples:
Conjuction What is linked Example
and verb + verb He can run and swim fast
or subject + subject Milk or cheese are a good

source of vitamin D
so sentence + sentence I ate at a restaurant, so I
didn’t go grocery shopping.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that emphasize the relationships between sen-
tence elements.
This family includes: both...and, not only...but also, elther...or,

neither...nor, whether...or.
They are used in a similar way as coordinating conjunctions.

Have a look at these examples:
Conjuction What is linked Example
Not only but also noun + noun Not only it’s sunny, but
also rainning
both, and verb + verb I need to both listen

and write it down
neither, nor sentence + sentence neither will I wait

nor will Irun away
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Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are the largest family of words that join sentences.
This family is broken into smaller groups which show a specific relationship in the infor-
mation of the sentence. The table shows the four groups of subordinating conjunctions:
Time Cause and effect Opposition Condition
When Because However If
During As a result Although Provided that
Since Therefore While When
While Since On the other hand Given that
Subordinating conjunctions are used to join together a main clause with a dependent
clause:
Ex: I jumped out the window because the house was on fire.
(mainclause)+(dependantclause)
Here are some more examples of subordinators:
Conjunction What is linked Example
Although Opposition I like sky diving although

i don’t like flying
Since Cause and effect We had to fire him since
he stole from us.
After Time After class I’m going to the
movies
Provided that Condition I’m going to the beach
provided that the weather is
good.
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Combining Conjunctions
Advanced sentences often combine families of conjunctions.

Usually, the combinations are a subordinating conjunction with a coordinating conjunction
OR a subordinating conjunction with a coordinating conjunction.
A. Ex. My friend and I are crying because that clown is very

funny.
This sentence uses a coordinating conjunction “and” + subordinating conjunction “be-
cause”.
B. Ex. Whether we go to a movie or to a restaurant does not matter if we spend time to-
gether.
This sentence uses a correlative conjunction “Whether...or” + subordinating conjunction
“if”.
Grammar and Sentence Super Combos!
You are now ready to write descriptive and advanced sentences, combine conjunctions
and adjective clauses:
Adjective clause(s) + correlative + subordinating conjunction

People who are educated, and those who are not, both deserve equal rights while living in
the same country.
Adjective clause(s) + coordinating + subordinating conjunction

The three months of the year when the sun is shining and warm are
important since farming is the main economy.
All kinds of combos are possible!
Exercise: Try 10 Combos:

A. Name the combo
B. Write the sentence
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B. Paragraph Writing - Expressing a complete idea
What is a paragraph?
Paragraphs are short, often five to ten sentences that communicate a complete idea to the
reader.
It is a set of sentences that presents one idea:
A. Introduce the subject = topic, and the controlling idea = the perspective on the topic
B. Explain the relationship between the topic and the controlling idea.
C. Give an (visible) example of the idea
D. Restate the topic and controlling idea with paraphrasing
Single Paragraph Structure
A single paragraph has several important parts:
A. Hook + Topic sentence: One or two sentences that catch the reader and give the topic
and controlling idea of the paragrap.
B. Supporting point 1: A sentence which clearly explains the relationship between the top-
ic and the controlling idea.
C. Supporting point 2: A specific example (or quote, statistic) which helps to prove the
“point 1” explanation.
D. Supporting point 3: A clear connection between the example and explanation.
E. Concluding sentence: A sentence which summarizes the importance of the idea — of-
ten a paraphrase of the topic sentence.
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An Example Paragraph
(Hook) Bears and pigs are cousins. (Topic sentence) Science shows that bears likely come
from a similar past as pigs.
(Support 1 - explanation) Many of the bears and pigs’ habits are similar, such as eating
meat and vegetables, digging for food and walking long-distances. (Support 2 - Specific
Example) In 1987, scientists found a 70,000 years old fossil in Brazil, now called, “Booboo”
which they believe is the distant relative of both bears and pigs.
(Support 3 - connection of example) This prehistoric animal’s bones seem to indicate that
it also ate greens as well as hunted for food and had a great sense of smell, just like pigs
and bears.
(Concluding sentence) Therefore, when looking at these animals, it is interesting to find
that bears and pigs do most likely share a common past.
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C. Writing Styles -
Part 1: Four Types of Writing,
Part 2: Three Voices
Part 1: Four Writing Styles
A. Persuasive Writing: these are argumentative. The goal of the essay is to convince the
reader of an idea.
B. Expository Writing: these essays show and explain an idea.
C. Narrative Writing: these essays tell a story. They take the reader on an adventure.
D. Descriptive Writing: these essays paint a picture with words. They give a feeling and an
image to the reader.
Persuasive Writing
Goal: Persuasive writing intends to convince the reader of a stated opinion or belief.
Persuasive Writing Explained
Characteristics:
A. Stated position or belief

B. Factual supports
C. Persuasive techniques
D. Logical argument
E. Call to action
Uses:
Persuasive writing appears in and is not limited to speeches, letters to the editor,
editorials, advertisements, award nominations, pamphlets, petitions, scholarly, writing, and
opinion pieces.
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Persuasive Writing Sample
Should voting be required by law?
It is a belief that voting should be a right, but not a requirement. Voting is a right which is
best exercised by those who are interested in how their country is being run. For millions
of people, this interest is simply not there, If people are forced to vote by law, these peo-
ple will not
suddenly become interested in politics. These people are going to randomly mark an “x”
beside whatever name is convenient or appealling. This is bad for democracy. It is also
believed that state should stay out of people’s way whenever possible. Forcing a person
to vote is an entirely needless intrusion into a citizen’s life. Voting is a precious liberty, but
once made mandatory, its effectiveness is eroded and other rights of individuals are in-
fringed upon. Therefore, the choice
to vote must be the privilege of each individual.
Persuasive Writing Practice
Exercises:
1. Write an paragraph arguing for or against the statement: “Students
should take a year off after high school before starting university”.
2. Write a paragraph arguing for or against the statement: “All adults
should be required by law to vote”.
3. Write a speech to be delivered to the school board to convince them to require or not
require school uniforms.
Expository Writing
Goal: Expository writing seeks to inform, explain, clarify, define or instruct.
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Expository Writing Explained
Characteristics: Uses:
A. Focus on main topic Expository writing appears in
B. Logical supporting facts letters, newsletters, definitions,
C. Details, explanations, instructions, guidebooks,
and examples catalogues, newspaper, articles,
D. Strong organization magazine articles, manuals,
E. Clarity pamphiets, reports and research
F. Unity and coherence papers.
G. Logical order
H. Smooth transitions
Expository Writing Sample
Why Parents Have to be Strict
If it were up to children, parents would be extremely lenient and would let children do
whatever they desired. You, the parents, conversely, know this would be bad for the chil-
dren. You have to be strict, at least some of the time, for a number of reasons. First, your
job is to keep your children safe. Children often do not know where the bounds of safety
begin and end so you have to define this for them. For example, a child who is not pun-
ished upon sticking a knife into an electrical socket may eventually electrocute him or
herself. Second, you have to teach children discipline. A child who does whatever they
like, receives a rude awakening when they enter the real world where this is not the case.
Last, your child must respect you. A child who gets everything does not respect their par-
ents. In conclusion, it is because children need to be kept safe, to be disciplined and to be
respectful with their parents that you, the parents, must exercise authority at certain times.
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Expository Writing Practice
Exercises:
1. Explain why you admire a particular person.
2. Describe one of the causes and effects of pollution in the
environment, such as air, water or land pollution.
3. Explain why parents sometimes have to be strict.
Narrative Writing
Goal: Narrative writing tells a story or part of a story.
Narrative Writing Explained
Characteristics:
A. Plot Structure
- Introduction
- Rising action
- Falling action
- Resolution plays.
B. Confict
C. Characterization
D. Setting
E. Theme
F. Point of View
G. Sequencing
H. Transitions
Uses:
Narrative writing appears in and is not limited to novels, short stories, biographies, autobi-
ographies, historical accounts, essays, poems, and plays.
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Narrative Writing Sample
A Brush with Death
I was fifteen when it happened, and | have never forgotten the events of that day. It all
started early in the morning — six, maybe seven o’clock.
I woke up and something feit wrong. I walked into the kitchen, my mom wasn’t there. Still
sleeping, I assumed. The phone rang. There’d been an accident. My mom had gone for a
jog that morning, a car had hit her.
I got to the hospital, the doctors told me things were touch and go. What I will always re-
member is the smell of the hospital. It’s a smell I never again want to experience. I went to
see her, but she was unconscious. I kept on thinking “could this be the last time I see my
mom alive?” When I think back on the day, it was as if I were outside my body for most of
it, as if I were watching it all unfold from above. It had been trie toughest day of my life.
Narrative Writing Practice
Exercises:
1. Write a story about the best celebration you have ever had; tell why
this is your favourite.
2. Think of a time when you were nervous. It might be your first plane ride or the first time
you slept overnight with a friend. Tell what happened and how you reacted.
3 Write a fictional story about being an eyewitness at a historical event.
Descriptive Writing
Goal: Descriptive writing aims to “draw a picture” with words — describe a person, place,
object, or event.
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Descriptive Writing Explained
Characteristics:
A. Elaborate use of sensory language
B. Rich, vivid, and lively detail
C. Figurative language such as simile, hyperbole, metaphor, symbolism, and personifica-
tion.
D. Showing, rather than telling through the use of active verbs and precise modifiers.
Uses:
Descriptive writing appears almost everywhere and is often included in other genres, such
as in a descriptive introduction of a character in a narrative.
Descriptive Writing Sample
Summer
The scentis unmistakable. Summer. Barbecues, baseball, and sprinklers rendering the
pavement steamy. The air is humid, It is thick, like having to move through something, in-
stead of nothing. Children are playing in distance; their gleeful outbursts bring back mem-
ories long forgotten about summers past. They yell excitedly as the bat cracks the ball
across the field. The cars whiz by like mosquitoes; the smell of burnt rubber shouts,
“Yes!”, more youths enjoying summer. The grass, a thirsty sponge, waits for the sprinkler
to pass overhead. in the yards hungry children anxiously sit and wait for succulent burgers
to fill their bellies.
Descriptive Writing Practice
Exercises:
1. Observe, and then describe an event.
2. Describe your walk to school or work.
3. Think of a person or object that stands out in your memory. Write a
description of that subject.
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Part 2: Three Voices for Writing
1st Person: The voice of the writer. This is subjective - from the perspective of the reader.
It uses, “I, me, my”, referring to the author.
2nd Person: Addresses the reader directly. It uses, “you, your, yours”, referring to the ex-
perience of the reader.
3rd Person: It is the objective voice. It is the voice of facts and general opinion. It MUST
NOT use, “I or you”.
Combining Writing Styles with Voices
Any of the four essay types can be combined with any of the three voices — there are 12
possibilities total:
1st person persuasive: 1st person narrative:

I believe that people should One time, I went to
2nd person persuasive: 2nd person narrative:

It is better if you After the long journey, you checked
into a hotel
3rd person persuasive: 3rd person narrative:

Society needs to The dragon flew over the land
1st person expository: 1st person descriptive:

First, I take the onions The house I grew up in had
2nd person expository: 2nd person descriptive:

First, you need to take the onions You are an interesting person
because
3rd person expository: 3rd person descriptive:

First, the onions are chopped The best schools are which
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Recognizing Styles and Voices in Writing — Practice:
Identify which voice (1st, 2nd, or 3d) was used in the example paragraphs:
1. “Should voting be required by law?”

Answer: Voice/Type: - 3rd person - persuasive
2. “Why Parents Have to be Strict”

Answer: Voice/Type: - 2nd person — expository
3. “A Brush with Death”

Answer: Voice/Type: - 1st person - narrative
4. “Summer”
Answer: Voice/Type: - 3rd person - descriptive
Be Careful!
A very important rule in essay writing is to never combine more than one type of voice in
a paper! You must never use “you” in a 1st Person, or “I or You” in a 3rd person essay.
Essay types should be clear:

A. In a persuasive essay the style must emphasize the argument and not an explanation or
description.
B. In an expository essay, the style must be an explanation, not an argument or simply a
description
C. In a descriptive essay, the reader must have an emotional and visual sense, not a feel-
ing of explanation or argument.
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D - Essay Structure -
Introduction, body, paragraphs, conclusion
Essay Structure Introduction
- Essays are much like paragraphs; they communicate a complete idea. Specifically, essays
are several paragraphs together that can get across more complicated thoughts.
- Each essay writing is decided by the voice (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and the style of the idea/paper:
A. Persuasive Writing/Essays: these are argumentative. The goal of the essay is to

convince the reader of an idea.
B. Expository Writing/Essays: these essays show and explain an idea
C. Narrative Writing/Essay: these essays tell a story. They take the reader on an adventure.
D. Descriptive wingless: these essays paint a picture with words. They give a feeling and
an image to the reader.
Standard English Essay
Introductory Paragraph: Must connect you with the reader
Body Paragraph 1: Develop and convey your idea
Body Paragraph 2: Develop and convey your idea
Conclusion: Emphasize
Title -> Hook, Background, Thesis -> Topic Sentence 1, Clear Explanation, Specific Exam-
ple -> Topic Sentence 2, Clear Explanation, Specific Examples -> Compess, Argument,
Implication
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The Introductory Paragraph
Hook Definition: A statement or fact that makes the reader interested in the topic. Should
be one sentence long and should not be in the form of a question.
Background Definition: Several sentences that give the writer’s understanding of the topic
AND explains to the reader why the topic and
the controlling idea are important.
(3-4 sentences)
Thesis: The argument of the writer with purpose and direction which are broken into key
points. (Usually 1 sentence)
Hook -> Background -> Thesis
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Example Introduction for IELTS Task 2
Hook: Even with mandatory physical education in North America, many young American
children are seriously overweight.
Background: For several decades physical education, or PE class, has been a regular five-
hour per week part of school programs in many countries It involves physical movement
of students from grades one to twelve, through different types of sports. Some people
have argued that PE classes take away valuable time from academic studios, while others
have felt that it is a necessary part of childhood education.
Thesis: Although some time is lost from academic learning, I believe that the benefit of
teaching health, cooperation, and competition to young learners are more beneficial.
Introductory Paragraph Practice
Now that you understand the parts of an introductory paragraph, write the introduction for
the following question:
Question: Some people believe that higher taxes are better for society while others be-
lieve in lower taxes. Which do you believe? Why? Give
explanations and examples to support your opinion.
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The Body Paragraph
The Body Paragraph contains four elements:
A — The topic sentence - topic and controlling idea

B — An explanation of the topic sentence
C — A specific example to support your explanation
D — A connecting sentence to make the essay flow smooth.
Topic Sentence — Key Point 1 Paraphrase
Clear and quantitative explanation

Specific example - Visual or Descriptive
Connecting Sentence — Transition
Example of Body Paragraph
Topic Sentence: Physical education involves around one hour of class five times a week
which could be used for other academic classes.
Explanation: During this one hour, students could focus on math, biology, and other im-
portant skills of book knowledge.
Specific Example: For example, a high school student may use this one hour to read a
chapter about the circulatory system instead of participating in a soccer training session.
Connection to 2nd Body Paragraph: However, the physical exercise that the student might
miss is likely more benefícial for both his body and mind.
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Body Paragraph 2
(Follow the same structure, and leave the main argument as

the later paragraph!)
PE class can positively influence the well-being and social skills of the students in
a regular routine. Students participate in individual and team sports to perform muscular
and cardiovascular exercises. Throuãh sports such as tennis and basketball they gain a
better understanding of competing against each other, as well as cooperating to achieve a
common goal. A secondary student, for example, can increase their metabolism and learn
how to effectively work as a team in a game of basketball. Both physical and social skills
will become a valuable part of their later development.
Body Paragraph Practice
Now that you understand the parts of a body paragraph, continue the essay by writing the
body paragraphs for the previous question:
Conclusion Paragraph
Compress: Paraphrase information from the key points and examples and write them in a
condensed strong statement.
Argument: Restate the argument, with strong convincing words such as, “have to, must,
will...”
Implication: This is the message of your argument. Make it

clear. Do not give a new argument/thesis!
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Conclusion Paragraph
Compress: Although the minutes spent in a physical education class could be used for
leaming subjects like math, the increased cardiovascular health and social skills are a
much more valuable benefit for the future.
Argument: Therefore, in my opinion, the advantages of PE classes in the regular school

curriculum are absolutely necessary and outweigh the
disadvantages.
Implication: Especially with the increasing problem of poor diet and obesity of children,
mandatory physical education is a critical part of building a better future.
Conclusion Paragraph Practice
Now that you understand the parts of a conclusion, finish the essay by writing the conclu-
sion for the previous question:
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E. Essay Flow and Connectivity
Shadowing — Using Connecting Sentences
Shadowing/Connecting Sentences: paraphrase the last

and the first sentence of a body paragraph, and add further information.
Ex. (End of Body Paragraph 2) Both the physical and social skills will become a valuable
part of their later development.
This technique is used to link the introduction to body paragraphs and body paragraphs to
body paragraphs, as well as body paragraphs to the conclusion.
In an academic essay conjunctions like, therefore, however, etc, help to join sentences
and make the essay flow. However, it must be the information that joins the ideas between
paragraphs.
Coherence in Writing
In good writing, you must plan your essay:
A. The information connects downwards — blue arrows

B. The topic, controlling idea, and thesis are reflected in each
paragraph of the essay - green arrows
C. The conclusion reflects the points discussed in each paragraph — yellow arrows
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F. Essay Planning - Planning is the key to success
Essay Planning
Before you begin your essay, you should take 4 minutes for planning. On paper (or in your
mind after lots of practice) follow these steps:
Step 1: Read the question carefully. If it is difficult to understand, paraphrase the question.
This will help you:
A - Understand the question more clearly
B - Think deeply about the question
C. Find useful vocabulary to use for your essay (topic, controlling idea synonyms)
Essay Planning - Critical Thinking
Step 2: Identify the topic of the question. Then ask “What’, Why’, ‘How’ about the topic.
Example Question:
Some people feel that physical education should not be a mandatory part of public school
classes. Others disagree. Discuss both of these views and give your opinion using expla-
nations and examples from your own experience.
“What” is the topic?

A: Physical Education
“Why” physical education?

A: To understand its advantages and disadvantages in school programs
“How” is physical education in schools?

A: From grade one to twelve children do an average of 5 hours of physical education each
school week.
29
Step3: Next, identify the con(rollw idea — the context of the topic and repeat’ What’,
‘Why’ and ‘How’. Let’s continue with the example:
“What” is the controlling idea?

A. The advantages and disadvantages of physical education.
“Why” discuss the advantages and disadvantages of physical education?

A. To decide whether or not to have it in the school system.
“How” does physical education benefit or harm the school system?

A. Physical education teaches mental and physical health, team work and competition, but
takes time away from other academic studies.
Now we have all the information for a good introduction and most of the essay!
Second Essay Planning Strategy
Another good way to develop your essay ideas is to practice

top — down, and down — up critical thinking: from general to specific examples, or specif-
ic example to general. Let’s take our example.
Top — down: Physical Education —> Exercise —> Soccer.
Down — up: I play soccer —> I get exercise —> I do physical education
—> I am healthy —> I am successful
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Planning Argument Essay — Chi Square
Make a 4x4 Square, then separate the two sides of the argument in the columns and list
the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Advantages Disadvantages
Physical Learning physical competition Possible injury

Education Learning team competition Hostile rivalry
Cardiovascular exercise Time away from
Strength Building academic studies
No Physical More time Lack of physical exercise

Education No physical injuries No support of physical
Freedom of choice development - hand-eye
Focus on academic studies coordination.
Most Important Rule! Understand Your Audience
Always think of your audience (listener or reader) as an alien:

A. They do not know what you know
B. They do not have the same perspective as you
C. They are smart and will analyze the information you give them
Planning Essays: Practice
Now that you understand different ways to plan for essays, try these skills for the following
questions:
1. Write a five-paragraph essay which describes your favourite place to relax when life is
difficult. (Plan only)
2. Choose a device or machine that you can use well (ex. computer,
mobile phone, fridge, car), and in a five-paragraph essay, explain what it is and how to use
it. (Plan only)
3. Some people argue that it is a good idea to travel after high school
while others believe that students should go directly to the university.
Which do you believe? Why? Use clear explanations and examples
to support your opinion. (Plan only)
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G. Literary Devices - Figurative language and Descriptive

tools
The Importance of Literary Devices
A. Humans are visual! We want to, and we need to, see our world.
B. Like a painter with brushes and colors, the writer can paint pictures and ideas with
words. This is the goal of literary devices. They make words colourful, smooth and emo-
tional.
C. When a reader can clearly see the ideas and images in the mind of the writer they can
empathize and believe the writer.
D. All good writers understand and use literary devices!
Types of Figurative Language and Literary Devices
- Alliteration
- Onomatopeia
- Assonance
- Cliché
- Hyperbole
- Idiom
- Metaphor
- Simile
- Personification
- Allusion
- Understatement
- Oxymoron
32
Alliteration
Definition: Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in two or more neigh-
bouring words or syllables.
Example: The wild and woolly walrus waits and wonders when we’ll
walk by.
Assonance
Definition: Assonance is the resemblance of sounds in words or syllables.
Example: Holy and stony.

Example: Fleet feet sweep by sleeping geese.
Cliché
Definition: A cliché is a word or phrase that has become overly famíliar or commonplace.
Example: No pain, no gain.

Example: What goes around comes around.
Hyperbole
Definition: A hyperbole is a big exaggeration, usually with humour.
Example: Mile-high ice cream cones.

Example: My bag weighs a ton.
33
Practice Literary Devices (1)
Have another look at the four different types of writing and paragraphs. Can you identify
the literary devices that are used in each?
Now that you learned: alliteration, assonance, cliché, and hyperbole, it is time to practice.
Question: Can you write three sentences with each one of these devices?
Idiom
Definition: Idiom is the language peculiar to a group of people.
Example: She sings at the top of her lungs.

Example: It was raining cats and dogs last night.
Metaphor
Definition: Metaphors compare two things that appear to have no connection, yet one
helps to illuminate the nature of the other.
Example: Her hair was silk.

Example: The man was a lion in battle
Example: Her eyes are diamonds.
Simile
Definition: A simile compares two unlike things, often by using
“like” or “as”.
Example: The sun is like a yellow ball of fire in the sky.

Example: Busy as a bee.
34
Onomatopeia
Definition: An onomatopoeia is a word that imitates the sound it describes.
Examples: Woof!, Buzz, Roar!
Personification
Definition: Personification occurs when the writer gives human qualities to something
which is not human.
Example: The stuffed bear smiled as the little boy hugged him close.
Example: The ocean was calling my name.
Allusion
Definition: Allusion is a reference to a place, literary work, event, myth, or work of art. It
can be either a direct reference or merely implied.
Example: Amy didn’t like to spend money. She was no Scrooge, but she rarely bought
anything except the essentials.
(The allusion here is to the character Scrooge from Dickens’
“A Christmas Carol”)
Example: Like the prodigal son, he returned to his hometown and was welcomed by all
who knew him.
(The allusion here is to the biblical prodigal son)
Understatement
Definition: An expression that contains less strength than would be expected.
Example: During a hurricane, a weatherman reports the weather as “cloudy with a small
chance of rain and a slight breeze”.
Example: A student’s mother asks how he did on a test. The student remarks “I did okay”.
The mother later finds out her son got 100%.
35
Oxymoron
Definition: An expression that contains contradictory words or terms.
Example: Jumbo shrimp.

Example: Deafening silence.
Practice Literary Devices (2)
Have another look at the four different types of writing and paragraphs. Can you identify
the literary devices that are used in each?
Now that you learned: idiom, metaphor, simile, onomatopoeia, personification, allusion,
understatement, and oxymoron, it is time to practice.
Question: Can you write two sentences with each one of these devices?
36
H. Source of Information - Rhetoric and Scienc
Essay and Writing Quality
In order to have an excellent essay, the quality of the information must be great. To im-
prove the power of the essay to convince the reader, the writer must consider the follow-
ing before writing the essay:
A. Rhetoric — Pathos, Ethos and Logos

B. The source of knowledge for the information
C. The measurements used in explanations and examples
D. The reliability and validity of the information
A. Rhetoric
Rhetoric is defined as “the art of speaking or writing effectively”. Rhetoric can also be
thought of as the way a writer or speaker persuades his or her audience to believe a given
argument.
The Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was the first to describe the three main methods
of persuading an audience. He called these “pathos”, “ethos” and “logos”.
Pathos Explained
The word “pathos” literally means “pain”, “suffering” or

“emotional experience”. In rhetoric, pathos is defined as an appeal to the emotions of the
audience. This type of rhetoric is commonly used in advertisements.
37
Ethos Explained
The word “ethos” literally means “character”. In rhetoric, ethos is defined as an appeal to
the character of the author or speaker.
Ethos is important because if the audience believes the speaker is of
good character, then they will be more likely to believe what the speaker is saying. This
type of rhetoric is also often used in advertisements.
Logos Explained
The word “logos” literally means “reason”, “account” or “plea”. In rhetoric, logos is de-
fined as an appeal to the logic of the audience — facts (numbers, dates, statistics) are used
to support the speaker’s argument. This is perhaps the most important type of rhetoric
because it is the only “objective” type — facts cannot be disputed. Logos is also important
because it helps create and support a speaker’s ethos. Logos is common in university,
business, and scientific documents.
Critical Thinking Explained - The Quality of Information
The “Four Sources of Knowledge”

Where all of our individual knowledge and information comes from.
The Four Categories of Measurement

Humans like to measure everything. All measurements belong to one of four types.
Reliability and Validity

The ways we know information is useful or not.
B. Four Sources of Knowledge
A. Empirical Evidence: I see it to be true therefore I know it’s true.

B. Authority Opinion: The experts say it’s true so it must be true.
C. Majority Opinion: Everyone believes it is true so it has to be true.
D. Intuition (That “gut feeling”): I feel it to be true so it probably is true
38
C. Four Types of Measurements
A. Nominal: Placing information into categories. (ex. Man vs. Woman, smoker vs.
non-smoker)
B. Ordinal: The order or arrangement of information. (ex. 1st place, 2nd place, 3rd place.)
Distances between measures are not equal.
C. Interval: A standardized measure where distances between measures are equal. (ex.
Celsius, Hours, Meters).
D. Ratio: The same as interval except the measures include an absolute zero, where there
is an absence of the measurement. (ex. Kelvin)
D. Understanding Reliability & Validity
Reliability: is when a test or a measurement can be repeated and it will give the same re-
sults as long as there is no change in the test-taker.
(Ex. If you keep taking your driver’s test without practising driving, will you pass or fail?)
Validity: is the accuracy of a measure to assess accurately the situation which it is de-
signed to measure.
(Ex. How far is downtown from your house? Using minutes vs. metres)
39
I. Essay Practice - Practice makes perfect
Advanced Essay Practice (1)
Look again at the essay questions that you planned during the
“Essay Planning” of this course.
Use these plans to write complete essays. Here are the questions again:
1. Write a five-paragraph essay which describes your favourite place to relax when life is
difficult.
2. Choose a device or machine that you can use well (ex. computer, mobile phone, fridge,
car) and in a five-paragraph essay, explain what it is and how to use it.
3. Some people argue that it is a good idea to travel after high school while others believe
that students should go directly to the university.
Which do you believe? Why? Use clear explanations and examples to support your opin-
ion.
Advanced Essay Practice (2)
Here are some more essay questions, similar to some you may see in
college and university. Remember to plan the essay first then write the complete essays.
Here are the questions:
4. Describe a historic event in the 20th century which you believe helped shape the mo-
dem world.
5. It is argued that advanced math taught in high school is not an important part of most
people’s lives. Give an opinion and support it
with explanations and examples.
6. There are several steps a tourist must consider when traveling to a developing nation.
Explain what you believe these steps are and why they are important.
40
J. Proofreading: Mistakes in Writing -

Grammar erros and Usage errors
Proofreading your work
- When you are finished the first draft of your essay, you must always proofread and edit
your work to make sure it is top quality.
- Much better grades and work performance can be achieved when documents are proof-
read twice before submission.
- The following slides show the most common grammar errors and usage errors found in
writing.
Note: These errors can often change the meaning of the writing!
English Grammar Errors
There are nine basic types of grammar errors in written English.

They are:
1. Article Errors
2. Participle Errors
3. Preposition Errors
4. Diction and Syntax Errors
5. Idiom Errors
6. Modifier Errors
7. Count and Non-Count Noun Errors
8. Verb Tense Errors
9. Subject Verb Agreement Errors
41
A. Article Errors
Article errors are common among ESL speakers because articles are not part of many oth-
er languages.
The two types of articles in English are definite (the) and indefinite (a/an):
a. Definite articles are used before a specified noun

(the pie belongs to me).
b. Indefinite articles are used before unspecified nouns

(I’m baking a pie).
There are three types of article errors: missing, incorrect definite, and incorrect indefinite.
Incorrect: I crossed street and ate sandwich. (Article missing)

Correct: I crossed the street and ate a sandwich.
Incorrect: I mowed a lawn this morning. (Incorrect definite article)

Correct: I mowed the lawn this morning.
Incorrect: I wanted to eat the sandwich, but I wasn’t sure what I wanted on one. (Incorrect
indefinite article)
Correct: I wanted to eat a sandwich, but I wasn’t sure what I wanted on one.
42
Participle Errors
Participle errors can occur when the writer confuses the past participle (ending in -en,
-ed, -d etc.) with the present participle (ending in -ing).
They can also occur when a writer confuses participle with gerunds.
Incorrect: I was boring by the time the movie ended.

Correct: I was bored by the time the movie ended.
Participles and gerunds can both end in —ing, which can lead to confusion about how to
implement each in a sentence. Gerunds can function as nouns, while participles cannot.
Incorrect: Pleasing is when you are on time.

Correct: It is pleasing when you are on time.
Preposition Errors
Prepositions are used to show relations between words. Time, place and position relations
are indicated by prepositions. Preposition errors which confuse in/on/at/with/to are com-
mon.
Incorrect: In Tuesday, the teacher gave the test with the class.
Correct: On Tuesday, the teacher gave the test fo the class.
Incorrect: We were driving in the road, when we crashed in the tree.

Correct: We were driving on the road when we crashed into a tree.
43
Participle Errors
Participle errors can occur when the writer confuses the past participle (ending in -en,
-ed, -d etc.) with the present participle (ending in -ing).
They can also occur when a writer confuses participle with gerunds.
Incorrect: I was boring by the time the movie ended.

Correct: I was bored by the time the movie ended.
Participles and gerunds can both end in —ing, which can lead to confusion about how to
implement each in a sentence. Gerunds can function as nouns, while participles cannot.
Incorrect: Pleasing is when you are on time.

Correct: It is pleasing when you are on time.
Preposition Errors
Prepositions are used to show relations between words. Time, place and position relations
are indicated by prepositions. Preposition errors which confuse in/on/at/with/to are com-
mon.
Incorrect: In Tuesday, the teacher gave the test with the class.
Correct: On Tuesday, the teacher gave the test fo the class.
Incorrect: We were driving in the road, when we crashed in the tree.

Correct: We were driving on the road when we crashed into a tree.
44
Diction and Syntax Errors
Diction errors occur when the writer uses the incorrect word in a context.
Syntax errors occur when the writer uses the correct word in the wrong place or order.
Correct diction and correct syntax assure that the reader will understand what has been
written.
Incorrect: The sun arriving in the sky in the morning wakes me up.
(Diction error)
Correct: The sun rising in the morning wakes me up.
Incorrect: Knowing is what the correct time important. (Syntax error)

Correct: Knowing the correct time is important.
Incorrect: When I see you smile, I the happiness feel.

(Diction and syntax error)
Correct: When I see you smile, I feel happy.
Idiom Errors
Idiom errors occur when a writer uses an idiom incorrectly, fails to

understand the meaning of an idiom, or makes a mistake in implementing the idiom
(missing words or incorrect words, etc.)
Incorrect: My friend’s father is sick, he is about to kick a bucket.

Correct: My friend’s father is sick, he is about to Kick the bucket.
Incorrect: I was sure my friend wouldn’t let go of the beans, so I told

him the secret.
Correct: I was sure my friend wouldn’t spill the beans, so I told him
the secret.
Incorrect: He’s a good teacher. On the other hand, he’s also a very
nice person.
Correct: He’s a good teacher. Not only that, he’s also a very nice person.
45
Count and Non-Count Noun Errors
In Enghish, some nouns can be made plural whie others cannot.

Count nouns can be counted and can be made plural (cars, bottles, roads)
Nor-count nouns cannot be counted and therefore cannot be made
plural (information, fumiture, homework). There are nouns which can
be both, depending on the context.
Incorrect: We walked three klometre to the restaurant.

Correct: We walked three kilometres to the restaurant.
Incorrect: There were not enough informations about the assignment.

Comect: There was notenough infommation about the assignment.
Note: An example of a noun that can be both count and non-count is

“hair”. Can you think of two sentences which illustrate why this is?
Verb Tense Errors
Verb tense errors occur when the tense of the verb does not agree with the intended time
frame of the action.
Incorrect: I was walk down the street when I see a person wears a leather jacket.
Correct: I was walking down the street when I saw a person wearing a leather jacket.
Incorrect: I will going to the doctor today, I am afraid I may was very sick.
Correct: I will go (I am going) to the doctor today, I am afraid I may be very sick.
46
Subject-Verb Agreement Errors
Subject-Verb agreement errors occur when the subject and verb do not agree in both per-
son and number.
Incorrect: The goal of the meeting are to come to an agreement on the coming year’s
finances.
Correct: The goal of the meeting s to come to an agreement on the coming year’s
fnances.
Incorrect: My friends was going to the beach, but I had to do homework instead.
Correct: My friends were going to the beach, but I had to do homework instead.
B. English Usage Errors
There are ten basic types of usage errors in written English.

They are:
1. VerbTense Errors
2. Punctuation Errors
3. Sentence Fragments
4. Dangling Modifiers and Misplaced Modifiers
5. Faulty Parallel Structure
6. Colloquial Diction
7. Spelling Errors and Homophone Confusion
8. Shift in Perspective
9. Faulty Subordination
10. Agreement Errors
47
Verb Tense Errors
Using the wrong verb tense in a sentence can obscure the time frame in which an action
is happening. To avoid confusing the reader, the order of tenses must correctly reflect the
time relation of the events referred to.
Incorrect: He has come late to yesterday’s party.

Correct: He came late to the party yesterday.
Incorrect: Two weeks ago you said it will not happen again.
Correct: Two weeks ago you said it would not happen again.
Punctuation Errors - Run-on Sentence
There are three punctuation errors which are most commonly committed. These are the
run-on sentences, the comma splice, and the misuse of colons and semicolons.
Run-on Sentence - when independent clauses are improperly separated (punctuation or

additional words are required).
Incorrect: Steve went to the party he was late and everyone had left.
Correct: Steve went to the party, but he was late and everyone had left.
48
Punctuation Errors — Comma Splice
Comma splice — when independent clauses are joined with a comma, but not with a co-
ordinating conjunction.
Incorrect: I want to sell my house, I think it would be too difficult.
Correct: I want to sell my house, but I think it would be too difficult.

Correct: I want to sell my house; however, I think it would be too difficult.
Punctuation Errors — Misused Colons and Semicolons
Colon (:) and semicolon (;) misuse often happens because of

confusion on the part of the writer. Colons tell the reader that what follows the punctua-
tion explains, proves or lists elements of what came before the punctuation. Semicolons
are used to join independent clauses that are related or are contrasting, or to list items
which are composed of several words.
Incorrect: The house would take the builders only two months to build: however, it
requires the following supplies which are not available; wood, concrete and brick.
Correct: The house would take the builders only two months to build; however, it requires
the following supplies which are not available: wood, concrete, and brick.
49
Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a sentence which is not complete. Fragments can be either phras-
es or dependent clauses. Dependent clauses become fragments when they are not at-
tached to the independent clause they should be attached to. Phrases become fragments
when they are not attached to the clause they should be attached to.
Incorrect: Although he is a poor student, Mike has decided to go to

college. Because he wants to be an electrician.
Correct: Although he is a poor student, Mike has decided to go to
college, because he wants to be an electrician.
(Question: What sense of the word “poor” is being used here? How can
you tell?)
Incorrect: I like to travel, so I went to London. On vacation.
Dangling Modifiers and Misplaced Modifiers
Because of the importance of order in the English language, modifiers like adjectives and
adverbs should be as close as possible to what they
modify. If this is not done, the meaning of the sentence can be confused
or lost. A misplaced modifier can be in a part of a sentence and is found so far away from
the word it is modifying that the meaning is confused. A dangling modifier is only found at
the beginning or end of a
sentence. Dangling modifiers are phrases that are illogically attached to
other words, resulting in confusion.
Incorrect: The man went to the store with his dog holding an umbrella.
(Misplaced modifier)
Correct: The man holding an umbrella went to the store.
Incorrect: playing baseball in the hot sun, a mirage was visible in the
outfield. (Dangling modifier)
Correct: Playing baseball in the hot sun, I noticed a mirage was visible
in the outfield.
50
Faulty Parallel Structure
This usage error occurs when the writer lists two or more items, but the items differ in
grammatical form.
Incorrect: Since I’ve started my new job, I feel happy, fortunate and wanting to do well.
Correct: Since I’ve started my new job, I feel happy, fortunate, and focused.
Incorrect: Simple, easy to use, and it’s cheap, this music device is perfect for me.
Correct: Simple, easy to use, and inexpensive, this music device is perfect for me.
Colloquial Diction
Colloquial diction is the spoken or written language used in everyday, casual situations
with family and friends. Colloquial diction is inappropriate in formal situations such as aca-
demic writing and business writing.
Incorrect: Me and my bros almost got in a scrap with those dudes from Shelbytown.
Correct: My friends and I almost got in a fight with some men from Shelbytown.
Incorrect: I ain’t goin to school, mom. My teacher got a hate-on for me.
Correct: I am not going to school, mom. My teacher hates me.
51
Faulty Parallel Structure
This usage error occurs when the writer lists two or more items, but the items differ in
grammatical form.
Incorrect: Since I’ve started my new job, I feel happy, fortunate and wanting to do well.
Correct: Since I’ve started my new job, I feel happy, fortunate, and focused.
Incorrect: Simple, easy to use, and it’s cheap, this music device is perfect for me.
Correct: Simple, easy to use, and inexpensive, this music device is perfect for me.
Colloquial Diction
Colloquial diction is the spoken or written language used in everyday, casual situations
with family and friends. Colloquial diction is inappropriate in formal situations such as aca-
demic writing and business writing.
Incorrect: Me and my bros almost got in a scrap with those dudes from Shelbytown.
Correct: My friends and I almost got in a fight with some men from Shelbytown.
Incorrect: I ain’t goin to school, mom. My teacher got a hate-on for me.
Correct: I am not going to school, mom. My teacher hates me.
52
Spelling Errors and Homophone Confusion
Homophones are words that sound alike but have different meanings. Some common er-
rors like this are mistaking “your” for “you’re” and “its” for “it’s”. Spelling errors are com-
mon mistakes in written English.
Incorrect: There is always a lite at the end of the tunell.

Correct: There is always a light at the end of the tunnel!
Incorrect: Their is something there after. I’m not sure wear it is.
Correct: There is something they’re after. I’m not sure where it is.
Shift in Perspective
A shift in perspective error occurs when the writer is inconsistent in his or her point of
view in a sentence or between sentences. Shifts can occur in verb voice, verb tense, or
pronoun.
Incorrect: New workers require passes, whereas experienced workers are

not required to carry passes. (Shift in verb voice)
Correct: New workers require passes, whereas experienced workers do
not require passes.
Incorrect: Last night, I talked to my friend then she hangs up. (Shift in verb tense)
Correct: Last night, I talked to my friend then she hung up.
Incorrect: If someone needs a vacation, you should start saving.

(Shift in pronoun)
Correct: If you need a vacation, you should start saving.
(Question: Is there another way to correct the final sentence?)
53
Faulty Subordination
Faulty subordination occurs when a writer puts the most important

idea (an independent clause) after the less important idea (in a
subordinate clause). Faulty subordination can also occur when the
writer misuses a subordinating conjunction that makes the sentence
logically contusing.
Incorrect: Although he always says he needs money, my friend just

inherited a million dollars.
Correct: Although my friend just inherited a million dollars, he always says he needs
money.
Incorrect: Though he fell off his bike; however, he is not expected to

miss time at work.
Correct: He fell off his bike; however, he is not expected to miss time at work.
Agreement Errors
Agreement errors occur when the form of a word is not changed according to the other
words it relates to. Subjects and verbs must agree in number (singular/plural).
Incorrect: Eric and Joe was walking to the store.

Correct: Eric and Joe were walking to the store.
Incorrect: I get worried when my friends let her cat out.

Correct: I get worried when my friends let their cats out.
54
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Licenciado para - Denise vilela - 11169521495 - Protegido por Eduzz.

B. Paragraph Writing ................................................................................................................... 12

C. Writing Styles ...........................................................................................................................14

D. Essay Structure .........................................................................................................................22

E. Essay Flow and Connectivity .................................................................................................28

F. Essay Planning .......................................................................................................................... 29

G. Literary Devices ...................................................................................................................... 32

H. Sources of Information .......................................................................................................... 37

I. Essay Practice ............................................................................................................................ 40

J. Mistakes in Writing .................................................................................................................. 41

It is suggested that you go through each page step-by-step.

By completing the course you should have a clear idea on:

A. Sentence Composition - The basic to the advanced

The Simple Sentence

In English, the most simple sentence is:

Subject + Verb + Object

Time of Action — English Tenses

There are three verb forms in English:

Present Past Past Participle

Work Worked Worked (regular -ed verb)

Eat Ate Eaten (Irregular verb)

Cut Cut Cut (Extraordinary verb)

Changing Time of Action

Name Structure Example Explanation

Simple present subject +verb Susan plays in the A general action

Ex. I walk to work

Ex. I am walking to work

Example: Jonn — drives his mother to school

Subject+ verb + object (agent)

Example: Jonn is driven to school. (by his mother).

Object + “be” + past participie verb + object. + (agent) (as subject)

A. Present + Moving (Continuous) + Perfect:

B. Past + Passive + Perfect:

All kinds of combos are possible!

Exercise: Try 10 Combos:

The Advanced Sentence

Simple sentence: This is an apple. Answers the question: What is this?

Advanced sentence: This is an apple which many people buy

The Descriptive Sentence

A. People who use computers regularly should sit straight in their

C. Places where lots of greenery can be found are relaxing. (“Where

Advanced Sentences: Join Ideas - Conjunctions

Conjuction What is linked Example

and verb + verb He can run and swim fast

or subject + subject Milk or cheese are a good

This family includes: both...and, not only...but also, elther...or,

They are used in a similar way as coordinating conjunctions.

Conjuction What is linked Example

both, and verb + verb I need to both listen

neither, nor sentence + sentence neither will I wait

Time Cause and effect Opposition Condition

When Because However If

During As a result Although Provided that

Since Therefore While When

While Since On the other hand Given that

Here are some more examples of subordinators:

Conjunction What is linked Example

Although Opposition I like sky diving although

Advanced sentences often combine families of conjunctions.

A. Ex. My friend and I are crying because that clown is very

Grammar and Sentence Super Combos!

Adjective clause(s) + correlative + subordinating conjunction

Adjective clause(s) + coordinating + subordinating conjunction