3/10/2020

Electronic devices for

biomedical design

DIODES

Assoc. Prof. Pham Thi Thu Hien

Feb. 2020

Diodes
Contents

Bioinstrumentation
Review of Electronic devices

Structure of Diodes

Characteristic of Diodes
Types of Diodes
Diode applications & circuit design

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Bioinstrumentation

 The measurement of physical, physiological, and

biological parameters using instruments in any
living organism (including human beings) is what
is referred to bioinstrumentation.

Insulin pumps
used by
Laser-assisted diabetics are a
surgery is included in type of
bioinstrumentation. bioinstrument.

Biomedical appliances

CT scanner MRI scanner

X-ray machine
Ultrasonic scanner

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Biomedical sensors

Diodes
Bioinstrumentation systems

Basic instrumentation systems using sensors to measure a signal with data

acquisition, storage and display capabilities, along with control and feedback. 6

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Review of Electronic devices
Charge
Two kinds of charge, positive and negative, are carried by protons
and electrons, respectively.
qe = −1.602 × 10−19 C
• q(t) is used to represent charge that changes with time,
• Q for constant charge
Current
Electric current, i(t), is defined as the change in the amount of charge
that passes through a given point or area in a specified time period.
• Current is measured in amperes (A) (C/s)
i(t) = dq/dt
Voltage
Voltage represents the work per unit charge associated with moving a
charge between two points.
v = dw/dq
Power and Energy
Power is the rate of energy expenditure given as
p = (dw/dt) = (dw/dq)(dq/dt) = vi
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Diodes
Review of Electronic devices
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
The sum of the currents at any node must equal zero.
N

 i (t)  0
n 1
n

Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)

The sum of all voltages in a closed path is zero
N

 v (t)  0
n1
n

D E

(A) Battery, (B) Ideal voltage source VS, (C) Ideal current source Is,
(D) Controlled voltage source, and (E) Controlled current source. 8

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Review of Electronic devices
Resistors
A resistor is a circuit element that limits the flow of current through it.
V = IR

Voltage–current relationship for a resistor.

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Diodes
Review of Electronic devices

Example 1.1:
From the following circuit, find I2, I3 and V1.

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Review of Electronic devices

Solution 1.1:
1

Applying KCL at the node 1.

−5 + I2 + 8 = 0 → I2 = -3A
Applying KCL at the node 2. 2
10 + I3 − 8 = 0 → I3 = -2A
Applying KVL around the lower right closed
path.
−V1 − 50 + 5I3 = 0 → V1 = -60V

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Diodes
Power

Example 1.2:
Calculate the power in each element.

v2 2
p  vi  i R
R

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Power
1
Solution 1.2:
Applying KCL at the node 1.
I1 + 5I1 - (18/3) = 0 → I1 = 1A
The power for each of the circuit elements is
p18V = −I1 × 18 = −18W
p5I1 = −18 × 5I1 = −90W
p3Ω = 182/3 = 108W

Note: In any circuit, the power supplied by the active elements always equals
the power consumed.
Here, the power generated is 108W and the power consumed is 108W, as
required.

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Diodes
Resistance

Example 1.3:
Electric safety is of paramount importance in a hospital or
clinical environment. If sufficient current is allowed to flow
through the body, significant damage can occur, as illustrated
in the following figure.

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Resistance
Example 1.3:

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Diodes
Resistance
Example 1.3 (cont.):
A crude electric circuit model of the body consisting of two arms (each with
resistance RA), two legs (each with resistance RL), body trunk (with resistance
RT), and head (with resistance RH) is shown in the following figure.
If RA = 400 and VS = 120 V, then find I .

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Diodes
Resistance
Solution 1.3:
Since the only elements that form a closed path that current can flow is given
by the source in series with the two arms, we reduce the body electric circuits
to

Using Ohm’s law, we have

VS 120
I   0.15 A
RA  RA 800
The current I is the current passing through the heart, and at this level it would cause
ventricular fibrillation.

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Diodes
Capacitors and Inductors

 Resistors do not store energy; they simply dissipate it as heat.

 Capacitors and inductors do not dissipate energy but store it in electrical and
magnetic fields, respectively.
dVS di
IC  C VL  L
dt dt
where C is the capacitance of the capacitor (in farads).
L is called the inductance of the inductor (in henrys).
Energy storage by a capacitor
1
EC  CV 2
2
Energy storage by an inductor
1
EL  Li 2
2

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Capacitors and Inductors

Example 1.4:
Suppose v = 5 V and C = 2 F for the circuit shown in the following Figure. Find i.

dv
i C
dt
d (5)
 2
dt
0

A capacitor is an open circuit to DC voltage

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Diodes
Capacitors and Inductors

Example 1.5:
Find v in the following circuit

di
vL
dt
d (5)
 2
dt
0

This example shows that an inductor

acts like a short circuit to DC current.

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Capacitors and Inductors

(a) N inductors in series. (b) An equivalent circuit for inductors in series.

Inductors connected in series: L E Q  L1  L 2  ...  L N

1
inductors connected in parallel: L EQ 
1 1 1
  ... 
L1 L 2 LN
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Diodes
Capacitors and Inductors

Example 1.6:
Find LEQ for the following circuit.

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Capacitors and Inductors

Solution 1.6:
It follows that.

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Diodes
Capacitors and Inductors

(a) N capacitors in parallel. (b) An equivalent circuit for capacitors in parallel.

1
Capacitors connected in series: C EQ 
1 1 1
  ... 
C1 C 2 CN
Capacitors connected in parallel: C E Q  C 1  C 2  ...  C N

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Capacitors and Inductors

Example 1.7:
Reduce the following circuit to a single capacitor and inductor.

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Diodes
Capacitors and Inductors

Solution 1.7:
It follows that.

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Capacitors and Inductors

Solution 1.7 (cont.):

It follows that.

The final reduced circuit is shown in the

following figure.

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Diodes
Diodes

 The diode is a semiconductor device widely used

in power supply applications and in certain
nonlinear amplifier circuits.
 Just like resistor, it has two terminals.
 Unlike resistor, it has a nonlinear current-voltage
characteristics.

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Diodes

Atomic structure of
 (a) Silicon (Si)
 (b) Germanium
(Ge)
 (c) gallium and
arsenic (GaAs)

 Silicon: 14 orbiting
electrons
 Germanium: 32 electrons
 Gallium: 31 electrons
 Arsenic: 33 electrons

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Diodes
Semiconductors

• Silicon (Si) and Germanium

(Ge) are the two most common
single elements that are used to
make Diodes.
• Si and Ge are both group 4
elements, meaning they have 4
valence electrons. Their
structure allows them to grow in
a shape called the diamond
lattice.

The 2D structure of the Si

crystal.

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Diodes
Semiconductors

•Gallium is a group 3 element

while Arsenide is a group 5
element. When put together as
a compound, GaAs creates a
zinc-blend lattice structure.
•When dopants from groups 3
or 5 (in most cases) are added
to Si, Ge or GaAs it changes
the properties of the material,
so we are able to make the P-
and N-type materials that
become the diode.

The 2D structure of the GaAs crystal.

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Diodes
N-Type Material

+4 +4 +4  N-type material is produced when

the dopant that is introduced is
from Group V (Arsenic, Antimony
+4 +5 +4 or Phosphorus).
 Group V elements have 5 valence
electrons and therefore an electron
+4 +4 +4
is extra.

The 2D diagram shows the extra electron that will be present when a Group
V dopant is introduced to a material such as silicon. This extra electron is
very mobile.

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P-Type Material

 P-type material is produced when

+4 +4 +4
the dopant that is introduced is from
Group III (Aluminum, Boron, or
Gallium).
+4 +3 +4
 Group III elements have only 3
valence electrons and therefore
+4 +4 +4 there is an electron missing (a hole
(h+)),

The 2D diagram shows the hole that will be present when a Group III
dopant is introduced to a material such as silicon. This hole is quite mobile
in the same way the extra electron is mobile in a n-type material.

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Diodes
Structure of Diodes

Simplified structure
A Al

p A

B
The pn B
region is One-dimensional
representation diode symbol
assumed to
be thin (step
Different concentrations of
or abrupt
electrons (and holes) of the p and n-
junction)
type regions cause a concentration
gradient at the boundary

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Notation of diodes

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Diodes
The PN Junction

Steady State Metallurgical Junction

Na Nd

- - - - - - + + + + + +
- - - - - - + + + + + +
P - - - - - - + + + + + + N
- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

Space Charge
ionized Region ionized
acceptors donors

E-Field
_ _
+ +
h+ drift = h+ diffusion e- diffusion = e- drift

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Diodes
Semiconductor diode

No Applied Bias ( V = 0V)

A p–n junction with no external bias

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Diodes
Semiconductor diode

Reverse-Bias Condition ( VD < 0V)

Reverse-biased p–n junction

The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse
saturation current and is represented by Is .
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Diodes
Semiconductor diode

Forward-Bias Condition ( VD > 0V)

Forward-biased p–n junction

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Diodes
The PN Junction
Metallurgical
Na Junction Nd

- - - - - + + + + +
When no external source is
P - - - - - + + + + + connected to the PN
N
- - - - - + + + + + junction, diffusion and drift
- - - - - + + + + + balance each other out for
Space Charge
ionized Region ionized
both the holes and
acceptors donors electrons
E-Field
_ _
+ +
h+ drift = h+ diffusion e- diffusion = e- drift

Space Charge Region: Also called the depletion region. This region includes
the net positively and negatively charged regions. The space charge region
does not have any free carriers. The width of the space charge region is
denoted by W in PN junction formula’s.

Metallurgical Junction: The interface where the p- and n-type materials meet.

Na & Nd: Represent the amount of negative and positive doping in number of
carriers per centimeter cubed. Usually in the range of 1015 to 1020.
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The Biased PN Junction

Forward Bias:
• The depletion layer narrows
Vapplied > 0 • The barrier voltage decreases by V volts.

 The depletion region shrinks slightly in width (narrow).

 With this shrinking the energy required for charge carriers
to cross the depletion region decreases exponentially.
 As the applied voltage increases, current starts to flow
across the junction.
 The barrier potential varies for different materials.

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Diodes
The Biased PN Junction

Reverse Bias:

Vapplied < 0

 Under reverse bias the depletion region widens.

 The electric field was produced by the ions to cancel out the
applied reverse bias voltage.
 A small leakage current, IS (saturation current) flows under
reverse bias conditions. This saturation current is made up of
electron-hole pairs being produced in the depletion region.
 Saturation current is sometimes referred to as scale current
because of it’s relationship to junction temperature.

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Diodes
Properties of Diodes

ID (mA) • VD = Bias Voltage

• ID = Current through
Diode. ID is Negative
for Reverse Bias and
Positive for Forward
IS Bias
VBR • IS = Saturation Current

~V VD • VBR = Breakdown

Voltage
• V = Barrier Potential
Voltage

(nA) The Diode Transconductance Curve2

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Diodes
Properties of Diodes

The Shockley Equation

The transconductance curve is characterized by the following
equation: VD
 VT
I
D S I (e  1)
where:
 ID is the current through the diode;
 IS is the saturation current;
 VD is the applied biasing voltage;
 VT is the thermal equivalent voltage and is approximately 26 mV
at room temperature;
  is the emission coefficient for the diode. (It is determined by
the way the diode is constructed. It somewhat varies with diode
current. For a silicon diode  is around 2 for low currents and
goes down to about 1 at higher currents.)
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Properties of Diodes

The Shockley Equation (cont.)

The equation to find VT at various temperatures is:
kTK
VT 
Where:
q
 k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K (Boltzmann’s constant)
 TK = the absolute temperature in Kelvin (= 273 + the temperature
in °C)
 q = 1.6 x 10-19 C (the magnitude of electronic charge)

Then, the formula can be rewritten

qV D
 kT K
I D  I S (e  1)
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Diodes
Properties of Diodes

Example 1.5
At a temperature of 27°C (common temperature for components in an
enclosed operating system), determine the thermal voltage VT .
Solution:
We have

The thermal voltage will become an important parameter in the analysis

to follow in this chapter and a number of those to follow.

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Properties of Diodes

Silicon semiconductor diode characteristics. 47

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Diodes
Properties of Diodes

Breakdown Region

Breakdown region.

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Diodes
Properties of Diodes

Comparison of Ge, Si, and GaAs commercial diodes.

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Diodes
Properties of Diodes
Temperature
Effects
 Temperature can have a
marked effect on the
characteristics of a
semiconductor diode.
 In the forward-bias
region the characteristics
of a silicon diode shift to
the left at a rate of 2.5
mV per centigrade
degree increase in
temperature.
 In the reverse-bias
region the reverse
current of a silicon diode
doubles for every 10°C
rise in temperature.

Variation in Si diode
characteristics with
temperature change. 50

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Diodes
Ideal versus practical

Ideal semiconductor diode: (a)

forwardbiased; (b) reverse-biased.

• The semiconductor diode behaves in a manner similar to a mechanical switch

in that it can control whether current will flow between its two terminals.
• The semiconductor diode is different from a mechanical switch in the sense
that when the switch is closed it will only permit current to flow in one
direction.
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Diodes
Resistance levels

DC or Static Resistance

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Diodes
Resistance levels

EXAMPLE 1.6 Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of Figure at
a. ID = 2 mA (low level)
b. ID = 20 mA (high level)
c. VD =10 V (reverse-biased)

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Diodes
Resistance levels

Solution 1.6

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Types of Diodes

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Diodes
Types of Diodes

PN Junction Are used to allow current to flow in one direction while

Diodes: blocking current flow in the opposite direction.

A K P N
Schematic Symbol for Representative Structure for
a PN Junction Diode a PN Junction Diode

Zener Diodes: Are specifically designed to operate under reverse

breakdown conditions. These diodes have a very
accurate and specific reverse breakdown voltage.

A K

Schematic Symbol for a

Zener Diode 56

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Types of Diodes
Schottky Diodes:
A K
Schematic Symbol for a
Schottky Diode
Diodes
Are designed to have a very fast switching time
which makes them a great diode for digital circuit
applications. They are very common in computers
because of their ability to be switched on and off
so quickly.

Shockley Diodes: Are a four-layer diode while other diodes are

normally made with only two layers. These types
of diodes are generally used to control the average
power delivered to a load.
A K

Schematic Symbol for a four-

layer Shockley Diode
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Diodes
Types of Diodes

Light-Emitting  LEDs are designed with a very large bandgap so

Diodes (LEDs): movement of carriers across their depletion region
emits photons of light energy.
 Lower bandgap LEDs emit infrared radiation, while
LEDs with higher bandgap energy emit visible light.
 Many stop lights are now starting to use LEDs
because they are extremely bright and last longer
than regular bulbs for a relatively low cost.

A K The arrows in the LED

representation indicate
emitted light.
Schematic Symbol for
a Light-Emitting Diode

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Diodes
Types of Diodes

Photodiodes:  While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are

sensitive to received light. They are
constructed so their pn junction can be
exposed to the outside through a clear
A K window or lens.
 In Photoconductive mode the saturation
current increases in proportion to the intensity
 of the received light. This type of diode is
A K used in CD players.
 In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction is
exposed to a certain wavelength of light, the
Schematic Symbols for
diode generates voltage and can be used as
Photodiodes
an energy source. This type of diode is used
in the production of solar power.

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Diodes
Diode

Full-wave bridge rectifies are commonly

available in packages such as these.

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How to use a diode Diodes

In this configuration the diode

allows AC current to circulate A rectifier diode is very often placed
counter-clockwise but blocks it across a motor (top), relay (bottom), or
clockwise. other device
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Diodes
How to use a diode

Two diodes with their cathodes tied together

will choose automatically between an AC
adapter that delivers 12VDC and an internal 9V A clamping diode can limit output voltage
battery. in this example, to about 5.6V. If the input
rises above that value relative to the
common ground, the potential difference
across the diode feeds the excess voltage
back through it to the 5V source

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How to use a diode

A simplified, basic circuit illustrating the
ability of a Zener diode to compensate for
variations in the power supply or load in
a circuit, creating an approximately
constant voltage at point A.
Two Zener diodes placed in series,
with opposite polarities, can clip or
limit the voltage sinewave of an AC
signal.

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Diodes
Applications
LED - Light Emitting Diodes

 When a light-emitting diode is

forward biased, electrons are
able to recombine with holes
within the device, releasing
energy in the form of photons.

 This effect is called

electroluminescence and the
color of the light
(corresponding to the energy
of the photon) is determined by
the energy gap of the
semiconductor.

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Diodes
Applications
LED - Light Emitting Diodes

UV – AlGaN
Blue – GaN, InGaN
Red, green – GaP
Red, yellow – GaAsP
IR- GaAs 65

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Diodes
Applications

Wireless telemedicine
The PillCam is a ‘swallow’
diagnostic device, taking
high-quality, high-speed
photos as it passes through
the esophagus.

PillCam transmits 14
pictures/sec. to a receiver
worn by the patient.

This enables diagnosis of

throat disease and related
ailments.

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http://www.three-fives.com/latest_features/feature_articles/250205medical.html

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Diodes
Applications

pn-junction laser
Light
Amplification by
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

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Diodes
Applications
Diode Lasers are Small!

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Diodes
Applications

How Does a Solar Cell Work?

 Solar cells are composed of
various semiconducting
materials.
 Semiconductors become
electrically conductive when
supplied with light or heat.
 Over 95% of all the solar cells
are composed of the Si.

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Diodes
Applications

How Does a Solar Cell Work?

Photo generated current

The equivalent circuit of a solar cell

The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the semiconductor

material. In silicon it amounts to approximately 0.5 V.

Terminal voltage is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while

the current intensity increases with higher luminosity.

A 100 cm² silicon cell, for example, reaches a maximum current

intensity of approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m². 70

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Diodes
Applications

Characteristics of a Solar Cell

oThe output power of a solar cell

is temperature dependent.

oHigher cell temperatures lead

to lower output, and hence to
lower efficiency.

oEfficiency indicates how much

of the radiated quantity of light
is converted into useable
electrical energy.
Today on the order of 15-25%

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Diodes
Applications

CCD Detectors
An image is projected by a lens on the
capacitor array causing each capacitor
to accumulate an electric charge
proportional to the light intensity at
that location.

A charge-coupled device (CCD) is an

analog shift register that transports
electric charges through successive
capacitors, controlled by a clock signal.

CCDs are used in digital photography,

digital photogrammetry, astronomy,
sensors, electron microscopy, medical
fluoroscopy, optical and UV
spectroscopy,etc.
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Diodes
Applications

CCD Detectors

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