GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

JANUARY 25, 2022

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMO)

It involves the insertion of DNA from one organism into another OR modification of an
organism’s DNA in order to achieve a desired trait.

Not GMO: Simply changing certain organs. Make physical modifications in certain
individual organism and you’re not tampering organism’s DNA.
1. Replacing feet by artificial feet (robot).
2. Taking hormones to enhance certain parts of the body. (because you’re not
tampering genetic make-up.)
GMO: Tampering DNA. Any kind of organism with modified DNA, either added or removed.
GMO VS. SELECTIVE BREEDING

SELECTIVE BREEDING GENETIC MODIFICATION

Artificial breeding, choose a certain trait

• Slow, especially with non-bacterial • Very Fast, tampering genes so the

organisms.
• Imprecise, cannot be ensured that a
chosen trait will be the offspring
• Modification of genes that naturally
occur in the organism. The only thing
that we could modify in certain
organisms are the ones that are gene
pool in a certain species. Traits/genes
should be already existing in an
organism’s gene pool.
process is faster
• Precise, you tamper DNA, it is fixed
• Can introduce genes into an
organism that would not naturally
occur. Even not part of a genetic pool
of an organism, trait can still be
modified possibly.

GENETIC ENGINEERING VS AGRICULTURAL BREEDING

- Artificial selection has influenced the genetic makeup of livestock and crops for thousands
of years.
- Proponents of GM crops say GM foods are safe.
- Critics of GM foods say:
o Traditional breeding uses genes from the same species.
o Selective breeding deals with whole organisms, not just genes.
o In traditional breeding, genes come together on their own
AGRICULTURAL BREEDING
- Traditional breeding changes organisms through selection, while genetic engineering is
more like the process of mutation.

REMEMBER: In GMO, we start from small, embryonic stage, not with full grown organisms.

GMO in Medicine (BENEFITS)

1. Insulin – SemBioSys Genetics Inc- Saflower
2. Clotting factors
3. Atryn (anticoagulant)
4. Banana vaccines
5. Cancer fighting eggs
Example: Incorporating vaccine in bananas, you’ll be vaccinated by consuming such
bananas.

GMO in Bioremediation
- Poplar trees remove groundwater contaminants.
- Enviropig or Frankenswine – able to digest and process phosphate. Genetically
altered such as his body may be able to process and digest better phosphorus.
GMO in Pesticides
- Kills caterpillars but not poisonous to humans.
- Crops with DNA of scorpion. Poisonous to pests but not to humans. Some poisons
are quite relative (poisonous to other but not to us)

Some genetically modified foods

- BT crops (pesticides)
- Soybean – roundup ready crops
- Ice Minus strawberries (can withstand process of freezing, thawing, and vice versa)
- Golden Rice
- Starlink corn
- AquaAdvantage Salmon (higher length and weight)
Genetically Modified Foods
- Experts say 60% to 70% of processed foods on U.S grocery shelves have genetically
modified ingredients.

COMMON GM CROPS:
o Soybeans
o Corn
o Cotton
Genetically Modified Foods Cons
1. Introducing allergens and toxins to food (contents)
2. Accidental cross pollination [GM - ORIG] genes accidentally transferred, and the
population might eventually acquire the same gene or offspring over time.
3. Antibiotic resistance
4. Creation of “super” weeds and other environmental risks

Genetically Modified Food Pros

1. Increase pest and disease resistance
2. Grow food in harsh climate
3. Increased food supply (more food/ acre)
4. More nutritional value
5. Make drugs

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindrome Repeats (CRISPR)

[not man-made, just discovered]
Bacterium Virus
- Need the bacteria to survive
- Needs to hijack other cells to
reproduce
- Can't survive on their own
 - Phages (virus) insert their own genetic code into the bacteria and make them
factories
- A lot of bacteria do not survive the attack
- Their most effective anti-virus system, CRISPR, is activated
- Remember: CRISPR is just activated after the attack, and the bacteria
survived the attack. Then, in CRISPR, they will store a copy of the viral
DNA that attacked them and store them in CRISPR.
If attacked again by the same virus:
- The bacterium makes an RNA copy form the archives and arms of a secret
weapon: CAS9
- CAS9 Compares the DNA
- If the viral DNA matches, it gets cut out, rendering it useless
- CAS9 is very precise
- Give CAS9 a copy of DNA you want to modify and put it in a living cell

Advantages of CRISPR
- Precise, cheap, and easy (1 year work can be finished in a week thru CRISPR)
- Ability to edit live cells, even to a matured individual (unlike GMO that modify cells
in embryonic stage)
- Targets and study particular DNA sequences (helpful on genetic related diseases)
- It works for every type of cell

Developments using CRISPR: HIV

- It was used to cut HIV virus out of living cells done in 2015
- In-vitro
- In 2016 – tried this experiment to rats with HIV
- After injecting with CRISPR, HIV drops to 48%,
- CRISPR therapy might cure HIV

Developments using CRISPR: Cancer

- First clinical trial on human patients in the U.S was approved
- Treat lung cancer patients with immune cells modified with CRISPR (China)
 CLIMATE CHANGE

This is not the first season of climate change. There have been mass extinctions too, this
brings into question, if climate change naturally happens, why don’t we care so much about
it. Climate change is not brought by natural causes, but by human’s various activities.

Climate change is so fast that organisms are unable to adapt the changes

GREENHOUSE GAS
- Gas that absorbs infrared radiation
E.g., Carbon dioxide (is there, than water vapor, because of anthropogenic
activities), methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and tropospheric ozone
(water vapor – highest %)

POSITIVE FEEDBACK (not good at all)

- Change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changed condition
- Add on into the previous effect. Or enhance previous action
- Example: High Temperature - Melting of ice/permafrost thaw - increase Co2 and
methane released to atmosphere – Increase temperature
- Negative feedback: negate effect

INFRARED RADIATION
- Radiation that has a wavelength that is longer than that of visible light, but shorter
than that of radio waves

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
- Increase of heat in a system where energy enters (often as light), is absorbed as
heat, and released sometime later
- Used mostly in cold countries, it traps heat
Evidence for Climate Change
- 11 of the 12 years between 1995 and 2006 were among the twelve warmest years
since the mid- 1800s, indicating our climate is changing
- Phenological spring in Northern hemisphere now comes 6 days earlier
- Warming is not due to natural causes
- Human produced greenhouse gases are most plausible explanation

Causes of Climate Change

- Increased concentration of COz (and other gases) (right)
o Burning fossil fuels in cars, industry, and homes
o Deforestation
o Burning of forests

Greenhouse Effect

Effects of Global Climate Change

Ocean as CO, sink - excess COz is starting to harm ocean life
Ocean is deoxygenized and concentrated by CO2
Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels
- Sea level rise caused in 2 ways
o Thermal Expansion
▪ Water expands as it warms
o Melting of land ice
▪ Retreat of glacier and thinning of ice at the poles
- Melting has positive feedback
- Increased melting decreases ice, which decreases albedo leading to further warming
Misconception: When ice (on seas) melts, sea level rises. Ice is already part of the sea.
Correct: Melting of land ice (ice on mountains or any landforms) that joins with bodies of
water, then sea level rise.

Changing Precipitation Patterns

- Some areas will get more water, some areas will have greater droughts
Ex: Hurricanes will likely get stronger
Effects on Organisms
a. Zooplankton (close to food chain) in parts of California Current have
decreased by 80% since 1951
i. Effecting entire food chain
b. Decline in krill around Antarctica
i. Caused decrease in penguin populations
c. Species have shifted their geographic range
d. Migrating birds are returning to summer homes earlier
i. Food is not available at this time

Coral Reefs (animal to, hindi bato, para alam mo)(wag mong ukitan)
• Coral reefs can be bleached (right) due to increase in water temperature
i. Affects coral symbiotes and makes them more susceptible to diseases
to which they would otherwise be immune

Vegetation Beech Tree Range

- Beech trees shift location and minimize occupied space.

Effects on Human Health

• Increased number of heat-related illnesses and deaths
Effects on Agriculture
• Difficult to anticipate
i. Productivity will increase in some areas and decrease in others
• Rise in sea level will inundate flood plains and river valleys (lush farmland)
• Effect on pests is unknown
• Warmer temperatures will decrease soil moisture- requiring more irrigation
• Location (i.e. elevation and altitude where certain crops can be grown may
have to change
• Too much Co2 is not enough for plants, they need a balance with land and
soil nutrients.
International Implications of Climate Change
• Developed vs. Developing countries
i. Differing self-interests
ii. Differing ability to meet the challenges of climate change
The more industrialized the country, the higher the carbon dioxide emissions.

Dealing with Global Climate Change

a. To avoid the worst of climate change, COz levels must be stabilized at
550ppm
i. 50% higher than current levels
b. Two ways to attempt to manage climate change
i. Mitigation
1. Focuses on limiting greenhouse gas emissions to moderate
global climate change
ii. Adaptation
1. Focuses on learning to live with to the environmental changes
and societal consequences brought about by global climate
change

Relationship Between Mitigation and Adaptation

Less mitigation, less prevention or limiting of greenhouse gas emissions
More serious climate change effect
Less mitigation
1. More greenhouse gases produced
2. More serious climate change effects
3. Greater impacts on humans and natural environment
4. More adaptation required
More mitigation
1. Less greenhouse gases produced
2. Less serious climate change effects
3. Lesser impacts on humans and natural environment
4. Less adaptation required
Mitigation
a. Locate invent alternative fuels to fossil fuels
b. Increase efficiency of cars and trucks
c. Sequestering carbon before it is emitted
d. Plant and Maintain trees to naturally sequester carbon
Adaptation
a. Rising sea levels and coastal populations
i. Move inland
ii. Construct dikes and levees
b. Adapt to shifting agricultural zones
c. Sewer line

Ozone
Ozone shield
• 99% of all UV is absorbed (UVC and most UVB)
• UVA is not affected by ozone
It is in stratosphere, if seen in troposphere, it is considered as pollutant.
Ozone and CFC's

• Molina and Rowland in 1974

• CFC's are stable
• Long residence in lower atmosphere
• UV radiation breaks down CFC and releases CI
• Cl reacts with 03
• Increase UVB at the surface
3 molecules of oxygen.
When CFCs wander to the upper part of the strato-sphere, however, reactions do occur
(CFC react to ultraviolet radiation). Highly energetic ultraviolet radiation (UVC) splits up
the CFC, releasing chlorine. When this happens, the following two reactions can take
place:13
(1) CI + 03 -> CIO + 02 (released chlorine will mix with ozone (03))(create oxygen gas)
(2) C10 + 0 -> CI + 02 (create another chlorine or oxygen gas)
Environmental effects
- UV damage to DNA
- Skin cancer
- Cataracts
- Suppression of immune system
- Ecosystem:
- Primary producers
- Food chains
- Development in aquatic larva

Anthropogenic Activities
Human Activities
- Industrialization
- CO2, increased 31%, CH, inc 151%, NO inc 17% over since preindustrial times.
- 40% of excess CO, absorbed by oceans
- Methane a big problem

Rate of Climate Change

- Climate change in the current era is expected to be extremely rapid
compared to transitions in and out of past ice ages
- Ecosystems are more vulnerable to changes that happen rapidly.
A scientist holding an ice core a sample taken from polar ice caps or mountain
glaciers. Ice cores reveal clues about climate changes in Earth's past.
The Role of Human Beings
Improving the Outlook
1. Changes in activities at the personal, community, and national levels can affect the
rate of future climate change and species' abilities to adapt.
2. Some of the areas where changes in human activities could help species adapt
include:
a. Approaches to agriculture
b. Water management practices
c. Energy sources and use
d. Transportation
e. Pollution remediation
f. Biological conservation and much more
Using electricity contributes to the greenhouse gases or eventual global warming
Let us be responsible users of these resources.

Alternative Sources of Energy

Nuclear Power
Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear energy is the energy contained in an atom's nucleus.
• Nuclear energy for commercial use is produced by splitting atoms in nuclear
reactors, which are devices that produce controlled nuclear fission. In the
United States, almost all of these reactors use a form of uranium oxide as fuel.

Nuclear Energy Issues

• Uranium is a nonrenewable resource mined from the Earth. If many more

burner reactors were constructed, we would face fuel shortages. Nuclear
energy based on burning uranium-235 in light-water reactors is thus not
sustainable. For nuclear energy to be sustainable, safe, and economical, we
will need to develop breeder reactors.
• Most breeder reactors are considered experimental and because they
produce plutonium-239, which can be used to produce nuclear weapons,
they are politically sensitive. Most countries have discontinued their breeder
reactor programs following accidents or political decisions.
 Nuclear Energy Issues
• Radioisotopes affect the environment in two major ways: by emitting
radiation that affects other materials, and by entering ecological food
chains.

• Radiation may reach people through uptake by fish ingested by people,
uptake by crops ingested by people, inhalation from air, and exposure to
nuclear waste and the natural environment.
• There are debates about the health effects of low-level exposure to radiation
and what relationships exist between exposure and cancer. Most scientists
believe that radiation can cause cancer. Ironically, radiation can be used to
kill cancer cells, as in radiotherapy treatments.

Nuclear Energy Issues

• It is difficult to plan for the human factor. People make mistakes. We have also
learned that we are not as prepared for accidents as we would like to think.
• Transuranic nuclear waste is now being disposed of in salt beds-the first
disposal of radioactive waste in the geologic environment in the United States.
• There is a consensus that high-level nuclear waste may be safely disposed of in
the geologic environment. The problem has been to locate a site that is safe and
not objectionable to the people who make the decisions and to those who live in
the region.
• Advantages: It emits no carbon dioxide, will not contribute to global
warming or cause acid rain, and can be used to produce alternative fuels such
as hydrogen.
• Disadvantages: People are uncomfortable with nuclear power because of
waste-disposal problems and possible accidents.

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Resources

Solar Energy
* It utilizes the sun as source of energy.
* This energy source is completely renewable and the costs of installation are
outweighed by the money saved in energy bills from traditional suppliers.
* Solar cells are prone to deterioration over large periods of time and are not as
effective in unideal weather conditions.
Hydroelectric Energy
* It uses water as source of energy.
* Hydroelectric is it a clean source of energy and is also renewable.
* The dams used in generating hydroelectric power also contribute to flood control
and irrigation techniques.

Tidal Energy
• Tidal Energy uses the power of water to generate energy, much like with
hydroelectric methods but its application has more in common with wind turbines
in many cases.

Geothermal Power (electricity)

* Geothermal power is about extracting energy from the ground around us.
* This has potential while doing little to disrupt the land. However, the heavy
upfront costs of creating geothermal power plants have led to slower adoption.
* It generates no waste.

Wind Energy
* Wind Energy Current wind energy installations power roughly twenty million
homes in the United States per year and that number is growing.
* Wind turbines restrict views and may be dangerous to some forms of wildlife.

Hydrogen Energy (break-even)

* Hydrogen is a completely clean burning fuel. Once produced, hydrogen gas cells
emit only water vapor and warm air when in use. The major issue with this form of
alternative energy is that it is mostly derived from the use of natural gas and fossil
fuels. As such, it could be argued that the emissions created to extract it counteract
the benefits of its use.
* The process of electrolysis, which is essential for the splitting of water into
hydrogen and oxygen, makes this less of an issue. However, electrolysis still ranks
below the previously mentioned methods for obtaining hydrogen, though research
continues to make it more efficient and cost-effective.