Agriculture
Genes are, transferred to plants and animals to make them bigger and resistant to
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY: GENE TECHNOLOGY
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering is a method of biotechnology that involves manipulation and
combination of organisms ‘genes to produce organisms with particular
characteristics. Genes are part of a chromosome that carries information for specific
characteristics. They control characteristics that we inherit from our parents (genetic
characteristics), hence are sometimes referred to as units of inheritance.
Genes are made out of DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA molecule is shaped like a
twisted ladder (shape called double helix). Below is structure showing a gene:
The Technology of Genetic Engineering
In genetic engineering scientists take specific gene from one organism and put it into
the DNA of another organism. In this way, they take the desired characteristics from
one species and put it into another species. This result in organisms called
genetically modified organisms, or GMOs. Below are, the steps followed in
manipulating genes:
 Identifying genes with characteristics needed.
 Removing the needed genes from the organism
 Transferring the gene to another organism that grows fast e.g. bacteria or
yeast
 The gene is transferred into an organism whose characteristics are being
changed
The Significance of Genetic Engineering
Benefits of Genetic engineering are very significant to area such as medicine,
agriculture, forensic science and energy generation.
Medicine
Human insulin genes are, transferred to bacteria, to enable them to produce insulin
used for treating sugar diabetes. Growth hormone can also be produced in a similar
way and be used to treat children who do not grow.
1
pests, diseases, drought and frost. Some genetically modified foods include rice,
potatoes, melons and tomatoes.
Some advantages of Genetic Engineering in Agriculture
 Crops are more productive and can produce higher yields.
 Crops are resistant to pests and diseases, thereby reducing the need for
poisonous sprays.
 Crops have a better flavour and colour, and more food value.
 Livestock are stronger and healthier.
 Livestock produce more meat and milk.
Forensic science
Genetic material can be, used in solving crimes, paternity tests or genetic
fingerprinting to identify bodies of unidentified people involved in accidents or in
crimes such as murder.
Energy generation
Some plants such as oilseed or rapeseed are, grown for their oil, which is, used for
cooking. It can also be converted into a bio-fuels and used in vehicle engines or
generate energy. Their yield can be, improved by the use of genetic modification.
Potential benefits of genetic engineering
 Creation of human beings and other organisms (clones) from DNA.
 Curing diseases that are in incurable such as cancer.
 Stem cell research may lead to the production of organs and tissues to
regenerate damaged ones in a person’s body, e. g. to connect a severed spinal
cord which could result in a paralyzed person to eventually walk again. Stem cells
are found in the mother’s placenta after the birth of a newborn baby.
 By studying cell repair and old age diseases, it is possible to increase the active
life span of humans to 120-150 years.
 We are facing a tremendous explosion as well as the negative effects of global
warming which are serious challenges to produce enough food. Genetic
engineering will make it possible to feed this world.
 It is possible to modify micro-organisms to remove all pollutants from soil and
water.
Limitations of Genetic Engineering
 Harmless organism maybe changed into harmful ones.
 GM crops may kill organisms they are, not intended to.
 Genetic engineering is very expensive.
 Genetically modified food is unacceptable to a number of people. They believe
that it is unhealthy and dangerous food.
 Vectors or carriers of genes may pass to other species in the wild. This could
lead to new diseases that might be difficult to combat and that could also have a
 negative effect on the ecosystem.
 A large failure rate is experienced by researchers.
 Some scientists believe that the technology is not refined enough- more time is
needed to refine it and ensure success.

Ethical and moral issues on genetic engineering

 Some people see genetically modified food and organisms as being unnatural.
 Some people view using organisms in laboratory for research as being cruel to
them.
 Some people believe it is morally wrong to change the genetics of living things.
 It lowers the respect for human life, plants and animals.
 Some religious people believe that this technology interferes with God’s work.

PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: LIVING MATTER
Adaptation is a characteristic of a living organism that makes it suited to a particular
environment.
There are three main types of adaptations:
 Physical adaptation: these are physical features of an organism’s body. e.g.
shape of a bird’s beak, type of hair on an animal’s body, shape of plant’s leaves,
skin colour
 Behavioural adaptation: behaviours which are possessed by animals, e.g.
hunting, bird calls, migration, courtship
 Physiological adaptation: this is the way an organism body function, e.g. some
plants need less water for their metabolism, temperature regulation
Animals
 Behavioural patterns
 Hot and dry conditions: animals that live in hot, dry areas such as deserts need
adaptations to help them regulate their body temperatures and conserve water
 Aestivation= is whereby some animals survive very hot or dry periods by
sleeping through them. All body functions slow down and animals survive on
fat stored in their bodies
 Nocturnal= is whereby some animals only become active or move about at
night when it is cool.
 Burrowing= some animals dig holes and tunnels underground to where the
temperatures are cooler/milder
 Positioning the body to reduce heat absorption: during the day, animals shelter
in the shade or position themselves to face away from the sun so that less of
their body catches the sun’s rays directly
 Water shortage
- Animals in the desert produce little urine and dry faeces, e.g. the camel.
- Desert animals wake up early to graze when there is some dew (water
droplets) which animals take with the grass.
 Cold conditions: animals that live in very cold conditions and severe winters need
adaptations to conserve body heat
 Hibernation= is whereby some animals survive the cold and severe winters by
sleeping through them. All body functions slow down and animals live off their
body fat
 Breeding seasons= these are arranged so that babies are born during
favourable periods such as spring or summer.
 Camouflage= many animals camouflage to hide from the predators or to
catch their prey, e.g. chameleon.
 Physical features
- Honey bees have special mouth parts to suck nectar from flowers.
- Fish use fins to move in water and gills to breathe under the water.
- Birds have wings to fly.
- A polar bear has a thick fur coat which traps air to act as insulation.
- Animals (polar bear) have a thick layer of fat under the skin to insulate it
against heat loss.
- Giraffe has long neck to reach branches of tall trees.
- Some animals (elephants and bat eared foxes) have large ears that act as
radiators to their blood
- Light coloured body covering on animals helps to reflect more sunlight and
absorb less heated e.g. gemsbok
Plants
Physical features
 Xerophytes e. g. survive in dry areas e. g. cactus
- Have thick waxy layer (cuticle) to prevent water loss through transpiration.
- Desert plants have long roots to absorb water from underground.
- Fleshy and thick stems to store water.
- Have thorny leaves to reduce transpiration.

2
 Hydrophytes e. g. water lily- survive in wet conditions
- No waxy cuticle
- Plants increase the amount of water loss and reduce absorption of water
- Underwater leaves and stems are flexible to move with water currents
- Plants need to be supported by water and move as the water move e. g.
water lily has large leaves with large air spaces so that they float in water.
- Roots are not important because there is no need for water to hold the plant.
Behavioural patterns
- Curly leaves to reduce transpiration.
- Plants lose leaves in winter to reduce transpiration.
- Plants lean or grow towards the sun
- Roots grow down into the soil
- Vines climb up trees to get sunlight
- Trees and other plants grow quite far apart – less competition for water.
Human activities that may impact negatively on plant and animal adaptations
- Ploughing which kills plants and destroys the habitat of animals.
- Mining which brings infertile soil to the surface.
- Draining wetlands which destroy plants and animals that cannot live
anywhere else.
- Overgrazing which causes erosion and the death of plants and animals.
- Killing animals for food.
- Killing animals such as jackals that compete with humans for food.
- Removal of plants for traditional medicine and for collection purposes.
- The use of agro-chemicals (for example, fertilizers, weed-killers and
pesticides) which either kill or affect plants and animals.
- The use of fossil fuels which causes acid rain (killing forests) and global
warming (affecting the climate)
- Oil pollution- 1 litre of used motorcar oil can pollute 1 million litres of fresh
water.
- Releasing untreated sewage or industrial waste which will pollute the soil
and water.
Effects of human activities on the adaptation of plant and animal species
- Death of plants and animals; some plants and animals cannot survive if their
habitats are destroyed, e. g. if trees and other plants in a tropical forest are
removed some animals will die.
- Adapting to new habitat; some plants and animals manage to survive in a
new habitat by adaptation e. g. by changing the food source
- The polar ice caps will melt and this will affect the animals, such as the polar
bear which are adapted to live and hunt on the ice
- Some environment will become drier whereas others will become wetter.
This will affect organisms that are adapted to live in wet or dry environments
- Sea levels may rise and this will mean that organisms that live near the
shoreline may be flooded with salty water that they are not adapted to live in.
3
ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem is a given area with a group of livings things that interact with one
another and their non-living environment
Characteristics of an Ecosystem
There are two main characteristics of an ecosystem which are Abiotic and Biotic
factors.
Abiotic Factors (Chemical)
 Are the non-living parts of the ecosystem
 They make up the physical part environment and they determine the variety of
species because each living organism has its own requirements and can only
live where the physical conditions are within its range of requirements
 E.g. soil, water, air, humidity, temperature, light intensity (how bright the light is),
wind direction and speed, rocks, levels of pollutants, etc.
Biotic Factors (Biological)
 Are the living parts of the ecosystem
 These include all interactions between different organisms in a particular
habitat
 Organisms relate to one another and their environment in different ways
 One organism may need another, as a source of food, shelter or for protection
 E.g. plants, animals, microscopic organisms, etc. These organisms are
classified into three; Producers, Consumers and Decomposers.
Other terms involved in an Ecosystem
 Habitat- is a living place of an organism e.g. where plants grow and animals
live.
 Community- is a group of animals and plants living together in the same
habitat e.g. river is a habitat where animals like fish, frogs and snakes, as well
as plants such as reeds and water lilies may all be found.
 Environment- This is the surrounding in which every living organism lives.
 Population- this is a group of individuals of the same species that are found in
a particular place.
 Producer- this is an organism that is able to produce the food to feed itself in
its habitat e.g. grasses, shrubs, trees and water plants. They produce food
through photosynthesis. All other organisms (which cannot produce food)
depend on producers.
 Consumers-animals which cannot produce their own food. Consumers can be
divided into three:
 Primary consumers: organisms that feed on the producers (plants).
Primary consumers are herbivores e.g. goats, zebra
 Secondary consumers: organisms that feed on the primary
consumers. Secondary consumers are carnivores e.g. birds, snakes,
lions
 Tertiary: organisms that feed on the secondary consumers. Some
tertiary consumers are carnivores while some are omnivores as they
 feed on both plants and animals. e.g. human beings, hawks, eagles, For example:
bear, raccoons
 Decomposers- bacteria and fungi which can break down waste materials and
dead organisms.

The relationships among the Organisms

Organisms relate to one another and their environment in different ways. One
organism may need another as a source of food, shelter or protection etc. Examples
of relationships include:
1. Symbiosis: two organisms live very closely together and each benefits from the Food Web
association, e. g. The bacteria which live in roots of legume plants. The bacteria A food web is a food relationship showing organisms sharing a food source. A food
fix atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates which plants need for growth. web is made up of two or more food chains linked together.
2. Parasitism: only the parasite benefits in some way from another organism
(which is known as the host), e.g. a tapeworm absorbs nutrients in the human
gut and the bilharzia parasite feeds and reproduce in the human blood.
3. Competition: organisms compete for resources in the same place, e.g. plants will
compete for water and nutrients in the soil, sunlight and for growing space.

Effects of Changes in Food Supply on Population Size of Animals and Plants

A change in food supply in an ecosystem leads to a change in population size of
organisms i.e. the population of each feeding level depends on the amount of food
available
Example: Food Pyramid
Availability of rainfall in an area results in a lot of grass growing and there will be lots Many plants (producers) are needed to feed a smaller number of primary consumers.
of food available for the antelope to feed on. Therefore, the population size of The latter has to be more than secondary consumers. This is represented in a form of
antelopes will be large because the ecosystem can support more antelopes. If there a pyramid.
is a large population size of antelopes, then this can support a larger population size
of carnivores such as lions to feed on the antelope. Therefore, the population size of
lions will increase

Other examples
 An increase in lions lead to a decrease in zebras
 A decrease in grass and vegetation leads to a decrease in herbivore

Feeding Relationships of Organisms

Energy flow through an Ecosystem

The relationships where by an organism feeds on another create a pattern of energy
flow and show the interdependence between living organisms. Energy flows are
usually described as food chains, food webs and food pyramids.

Food Chain The size of the triangle shows the relative number of organisms of different feeding
It’s a simple linear diagram of energy flow from one single type of organisms linked levels. At each level of the pyramid, the population is smaller than that of the
together by their feeding relationships. A food chain always starts with a plant or organisms below. Energy is lost passing up the food chain from one organism to
plant product. another. Not all of the food that an animal feeds on can be passed up the food chain:
energy is lost due to a number of factors including:

*Respiration by organisms- the energy that the organism produces for itself.

4
*Inefficiency of digestion process- not all food that is ingested is digested.
*Inefficiency of absorption process- some of the food that is digested is not absorbed
and is released as faeces.
*The herbivores may not eat all of the plants e.g. may only eat leaves

Pollutants in the Ecosystem

Pollutants are harmful substances that have an effect on us or the environment. E.g.
industries making substances are disposed-off in large areas of water in rivers or just
in the bush. The poison is contained in these waste products may be consumed by
organisms in the environment and they get passed from one organism to another as
organisms eat each other in a food chain.

Concentration of Pollutants through Food Chains and Food Webs

Other examples of pollutants are tar, smoke, dust, gases, carbon monoxide, sulphur SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
dioxide, pesticides, herbicides, sewage. This is the process which involves the fusion of the nuclei from two gametes to form
a zygote. In sexual reproduction genetic information from two parents combines to
Some insecticides such as DDT are non-biodegradable, i.e. cannot be decomposed by produce a new individual.
biological organisms. Therefore they enter the smaller organisms in the food chain.
The concentration of this insecticide increases up the trophic levels hence the tertiary Flower
consumer may die due to higher concentrations of the insecticides, (Bioaccumulation) A flower is the sex organ for flowering plants

 Example
Bioaccumulation means chemical pollutants can be absorbed by organisms in the
food chain. If producers (plants) are treated with poisonous insecticides to protect
them, the poisons will be taken in by the locusts as well. The poison will be more
concentrated in the locust than on the plants. The birds eat the locusts and the
poisons concentrate even more in the birds’ bodies because a bird eats many locusts.
In the same way the poisons (pollutants) will concentrate even more in the bodies of
the hawk or eagles that eat the birds. The poison (pollutant) becomes more and more
concentrated at each trophic/feeding level. This process is called biological
magnification.

Poisoned plant ------------> locust --------------> bird --------------> hawk

Functions of parts
 Stigma – receives pollen grains
 Style – guides and allows the pollen tube to pass through to the ovules in the ovary
 Ovary – produces ovules that contain the female sex cells
 Anther – produces pollen grains that contain the male sex cells
 Filament – supports the anther
 Petals (corolla) – encloses parts of the flower (protection)
- Attract insects and birds with their bright colour, strong scent and
sweet nectar

5
 Sepals (calyx) – protects the ovary and the general flower during the bud stage
 Flower stalk – holds the flower in position and attaches the flower to the plant
 Receptacle – holds all the parts of the flower together

The reproductive parts of a flower

 Stamen – is the male part of a flower. It is made up of the anther and
filament

 Cross Pollination – The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to
the stigma of another flower of the same species.

 Pistil/Carpel – is the female part of a flower. It is made up of the ovary,

stigma and style

Agents of Pollination
Things which carry pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower, e. g.
insects and wind
 Insects
 Wind

Pollination Characteristics of Flowers

It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma of a flower
Wind Pollinated Flower Insects Pollinated Flower
Types of Pollination Have dull petals Bright coloured petals
 Self Pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma in Small or no petals Have large petals
the same flower, or the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma of Have feathery stigma Sticky lobed stigma
another flower on the same plant.
Light pollen grains produced Sticky pollen grains
Lots of pollen grains produced Few pollen grains
Petals have no scent Scented petals
Have no nectarines Have nectarines that produce nectar
The stamen is hanging outside the petals The stamen is fully enclosed within
petals

6

Fertilization
In order for fertilization to occur, pollination must first take place. Fertilization is the
fusion of the male nucleus (from pollen grains) with female nucleus (from the
ovules)to form a zygote.
Fertilization in Flowering Plants: Growth of the Pollen Tube
 When a pollen grain lands on a suitable stigma, it absorbs the moisture and
nutrients i.e. sucrose reach fluid from the stigma
 The pollen grain then develops a pollen tube which grows down through the
style and ovary towards the ovule
 Inside the pollen tube is the male gamete and tube nucleus (vegetative
nucleus) that produces enzymes that clear a path by digesting tissues of the
style and allow the pollen tube to grow down the style towards the ovary
 When the pollen tube reaches the ovary it goes through the micropyle to
reach the ovule and the pollen tube breaks open to deliver the male gamete
 One of the male nuclei will fuse with the female nuclei to form a zygote i.e.
fertilization has taken place
Fate of other Parts of a Flower
 The fertilized ovules develops into seeds
 The ovary develops into a fruit
 Other parts of a flower e.g. petals, filament, anther, style, stigma and sepals,
they dry up and fall off
7
Non- Endospermic Seed (Dicot) e.g. bean seed
Functions of Parts
1. Testa {seed coat} – this is the tough outer cover in seeds. It protects the
embryo from physical damage and prevents entry of bacteria and fungi.
2. Cotyledon - this is where food is stored for the developing embryo, such as
starch and proteins and enzymes.
3. Micropyle – it is an opening left by the pollen tube on the testa. It allows
water and oxygen needed for germination to enter the seed
4. Embryo is found enclosed within a seed and is made of the;
 Plumule – which develops into the shoot during germination
 Radicle – which grows into the root system
Seed Dispersal
This is the transfer {scattering away} of seeds from the parent plant to new sites.
After seed development either the entire fruit or the seed(s) contained within are
dispersed from the parent plant
Importance of Seed dispersal
 It reduces chances of competition for nutrients and space
 It enables plants to colonize new and favourable habitats/places
 To reduce the spread of diseases amongst closely clumped/grouped plants
Mechanisms of Seed Dispersal
There are three main external agents (mechanisms) of dispersal, namely;
 Animal
 Wind
 Water
In addition, seeds can be dispersed through self dispersal mechanism, which
involves an explosive release of seeds from the fruit.
  Examples: water lily and coconut

1. Animal Dispersed Seeds

Example

4. Self Dispersed Seed/Explosive Mechanism

Example;
 They have hooks or spines with which they attach themselves to the skin, fur
or wool of passing animals and thus carried over some distance before
dropping off or being scratched off. e. g. goose grass, buttercup, burdock etc.
 Contained in succulent fruits which have edible fleshly parts. e. g. tomatoes,
strawberry, mulberry, grapes etc. The fruit is eaten and digested but the
seeds are resistant to digestive enzymes and pass unharmed through the
gut of the animal to be deposited with faeces often on fertile soils.

2. Wind Dispersed Seeds

Example

 Explosive fruits – the pods of flowers dry up in the sun and shrivel. The
tough fibres in the fruit wall shrinks and set up a tension forcing the fruit to
split in half down, the two halves curl back suddenly and flick out the seed. e.
g. Lupin, sickle bush and three-thorned acacia.

 Are small and light so that they can float in the air and for them to be blown
by the wind
 They have large, flattened wing-like structures or a parachute of fine hairs so
that the surface area is enlarged to increase air resistance. The fine hairs are
known as pappus
 Examples: fruits of dandelion and poppy
MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES: THE NATURE OF MATTER
DISSOLUTION OF MATTER
Dissolution refers to the process of dissolving a solute in a solvent to form a solution.
A solute is a soluble substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a solution. E.g.
sugar

3. Water Dispersed Seeds A solvent is a liquid in which a solute dissolves to form a solution. E.g. water

 Light weight and less dense so that they can float along with moving water A solution is a mixture in which a solute has dissolved in a solvent. E.g. water + sugar
= sugar solution
 Have waterproof tough coats that ensure no water enters the seed and
trigger early germination
Substances that dissolve are, said to be, soluble while those that do not dissolve are,
 Some plants e.g. Coconut have a fibrous ovary wall which enables the fruit
said to be, insoluble.
to float on water so that the seed is water dispersed.

8
Universal solvent (a) Calculate the concentration of a solution which has 200g of salt dissolved in
This is a liquid that dissolves most known solutes in the whole world 1000cm³ of water.
OR
Is a substance in which other substances would dissolve. E.g. water
Why water is sometimes referred to as a universal solvent
Water is sometimes referred to as a universal solvent because almost all known
solutes dissolve in it. It is also because it dissolves more solutes than any other
known solvents.

Why water is such a good solvent?

The chemical makeup of water means that the molecule of water is electrically
charged (positive hydrogen and negative oxygen).
This means that any solute which carries a charge (polar molecules) will be attracted
to neither the positive nor negative charge of water molecule hence dissolving.
This makes water to be a good solvent for molecules which carry a charge.

Solubility
 This is the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100g
(100cm3) of water
Or Saturation of Solutions
 The maximum amount of a solute that will dissolve in a given amount of  Unsaturated solutions: solutions which can still dissolve more of a solute in
solvent at a specified temperature them at a particular temperature

Factors affecting solubility  Saturated solutions: solutions that can no longer dissolve any solute in it at
1. Temperature: the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of dissolving. a particular temperature
The lower the temperature, the slower the rate of dissolving
 Supersaturated solution: solutions that contain more solute in them than
2. Size of particles: the larger the particles the slower the rate of dissolving. they can normally hold at a particular temperature/pressure
The smaller the particles the faster the rate of dissolving
Application of saturated and supersaturated solution
3. Stirring: Stirring increases the rate of dissolving
 Carbonated/ fizzy drinks: they are supersaturated solutions of carbon
dioxide. Carbon dioxide is dissolved under high pressure hence when the can
4. Nature of substance: different materials have different strengths of bonding.
is opened it forms bubbles (fizzy) as the gas escapes.
Therefore, the stronger the bond the slower the rate of dissolving, the weaker the
bond the faster the rate of bonding.
 Rain: surface water evaporates to form a saturated solution of water vapour
in the atmosphere. When that happens, vapour starts to form water droplets
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
then form rain.
Concentration of solutions
Concentration refers to the measure of how much solute is present in a given amount
of a solution.  Deep sea diving: deep under the sea there is high pressure than on the
surface of the sea. When sea divers dive to great depth under water,
 Solutions with a lot of solute in it are, said to be concentrated e. g. a small
pressure causes nitrogen to dissolve more easily to form a supersaturated
amount of sugar dissolved in a water makes a dilute solution
solution in the blood. If the diver returns quickly to the surface the nitrogen
comes out of their blood to form gas bubbles just like what carbon dioxide
 While those with less solute in them are, said to be, dilute. e. g. a large amount
does when you open the fizzy drink. This situation can be fatal and it’s called
of sugar dissolved in a water makes a concentrated solution
The Bends.
The concentration of solutions is, calculated as follows:
 Mining salt: when rain water goes underground it dissolves the salt in rocks.
1. Concentration per volume of solvent
9
 This forms a saturated solution of salt underground. The water evaporates,  Bubbles are visible in both the test tube and water in the gas jar.
leaving behind salt crystals on the surface.  Level of water goes down

Explanation
 Bubbles prove that a gas is produced.
COMPONENTS OF AIR  Level of the water goes down shows that the gas is less dense than water
Air is a mixture of gases. Dry air is, made up of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and therefore taking up the space on top of the water.
other gases. If air is not dry it will also contain water vapours. The table below shows
the percentages of gases that make up air:
The word equation below shows the general equation for the production of carbon
Component Percentage (%) dioxide in the laboratory:
Acid + Carbonate Salt + Carbon dioxide gas + Water
Nitrogen 78 Hydrochloric + Calcium ----> Carbon dioxide + Calcium chloride + Water
Acid Carbonate
Oxygen 21
Testing for Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Test: bubble the gas in colourless lime water
Positive results: colourless lime water turns milky.
Other gases/ rare gases 0.97
Negative results: colourless lime water remains the same.

Properties of Carbon Dioxide

CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide makes up 0.03% of gases found in the atmosphere. It plays a very  It does not support burning
important role in our environment, bodies and in industry. It is therefore important to  A gas at room temperature.
know how it can be, produced.  Poisonous at very high concentration.
 Freezes at – 78Oc to form dry ice (solid carbon dioxide)
Producing carbon-dioxide  It is soluble in water.
Carbon dioxide can be, produced by a reaction between an acid and a carbonate.  It turns limewater from clear to milky.
Carbonates are chemicals such as, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate.  It is denser than air.
The set up below shows how carbon dioxide is, produced in the laboratory:  It is colourless, odourless and tasteless

Uses of carbon dioxide

 To make carbonated or fizzy drinks because it is soluble in water.
 In fire extinguishers to put off fire because it does not support burning.
 As dry ice to keep things frozen
 For baking to make dough rise
 Essential for photosynthesis in plants

OXYGEN
Oxygen makes about 21% of gases that makes up our atmosphere. It plays a very
important role in bodies of living organisms. Though plants produce most of it
Procedure naturally during photosynthesis, it can also be, produced in the laboratory. Oxygen is
1. Set the apparatus as shown in the figure above produced by decomposition (break apart) of hydrogen peroxide to produce oxygen
2. Put the crystals/ powder of a carbonate into the test tube. gas and water. This is a very slow process hence it requires the use of a catalyst
3. Pour an acid into the test-tube with the carbonate. called manganese (IV) oxide. A catalyst is a chemical that speeds up a reaction
4. Observe. without it actually being used up.The diagram below shows a set up used to prepare
for oxygen:
Observations
10
  Mixed with hydrogen to make rocket fuel because both gases are flammable.
 Essential for respiration in living things.
 Used in medicine for patients with breathing problems.

Hydrogen Gas Production

Word equations for reactions of acids with metals

General Equation
Acid + metal salt + hydrogen gas

Procedure E.g. Hydrochloric + Magnesium Magnesium + Hydrogen gas

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above. Acid chloride
2. Add manganese (iv) oxide to the conical flask. (Reactants) (Products)
3. Add hydrogen peroxide through the dropping funnel slowly.
4. Observe.
Characteristic Properties in Reaction with Metals
Observations
 Bubbles are observed in the gas jar with water.
 Level of the water goes down

Explanation
 Bubbles prove that a gas is produced.
 Level of the water goes down shows that the gas is less dense than water  Colour change
therefore taking up the space on top of the water.  Production of water
 Production of bubbles (effervescence)
Below is the word equation for the reaction

Manganese (iv) oxide + Hydrogen peroxide --------------------> Oxygen + Water Applications

 Decisions in production of acid containers
Test for oxygen  In car batteries
Test: collect the gas and introduce a glowing splint.
Positive result: it relights the glowing splint.
Negative result: glowing splint does not catch a flame. Test for Hydrogen

Properties of oxygen
 It supports burning / it is flammable
 It is not poisonous even at high concentration.
 It is slightly soluble in water
 It is colourless, odourless and tasteless
 Very reactive
 Less dense than air

Uses of oxygen
 For medical purposes to help patients who can’t breathe
 It is, mixed with acetylene to melt or cut steel because it is flammable. Test:_______________________________________________
 To support divers and mountain climber’s lives at the altitudes they can’t breathe.
11
  It is the decrease in volume, length or area of an object due to cooling.
Result: pop sound produced
Explain what happens during contraction?
During contraction particles lose their kinetic energy as they move close together
Products of reactions between acids and metals
Expansion and contraction in solid
Q. Complete the word equation The set-up below is of an activity to investigate the effects of heat on solids:

Sulphuric + Sodium _________________ + Hydrogen gas

Acid

Q. From the word equation above name one

Reactant:_____________________________
Product:______________________________
After the reaction is complete, if the following is done to the remaining liquid, a white
solid is observed in the evaporation dish.

Observations:
The ball easily fits into the ring before being heated and after being cooled. It does
not fit into the ring after being heated

Conclusion
Q. Name the white solid________________________________ Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled

Expansion and contraction in liquids

The set-up below is of an activity to investigate the effects of heat on liquids

TOPIC: HEAT ENERGY

EFFECTS OF HEAT ENERGY

Heat energy is a form of energy possessed by a hot object. Heat energy can be
produced by various ways such as burning objects, frictional force, chemical
reactions, etc. heat has two important effects on matter. These are expansion and
contraction

Effects of Heat
Most matter expand when heated and contract when cooled.

What is expansion?
 It is the increase in volume, length or area of an object due to heating.
Observations
Explain what happens during expansion? The level of the liquid rose when heated and went down when cooled
During expansion particles gain more kinetic energy and there is rapid movement of
the particles away from each other Conclusion
Liquids also expand when heated and contract when cooled
What is contraction?
12
 Give any two types of thermometers.
-Clinical thermometer
-Laboratory thermometer
2. A bi-metallic strip
- It is a strip of two metals riveted together.
-The metal could be iron and or brass and steel.
-The two metals expand at different rates when heated. E.g. Brass expands more than
iron and this makes the strip bend towards the iron
Expansion and contraction in gases

3. Thermostat
-This device controls temperature of some electrical appliances.
-A bi-metallic strip is used as a thermostat. A thermostat is a device used to detect
Observations: temperature changes for the purpose of maintaining the temperature of an area
The liquid rises once the volumetric flask is heated, and moves downwards when constant
cooled

Conclusion
Gases expand when heated and contract when cooled

NB: contraction and expansion are highest in gases followed by liquids and are
lowest in solids. This is because particles have enough space between them to
rapidly move away from each other.

 What happens when the bimetallic strip expand?

When temperature within the house increases, it makes the bi-metallic strip to bend
and switch on the alarm bell, which alerts people.

Uses of Expansion Some electrical equipment have thermostat which expand when heated to disconnect
1. Thermometers electricity and contract when cooled to connect electricity.
Thermometers contain a liquid (mercury or alcohol) which expand when heated and Name four (4) electrical devices that have a thermostat.
contract when cooled. E.g. expansion and contraction makes mercury move up and  Refrigerators, iron, hot plates, hairdryer, toaster oven
down the column of the thermometer corresponding with temperature. Problems of expansion
Complete the table below on problems of expansion and contraction and their
What do we use a thermometer for? solutions
It is used for measuring temperature

13
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
1. CONDUCTION
-It is the transfer of heat through an object by colliding particles without any sign of
movement.
-Conduction takes place in solids, liquids and gases.

-Solids conduct heat better than liquids and gases because particles are closely
packed.

-Not all solids will conduct heat very well. Problem Problem Solution
Most metals, i.e. iron, copper, zinc, gold, silver and aluminum are good conductors of area
heat.
Railway Buckles (bends) rails Gaps are left between the rails to allow for
Most non-metals, e.g. rubber, wood, plastic, paper, water, gases and wool are line which derail trains expansion
bad/poor conductors of heat. These materials are called thermal insulators. Plumbing It makes pipes that carries Loops curves are, made to give room for
hot water or oil to burst expand and contraction
Experiments to distinguish between bad conductors and good conductors of heat

In solids Cables It makes cables to snap in When laid in winter they are left slack to
a) Different rods with pins held to them using wax are arranged as shown such that winter or hang too low in allow for contraction. If they are tightened,
they receive same amount of heat to find which one is the good conductor. summer then when they contract in cold weather,
they become too tight and they may snap
Glasses It makes glass break or Thinner glasses are made so that the inner
crack when one wall of a and outer walls of a glass expand at the
glass expands more than same time, to prevent cracking or breaking.
the other
Observations:
The pin attached to copper with wax fell off first, followed by the one attached to iron
Observations: then glass, wood and lastly the one attached to wood
The pin attached with wax to the copper metal fell off first, followed by the one
attached to aluminium, then brass followed by the pin on iron and lastly the one on Conclusion:
steel. Wood is a bad conductor of heat compared to other materials followed by Perspex
then glass
Conclusion:
Copper is a good conductor of heat compared to other metals, then followed by In liquids
aluminium and brass
The diagram below shows a set-up used to investigate the movement of heat energy.
b) Different rods with pins held to them using wax are arranged as shown such that The drawing pins P and Q are held in place by candle wax.
they receive same amount of heat from boiled water to find the which one is a bad
conductor.

14
Q. Which pin will fall off first? _______________
Q. Explain your answer_____________________________________________
Q. Explain what would happen if copper metal rod is replaced by a glass rod.
___________________________________________________________________________
a) Draw arrows to show the convection currents in the diagram
b) Which pin will fall off and pin X or pin Y__________________
c) Explain this observation
____________________________________________________________
Convection in gases:

2. CONVECTION Convection in gases happens in exactly the same way as in liquids. Warm gas at a
lower level rises because the particles move at higher speeds and they occupy a
It is a process by which heat is transferred through fluids (i.e. in liquids or gases) by larger volume which in turn leads to lower density.
the movement of fluid particles. Exercise 2
Q. The diagram below shows a fire place in a house.
Experiments to illustrate convection

Convection in liquids:

Observation:
Convection causes the warm water to circulate from the bottom of the beaker to the
surface and then back down to the bottom again as it cools.
This circulation is known as convectional currents.
Conclusion:
The liquid rises because it absorb heat, expand and increase volume hence lose its
density.
a) Through which method is heat transferred from the fire place to the rest of the
house.
____________________________________________________________________
b) How does the Heat from the fire place spread inside the house?
____________________________________________________________________
c) Explain why the smoke cannot spread inside the house.
____________________________________________________________________

Exercise 1
3. RADIATION

This is the transfer of heat in wave form through a vacuum.

Good and bad emitters / absorbers of heat

Absorbers of heat
Absorption refers to the rate at which heat is taken into an object
 Good Absorbers of heat- dull black surfaces
 Poor Absorbers of heat- light coloured surfaces
15
Emitters of heat
Emission refers to the release of heat to the surroundings
 Good Emitter of heat– dull black surfaces
 Poor Good Emitter of heat – light coloured surfaces
a) Experiment to distinguish between good and bad absorbers of heat.
NB. Board A has a white coloured surface while Board B black coloured surfaces
and both of them have same distance from the Bunsen burner
Observation: after a few minutes it will be observed that pin on board A falls off first.
Explain why.
The black board absorbed more heat/radiation than the white board, therefore, had an
increase/rise in temperature which melted the wax faster and resulting in the pin on
Board A falling off first
Conclusion: Good Absorbers of heat are dull/black surfaces while poor absorbers of
heat are light coloured surfaces
b) Experiment to distinguish between good and bad emitters of heat.
16
NB. The cans are identical except for the colour.
Observation: after a few minutes it will be observed that, the thermometer in the black
can recorded low temperature compared to the white can
Explain why.
Black coloured surfaces radiate (send out) more heat compared to the white coloured
surfaces
Conclusion:
Black/dull coloured surfaces are good emitters of heat whereas white/bright coloured
surfaces are poor emitters of heat. This is because white/bright coloured surfaces
reflected heat inwards
The everyday phenomenon and consequences of conduction, convection and
radiation
a) Solar water heaters
-The infra-red (radiation) from the sun pass through the glass cover of the solar panel
and is absorbed by the black painted copper pipes in the solar panel.
-Then the heat is conducted through the copper pipes to the water inside the pipe.
-The hot water in the pipes rises by convection to the geyser.
Here the heat is conducted through the copper pipe coil to the water in the geyser
which gets heated by this hot copper pipe.
 Some of the natural phenomena caused by convection, conduction and radiation
b) Vacuum Flask Natural phenomenons are notable things occurring in the environment such as: Earth
quakes, Volcanoes, Tsunamis, Greenhouse effect

Some of the natural phenomenon caused by convection and conduction include the
following:

Natural Explanation
phenomenon
Rainfall The sun’s waves heat the ground and warms it (radiation). The
energy flows from the warmer ground to cooler air
(conduction), causing it to rise (convection). The rising reaches
a certain point, it expands, cools. The cooler expanded air can
no longer hold as much water vapour so it rains
Winds/breeze *During the day land surface is heated faster than the sea. The
air above the land is also heated and it rises, then loses the
heat energy to the upper air layers and cools off. The cool air
It makes use of the bad radiation and absorption of heat. descends over the sea and a wind towards the land starts
 Plastic lid –a good insulator, so it reduces heat loss or gain by conduction. blowing. This is called sea breeze
 Vacuum –reduces heat loss or gain by convection or conduction as there no particles.
 Silver surfaces –reduces heat loss or gain by radiation as the surfaces reflect heat. *During night, the land quickly emits heat from its surface by
 Glass walls –insulator, reduces heat loss or gain by conduction. radiation and cools down faster than the sea. The air above the
sea is warm and rises. As it rises it loses its heat energy to the
c) Car engine upper air layers and cools off. The cool air descends over the
land and a wind towards the sea starts blowing. This is called
land breeze
The water cycle
Climate
Evaporation

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS: BUILDING MATERIALS

RELATE PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS TO THEIR USES

1. Materials for Constructing a Traditional House

Material Use Properties

Thatch grass Roofing -Can be fitted in thick layers to act as an
insulator this helps in keeping the house
warm in winter and cool in summer
-The water around the cylinder becomes hot due to the heat from the cylinders.
-It is light and can be fitted in thick layers.
-The colour of the radiator is black because is a good absorber of heat and good
This makes it water proof by keep rain out.
emitter of heat.
Cow dung Mixed with clay to Make soil particles stick together and makes
-Water passes through the radiator pipes and the fan cool the water in the pipes so
make bricks strong bricks
that the cold water passes around the cylinders again.
Wood -Rafters -It is light and strong
- Doors -It can be cut and assembled in different
- Support poles shapes
- Roofing
17
 Clay -Making walls Good insulator and help keep the house at -It can be repaired and -Does not last for a long time.
-Making mud bricks the right temperature replaced easily
-Plastering Clay -Cheaper and easily -Easily washed away by rains
-Decoration available -Can be breeding place for insects
Reeds -Building walls -Good insulators of heat.
And roofing -Simple to repair any damage. Reeds -Cheap and easy to find. -Catch fire easily
Ropes -Tie grass to rafters -Last longer when boiled -Easy to work with. - Rot due to exposure to water
- Join rafters Ropes -Last longer when boiled -Can become loose and need to be
together renewed often

2. Materials for Constructing a Modern House 4. Materials for Constructing a Modern House
Material Use Properties Material Good Properties Bad Properties
Corrugated iron -They are fire and Water proof Corrugated iron -They are strong and -Need skill
sheets water resistant sheets produce a very neat roof -Noisy during rainfall
Cement Moulding and -Hard to be damaged - Very expensive
binding bricks -Very strong -Needs to be insulated or painted to
reduce heat gain or loss
Glass Making windows Transparent therefore allow light to pass
through. Cement -Does not wear off easily -Expensive
-Dust may be dangerous if inhaled
Bricks Making walls -They are hard
Glass It is a hard material Break easily, need skilled labour and
expensive
Air bricks Ventilation Have holes in them to create an air flow
Bricks - They are hard -Expensive
- Some are heavy to lift
Ceiling Insulation It acts as an insulator this helps in
- Requires skills to make and use
keeping the house warm in winter and
them
cool in summer
Air bricks Not easily damaged -They are expensive
Concrete Mixed with cement Has high compressive strength
to make Ceiling - Reduce noise during -Catches fire easily
foundation - floors rainfall - Easily damaged
- Expensive
- Require skill
EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT BUILDING MATERIALS
Concrete - Support weight - Has durability
3. Materials for Constructing a Traditional House

Material Good Properties Bad Properties

VENTILATION AND INSULATION
Thatch grass -Easy to find -Flammable/burn easily
Insulation: is the process of keeping heat in or out of a place. In buildings insulation
-Easy and cheap to repair if -Can be eaten by termites
depend on; the type of materials used for roofing, the presence of ceiling and
damaged
thickness of walls.
Cow dung -Prevent cracking in floors -Bad smell
and increase the insulation -Not water resistant
Factors that affect heat transfer in and out of home
properties of the plaster
1. Roof overhang: the roof should be overhanging the walls so that they are shaded
to keep the house cool.
Wood -It is cheap and readily - Easily damaged by insects and
available fire.
18
 Observation
A house with high up windows will record low temperatures compared to the one with
windows that a positioned low in a wall

Conclusion
Fairly high windows will be shaded from the sun by the overhang of the roof and
sunlight does not come into the house. Placing windows quite high in the walls also
Observations helps with ventilation because hot air in the room rises and gathers near the ceiling.
The house model with a longer roof overhang recorded lower temperatures than the Therefore, hot air can leave the room more easily through open windows at the top.
one without a roof overhang.
Conclusion
Roof over hangs prevents heat radiation from the sun entering a house hence houses
with longer roof overhang will be cooler in summer than the ones with shorter roof
overhang.

2. Type of roofing material

1. Window positioning The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of roof material on
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of window position on heat radiation in and out of a building.
heat radiation in and out of a building.

Observation
The house without ceiling recorded higher temperatures than the one with the ceiling.
Observation
The house with windows facing the sun recorded higher temperatures than the one
with windows facing away from the sun.

Conclusion
Houses with windows facing the sun allows heat radiation from the sun into the
house hence warm in winter while those with windows away from the sun allows
less heat to enter them hence will be cold in winter.

Windows positioned can be placed fairly high up compared to those placed at low Observation
part of the house The house with a corrugated iron roofing recorded higher temperatures than the
one with thatch grass roofing.

Conclusion

19
 Materials that are suitable for insulation in a building include; thatch for roofing,
double walls and the presence of ceiling

3. Colour of the house

The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of colour of house on
heat radiation in and out of a building.

The need for good ventilation

-It allows the air in a room to be replaced by cooler and fresh air.
Black yellow thermometer - It removes bad smells like puffs, tobacco smoke
-_________________________________________________________________________.
Observation
The house models with black colour recorded higher temperatures while the one with What do you think will happen if there is no good ventilation within a building?
yellow colours recorded lower temperatures.
1. Nose irritation from bad smell
Conclusion 2. Heavy perspiration because of the higher temperatures.
Dull (e.g. black) colours allow too much heat to enter the house whereas bright 3. _________________________________________________________________________
(yellow) colours do not allow too much heat to enter the house. This is because, dull 4._________________________________________________________________________
colours are good absorbers of heat while bright colours are bad absorbers of heat
(reflect heat) hence houses with black or dull colour will be hot in summer and cold in
winter compared to those with bright colours.
Designing a house with good ventilation
VENTILATION
Movement of air within a building is known as Ventilation. 1. It should have high openings e.g. ______________________________________
Good Ventilation ensures air in a room is replaced by fresh cooler air from outside. Reason:_______________________________________________________________

Structures that ensure ventilation in a building 2. It should have low openings e.g. ________________________________________
Reason ________________________________________________________________
 Door
3. Openings at opposite sides e.g. _________________________________________
 ________________________
Reason ________________________________________________________________
 ________________________
 ________________________
 ________________________
TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Temperature Regulation
 This deals with ways in which organisms control their temperature or keeps
body temperature constant
 This include:

20
  Production of a thick layer of fat
 Thick layer of fur
 Hibernation
 aestivation
 Evaporative cooling
Insulation Effects of Fat in Animals
Animals have a layer of fat beneath their skin. Fat is a very poor conductor of heat,
hence the layer of fat is a very good insulator of heat. It prevents most of the heat
produced within the body from escaping to the outside. This helps keep organisms
warm in winter. Animals such as seal and penguin have a thick layer of fat to insulate
their body against cold temperatures of sea water.
How Different Animals are Adapted to Keep Cool and Warm
Changing blood flow to the skin (physiological)
Many animals and birds are able to control the flow of blood to and from their skin. In
this way temperature is increased or decreased by conduction of heat through the
skin.
Vasodilation: the blood vessels (arteries) in the smooth muscles near the skin
surface widen to allow more blood to flow through. More blood carries more heat
with it and this heat gets radiated (eliminated) away from the body.
Vasoconstriction: this is the reduction on diameter of the blood vessels running near
the skin surface. This reduces blood flow near the skin surface and thus heat loss by
radiation is greatly reduced
Shivering (physiological)
This is an important mechanism for heat gain when the body becomes too cold. It is
the uncontrollable muscle contractions that generate heat for the body.
Evaporative Cooling
This is sweating, bathing or panting e.g. people, elephants and dogs. Cooling is
achieved because evaporated water takes away the heat from the surface where
evaporation is taking place.
Body covered with hair or fur (Structural)
- In very cold climates, mammals such as polar bears have their bodies covered with
hair and fur, the hair on the skin surface stands and traps tiny pocket of air. Since air
is a poor conductor of heat, little body heat is lost to the surroundings through
conduction. Because the air is trapped in tiny spaces, no serious loss of heat can
occur through convection.
- In hot climates, hair on the skin lies close to the skin surface and these makes the
air currents to easily flow close to the skin surface, collecting sweat and heat energy
21
away from the body.
Body covered with feathers (structural)
- The bodies of birds are covered with feathers. The feathers trap pockets of air which
insulate the body. When it is hot, the feathers lie flat to trap as little air as possible.
However, if the bird starts to overheat, its feathers will stand out very far to allow air
to circulate near the skin, and to aid cooling. When the weather is cold the feathers
are fluffed out to trap air and form an insulating layer on the body
-A combination of a thick layer of fat and a thick layer of fur or feathers will produce
the best insulation.
Hibernation (behavioural)
Some cold blooded animals such as snakes, lizards and frogs may hibernate. They
bury themselves in the ground or under rocks and go into a deep sleep to avoid the
cold. Some warm-blooded animals also hibernate, when their body temperature falls.
Hibernating animals can survive for longer periods without food or water.
Aestivation (behavioural)
Some animals such as the snails go into a deep sleep to avoid the hot season. All
body functions slow down and animals survive on fat stored in their bodies
PREGNANCY
Pregnancy refers to a period after fertilization when a woman has a baby growing in
her womb
It is also known as gestation. The gestation period of a human being is nine (9)
months, which is approximately 40 weeks.
Fertilization – is a process whereby a male sex cell (sperm) fuses with a female sex
cell (ovum) to form a zygote.
Fertilization takes place in the oviduct / fallopian tube.
How Fertilization Occurs
The diagram below shows an illustration of the process of fertilization.
  When, during the pregnancy period, is the hormone named above produced?
_______________

Other Signs of Pregnancy

 Missing of period.
 Enlarged and tender breasts. Nipples become more prickling and tingling.
 Morning sickness in some women.
 Weight gain.
 Urinating more often. The increase in the uterus as the baby grows, since it lies
above the urinary bladder, presses on the urinary bladder and makes urine collected
little and frequent.
 Appetite for food usually changes. It may be higher or less.
 To some, food may taste different from normal.
For those who find food taste different;
o Some will find that it also smells bad, they usually will vomit all the time the food
smells.
o For those who find it smelling good, they eat more than normal of that food.
 Too much tiredness.
 They become emotional and sensitive.

Developmental Stages of an Embryo

After fertilization has taken place, pregnancy has begun. Only one sperm fertilizes the
ovum.
TASK:
 Where does fertilization take place? ______________
 How many sperms are needed to fertilize ova? ______________
 What happens to tail of the sperm soon as the endometrium is broken? ______
 What is formed after fertilization? ________________________.
 At which stage does implantation take place? ___________________
 After fertilisation in the fallopian tube, the zygote divides into form a ball of cells
(blastula or morula) which travels down to the uterus
 The ball of cells (embryo) implants into the wall of the uterus
 At the place where implantation occurs, an organ called the placenta develops.
Placenta allows exchange of substances between mother’s and embryo’s blood
 The umbilical cord grows joining the placenta and the embryo.
 Inside the umbilical cord are blood vessels which provide nutrients and oxygen to
the baby, and return wastes such as carbon dioxide back to the mother's
bloodstream
 As the embryo grows, it is called a foetus
 The foetus is protected by amniotic fluid inside an amniotic sac

See diagram below for illustration.

Signs of Pregnancy

How does one know they are pregnant? The following are signs:
The Sure or Positive Test for Pregnancy
When a woman’s body is pregnant, 2 weeks after fertilization has occurred, the
placenta produces a hormone known as Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (HCG).
This hormone is found either in the urine or blood. When found in the body, it is IMPLANTATION
most probable that the woman is pregnant.
The embryo attaches and burrows itself in the wall of the uterus for proper
TASK: development. The process is known as implantation.
 Name the hormone that is produced when one is pregnant. ________________ See illustration below.
 Where is the hormone found? ______________________________
22
Remember:
 The function of oestrogen is
__________________________________________________________________________________ Functions of the above developed:
__________________________________________________________________  The placenta
 The function of progesterone is It is responsible for allowing the exchange of substances between the baby and the
__________________________________________________________________________________ mother. Also attaches the baby to the mother.
__________________________________________________________________

After fertilization has taken place, the following are formed; Important to Note:
 Embryo.  The blood of the mother and that of the unborn baby NEVER mix.
 Placenta.  Waste materials diffuse from _____________________ to the _____________________
 Umbilical cord.
 Membranes (amnion /amniotic sac and chorion) Examples of waste materials include:
 Amniotic fluid. (i)_____________________ (ii) _____________________ (iii) _____________________
 Nutrients, antibodies and oxygen are diffused from mother’s blood to that of the
embryo.
 Nutrients such as iron, calcium, magnesium are needed in large quantities during
baby development.

Umbilical cord
The diagram below indicates a developed unborn baby. It allows substances to pass from the placenta to the baby. It also connects the
baby and / to the placenta.

Amniotic fluid
Function ____________________________________________________________________

 Membranes
Amnion sac is a bag that contains amniotic fluid. It carry’s the baby during pregnancy.

 The cervix– closes the uterus wall tight after fertilization has taken place.
23
 The mucous plug which is found in the cervix seals off the uterus from the
outside environment to ensure protection of the embryo.

Multiple Births
This means giving birth to more than one baby at a time. Either one, two, three or
more babies will be born at the same time at birth.

Two babies born at the same time are called __________, three are called _________ and
four are called _________________.

How Twins are Formed

There are two types of twins;
- Fraternal twins (also known as _______) and
- Identical twins

Fraternal Twins
ANTE NATAL CARE
- Two ova are produced at a time; either one ovary producing two ova at a time or
Ante means before.
each ovary of the two producing an ovum.
Natal means birth
- Each of the ova will be fertilized.
Ante natal means________________________________________________.
- The two zygotes will develop as two independent foetus each having it’s own
Ante natal care means before birth care that a pregnant woman must receive during
placenta. The foetus will later be born as twins.
the pregnancy period.
TASK:
The following is expectations of a pregnant woman;
 How many ova are fertilized for fraternal twins to be formed?
 To attend ante natal clinics.
 How many placentas are formed?  To exercise.
 Do fraternal twins share placenta?  To eat a balanced rightful meal for the pregnancy.
 Not to take alcohol.
 Not to smoke.
Characteristics of Fraternal Twins  Not to take un-prescribed drugs.
This type of twins may not look alike, and can also have different gender.  To avoid radiation therapy or X-rays.
 To avoid infectious diseases.
Identical Twins
- One ovum is produced as it’s a norm. ANTE NATAL CLINICS
- The ova gets fertilized to become a zygote Importances of ante-natal clinics include:
- The zygote splits into two independent individuals. - Allows health practitioners have a chance to check if both the pregnant woman
- They share a placenta. and the growing baby are healthy. As soon as abnormalities are noticed, a plan
is put in place to address them.
Characteristics of Identical Twins It is advisable to register for ante natal clinics as soon as pregnancy begins so
These types of twins look alike, and usually have same gender. that abnormalities may be attended to whilst there is time.
A schedule is drawn with the health practitioners as to when the pregnant
woman should visit the clinic.

WHAT IS CHECKED FOR DURING CLINIC VISITS?

 For the woman
o Will it be a normal birth? If abnormalities are noticed, plans to attend to them
are made well in time. For example, some abnormalities may require
caesarean birth so plans to carry out the operation are made well in time.
o Weight is monitored. Too much or too little it has consequences, as such
24
 action to assist is taken. Protein For growth and building new tissues in the foetus.
o Inspect the vagina and check if the mucous plug is in place.
o Check the heart, lungs and breasts if they are healthy. Calcium For development of strong bones
o Check for high blood pressure. Too high or too low is risky, but action may
be taken to address the situation. Iron For the formation of red blood cells
o Carry out blood tests to check for diseases such as anaemia, syphilis
bacterium, HIV and other sexually transmitted infections.
o Carry out urine tests to check for sugar and protein levels. Presence of
BIRTH
protein and sugar in the urine are indicators of sugar diabetes and
When the nine (9) months pregnancy / gestation period is over, the body
___________________
automatically prepares to get the foetus out of the body through a process known as
birth. Birth occurs in a series of stages as outlined below:
What is done in Case of the Following?
 Certain infections or germs found - a treatment programme is drawn and
administered as soon as possible. 1. Contractions
- For example, if HIV positive, they are enrolled with PMTCT (Prevention-of- 2. Dilation of the cervix
Mother-To-Child-Transmission). 3. Breaking of the waters
4. Delivery of the baby
TASK 5. Delivery of the after birth
- PMTCT programme is aimed at ________________________________________
- Those with syphilis and or gonorrhoea are also treated with ______________ Teaser:
- This is done to avoid transmission to the unborn baby. Remember, syphilis How many stages does birth has? _________________________.
has other consequences if left untreated (Form 1 STIs).
Stages of Birth Described
 For the unborn baby;
o Check if the heartbeat is regularly. 1. ________________– these are a result of the contractions of the uterus wall as it
o Check if the position the baby is lying is the right one. pushes the foetus out. They are experienced as labour pains.

DRUGS
Alcohol, nicotine, caffeine and other drugs are harmful during. If they reach the foetus,
they may bring unpleasant results, for example
 Smoking;
o Heavy smokers are most likely to have a miscarriage or stillbirth.
o Babies born of heavy smokers are usually born small or underweight.
o Babies born by heavy smokers encounter digestive problems after birth.
Nutritional Needs of a Pregnant Woman
A balanced meal, just like for any other individual, should be provided for when one is
pregnant.
2. Dilation of the cervix – the cervix dilates (opens up) and the mucous plug slips
out. Both the cervix and the vagina dilate i.e. opens wider enough for the baby to
pass out. The cervix and the vagina are also known as the birth canal.
3. _____________________– as the contractions continue and become stronger, they
cause the membranes to break and release the amniotic fluid.
4. The fluid acts as a lubricant to the birth canal so as to make it easier for the
foetus to pass.
5. Delivery of the baby – the baby comes out of the womb through the birth canal.
The head comes out first, if it is normal birth.

What is meant by a balanced meal? ___________________________________________ 6. Expulsion of __________ – the placenta, the umbilical cord and the rest of the
If a mother lacks certain nutrients, the baby will lack too, as such, not able to develop amnion are pushed out of the uterus after the baby has come out.
properly. A woman must eat, in abundance the following nutrients since they
contribute to the development of the embryo:

Nutrient needed Importance

25
CHILD CARE Immunization
Breast-Feeding and Bottle-Feeding This is the process of preparing the body to fight a disease before it attacks. It makes
Breast feeding Bottle feeding the body immune to a disease. Immunization is brought about by vaccination. The
Brings the mother and the child close Allows the mother and the child to be vaccine makes the body produce antibodies to a particular disease. When the
separated organism that causes the disease enter the body in future, the body will be, ready to
The milk is free The milk costs money fight them.
The milk is ready made and does not The milk has to be prepared and this
take time to prepare takes time Different Diseases That Babies Are Immunized Against
The milk is always at the right The milk may be too hot or too cold
temperature Disease Symptom Age(s) of Name of Method of
The chances of milk contamination are The chances of milk contamination are immunization vaccine vaccination
very small very high TB Continuous coughing At birth BCG Injection
The milk contains the right The nutrients of milk may vary from and loss of weight
combination of nutrients manufacturer to manufacturer. Polio Paralysis of some body 2,3,4 and 18 Oral polio, Drops in the
The milk contains antibodies which The milk does not contain antibodies parts months Oral polio, mouth (oral
help the body fight diseases Oral polio, drop)
Polio
Nutritional Needs of a Lactating (Breast-Feeding) Mother booster
Breastfeeding uses a lot of energy and nutrients from the mother`s body. The mother dose
must eat a balanced diet to replace the energy and nutrients needed to make breast Diphtheria Whitish tonsils at the 2,3,4 and 18 DPT, DPT, Injection
milk. Breastfeeding mother needs; back of the mouth months DPT and
 Carbohydrates for energy DPT
 Fruit and vegetables for vitamins and minerals Booster
dose
 Protein for healthy muscle and nerve development
Whooping A cough with a whoop 2,3,4 and 18 DPT, DPT, Injection
 Dairy products for calcium needed for good bone development
cough sound months DPT and
 Fat for rich hind milk
DPT
 Drinks plenty of water, fruit juice and milk. she needs 8 to 10 glasses of fluid Booster
each day to produce enough milk dose
Tetanus Jaws become locked 2,3,4 and 18 DPT, DPT, Injection
Breastfeeding mother should avoid;
months DPT and
 Alcohol DPT
 Caffeine found in tea, coffee, cola drinks and chocolate Booster
 Tobacco smoke dose
 Medicine, check with the doctor whether it is safe to take specific Hepatitis B Yellowish eyes and At birth, 2,3 HBV, HBV, Injection
medication. skin and 9 months HBV
Measles Rash with red eyes. 9 months Measles Injection
Nutritional Needs of the Baby Importance of Testing for HIV when Pregnant
A baby grows quickly in its first year of life. The baby needs the right nutrition during The HIV virus can pass from the mother to the child during pregnancy, birth and
this period to grow and develop properly. The baby`s diet includes; breastfeeding. It is therefore important to test for HIV during pregnancy to prevent
 Energy from carbohydrates and fats mother to child transmission.
 Protein for healthy muscle and nerve development
 Vitamins and minerals for healthy development and a strong immune Significance of the PMTCT programme
system The PMTCT programme is very important as it;
 Helps prevent the transmission of the HIV virus from the mother to her
unborn child.
 It also helps prolong the mother’s life.

26
Proper Methods of Child-Care
Babies are helpless when they are born. They need a lot of care from their parents
and care givers
Washing a baby
A baby must be kept clean to prevent skin irritations and the spread of diseases. A
clean, soft washcloth, warm water and mild baby soap when you wash a baby.
 Washing the hair. wrap the baby in a towel, wet the baby`s hair with warm water
and rub shampoo or soap into the hair. Rinse the hair with clean, warm water and
dry the hair with a soft dry towel.

 Washing the face. wet a clean, soft washcloth with warm water and gently wipe
the face and neck .Wipe the inside folds of skin around the baby`s neck.

 Washing the body. The umbilical cord should not be wet when the baby is bathed.
Wash the baby with a washcloth dipped in warm water. A mild soap can be used
but has to be wiped off when finish bathing. After the umbilical cord has fallen
off, wash the baby in bath of shallow warm water. Check the temperature of
water by the edge of the elbow.

Dressing a baby
After bathing the baby, ensure that the baby is dressed in clean soft clothes. Make
that the extra clothing is availed to keep the baby warm. CONTACT FORCES ACTION-AT –DISTANCE FORCES
(NON-CONTACT)
Changing a baby`s nappy
A baby`s nappy must be changed frequently. If you leave a baby in dirty nappy will feel
uncomfortable, smelly and may get baby rash.

We use an arrow to show the direction of a force and the length of the arrow
TYPES OF FORCES represents the magnitude/ size of the force.

Define the term force and give examples of forces that you know. More force Less force
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________ Force is exerted by one object on another one. Here are some of the
____________________________________________________________ examples

Force is a vector quantity, explain this.

_________________________________________________________________________

Some pull or push forces occur when the objects are touching or in contact with each
other. These types of forces are known as _________________________________.

Some pull or pull forces occur when interacting objects are not in contact, they act
from a distance. These are known as ______________________________________. Resultant force
Is an overall result of all force acting on a body. It can be calculated by either
Types of forces adding or subtracting the forces that are acting on the body.
Use the diagram below to classify the forces as contact or action-at-a distance. REMEMBER:
27
  ADD- when acting in _________________ direction.
 SUBTRACT- when acting in __________________ direction  A force can make a moving object to accelerate/decelerate e.g.
 Include the direction( it can be upward or downward, right or left,  Applying the brakes of a car causes it decelerate
use of cardinal points and use of an arrow)  Kicking a ball accelerates it.

Examples:  A force can stop a moving object.

1. Two equal forces are in one direction. 


 A force can move an object from rest.



5N+ 5N=10N to the right
 A force can cause a body to rotate (spin or turn).
2. Two opposite force, we subtract 


Applications of Forces
-Physical digestion
To break food with our teeth as we exert force on it

-Movement
When objects move on the surface of the earth, they are able to grip because of
frictional force. Objects will slip and fall without friction, e.g. a moving car.

-For stopping moving objects

EFFECTS OF FORCES
When an object is moving and you want to stop it, you exert force on it and it stops
e.g. braking a car.
Effects of Forces
The effect of a force on the size and shape of a body
-For increasing or decreasing the speed in cars.
- A force can change the size and shape of a body e.g. squeezing a tennis ball,
A car moves faster because the driver exerts force on the accelerator.
stretching the spring.
-For lifting heavy metals
Lifting up heavy metals in scrap yards using magnetic force, e.g. cranes

Importance of Force of Gravity to Life on Earth

Force of gravity is the force in which the earth attracts towards itself. It is directed
downward towards the centre of the earth, e.g. a ball thrown up into the sky comes
back.

The effect of a force in the speed and direction of a body -It enables rain to fall to the ground hence water for living things
 A force can change the direction of a body e.g. - Makes roots to go down to absorb water
 -It keeps objects on the surface of the earth and prevents falling.
 -It keeps earth and all planets in their orbits around the sun.
 A force can change the speed and direction of a body e.g. -High jumpers are able to fall back to ground.
 -People who play balls are able to play without the ball going forever.

28
FORCE OF FRICTION

1) DEFINE THE TERM FRICTION

_____________________________

2) EFFECTS OF FRICTION ON MOTION

 Friction opposes motion of objects, slowing them down or even stopping
them

-Stopping objects: friction between the shoes and the floor stop us from
falling. Friction between tyres and the road stop cars from skidding
-Slowing objects: friction between brakes and wheels helps bikes and cars
to slow down

Materials
 2 wood blocks: 5kg and 10kg
 2 wood boards: rough and smooth
How to Create a Ramp
1. Create a ramp: Prop one end of the wood board up on a stack of books
Demonstration
 Weight of wood blocks and friction
Other Effects of Friction on Objects 1. Place both blocks of wood (5kg and 20kg) at the top of the rough ramp.
 It generates heat Release the block of wood, do not push it.
 It wastes energy = e.g. when pushing an object, some of your pushing energy 2. Using a stopwatch record the time it takes for each block of wood to slide
moves the box some is lost to friction. from the top mark to the bottom mark. Then repeat the steps three times
 It wears off surfaces = as surfaces rub against each other, the heat and record on a table
produced makes them to wear and tear.
Observation

Conclusion
DEMONSTRATION OF THE EFFECTS OF FRICTION ON THE MOTION OF AN OBJECT

 Texture of the wood boards and friction

1. Set up two ramps of one rough wood board and one with a smooth one
2. Slide down 5kg wood blocks on each board at the same time and use a
stopwatch to record the time it takes for each of the blocks takes to reach
the bottom mark.
3. Then repeat the steps three times and record on a table

Observation

29
Conclusion Results
_____________________________________________________________

Analysis
Water has a low viscosity compared liquid soap therefore making it easy for the ball
INVESTIGATE FORCE OF FRICTION IN FLUIDS bearing to move through it

It occurs when an object is in contact with a fluid and a force is applied to either the Conclusion
object or to the fluid (liquids and gases) Liquids with high viscosity (thicker) have more frictional force than those with less
e.g. – water flowing through a hosepipe viscosity (thin)
- an aeroplane flying through the atmosphere.
b) How does the shape of an object affect its movement through the fluid?
FACTORS AFFECTING FRICTION IN FLUIDS Therefore, there is less resistance to the movement of a streamlined object in a fluid
There are three factors which determine the amount of friction on an object travelling
through a fluid: Set-up:
 Viscosity of the fluid Materials
 Shape of an object  2 measuring cylinders
 Surface texture of the object  Water
 Round and streamlined ball bearings
a) How does viscosity of the fluid affect movement
Steps
Define viscosity________________________________________ 1. Fill both measuring cylinders with the same amount of water
2. Drop each ball bearing into the water in measuring cylinders at the same time
Set-up: 3. Make observations and record results
Materials
 2 measuring cylinders
 Liquid soap
 Water
 2 ball bearings (same: size, material, shape)
Steps
1. Fill one measuring cylinder with water and the other with the same
amount of liquid soap
2. Drop both ball bearings into the fluids in the measuring cylinders at the
same time
3. Make observations and record results

Results
A streamlined object (smooth, arrow-like) reached the bottom of the measuring
cylinder quicker than the one that is round.

Conclusion
The large the surface area of the round ball bearing created a greater friction
compared to the streamlined one.

c) How does surface texture of the object affect its movement through the fluid?
30
 MEASURING FORCE
Set-up
Materials Measuring Force
 2 measuring cylinders A force metre is used to measure force. The standard (SI) unit of force is Newton.
 Smooth and rough ball bearings Symbol N
 Oil Instrument used to measure force: spring balance. Also known as a force metre

Steps
1. Fill both measuring cylinders with the same amount of oil
2. Drop both ball bearings into the water in measuring cylinders at the same time
3. Make observations and record results
 Force metre

Making a simple force meter

Results Materials needed
Smooth ball bearing fell to the bottom quicker through the oil and rough ball-bearing Cardboard, spring, hook, pointer, weights of 100g, 200g, 300g, 400g, 500g, 600g, 700g,
fell last 800g,900g, 1000g
Procedure
Conclusion 1. Mark a scale with points one centimetre apart on the cardboard
The texture of objects affects their frictional force in fluids. Smooth objects have less 2. Use a pin to fix a rubber band to the piece of cardboard
resistance (frictional force) than those that are not rough 3. Note the centimetre mark showing the length of the rubber band when no
force is stretching it.
REDUCING FRICTION IN FLUIDS 4. Hang a 100g weight on the rubber band as shown in the diagram.( note the
1. Streamlining – streamlined objects are cone shaped so that they can quickly length of the rubber band)
move through a fluid. 5. Repeat the last step, using known weights of 200g, 300g, 400g, 500g, 600g,
2. Reduce the viscosity of a fluid by heating the fluid. 700g, 800g, 900g and 1000g
3. Using wheels or rollers 6. A 100g 0bject has weight of 1N. calculate weight of all other weights that
4. Streamlining you used
7. Write the corresponding weight with the mass on the cardboard
You now have a force meter
APPLICATION OF FLUID FRICTION
 Friction between the air and the parachute helps it land safely.
 Cars with automatic gear change use the friction force between the gear oil and
the driving shaft passing through the oil to propel the car forward.
 A pilot adjust large flaps on the wings to increase the friction (air resistance)
between the wings and the air to help the aircraft to a stop
 For swimming

31
 Weight in Different Places
 Weight of an object will differ from planet to planet because the planets do not
have the same sizes and masses and will therefore not exert the same
gravitational force on the mass of the object.

 Table below shows differences in weight of 1kg object on three bodies( plants) in
the solar system
planet mass of object weight of object (gravitational
force)
Earth 1kg 10N
Venus 1kg 8.9N
Moon 1kg 1.6N

Weight
 A force by which the gravity of the earth attracts objects towards its centre.
 Weight is a force and so it is measured in Newton. It is measured using a
force metre.

Relationship between Weight and Mass

The relationship between weight and mass is very important.
Difference between Mass and Weight
Mass Weight
Is a measure of how much matter an object Is force of gravity acting on the mass of
contains an object
Mass of an object is the same everywhere Weight is of an object is different in
in the universe different places of the universe
Does not depend on the size of force of -Depends on the size of the force of
Example: An object has a mass of 100 kilograms. What is its weight on the surface of gravity exerted on the object. gravity exerted on the object.
the earth?" Measured in kg/g -Measured in Newton (N)
 We have both m and g. Is a scalar quantity Is a vector quantity
 m equals 100 kg, and g equals 10 N/kg, because we're looking for the weight of the
object on the surface of the earth.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
 We set up our equation next: F = 100 kg x 10 N/kg.
 This gives us the final answer. On the surface of the earth, an object with a mass of DEFINE
100 kg will weigh approximately 980 Newton. F = 980N. Pressure___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Mass(g) Mass(kg) Weight(N) Atmospheric pressure refers to the amount of force applied against a surface by the
100 0.1 1 weight of air above that surface. It is the amount of force of air acting over an area
250 0.25 2.5
400 0.4 4 Is atmospheric pressure the same anywhere in the surface of the earth?
750 0.75 7.5 __________________
1000 1 10 Where is it highest? ____________________
32
Where is it lowest? _____________________

Complete the statement below. Pressure (Pa) = Height of mercury (h) × Density of mercury (ρ) × Force of gravity (g)
Low atmospheric pressure means ____________ mass above a measuring point
3
whereas _________________ pressure means high air ___________ above the measuring Where, h = 760mm ρ=13.6 g/cm g=9.8 N/kg
point /area
Air pressure is _____________________ in all directions 101300Pa = 101.3KPa = 1atm = 760mmHg = 1bar =1000mb

UNITS FOR ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The SI-units of atmospheric pressure are the Pascal (Pa). Other units include
millimeters of mercury (mmHg), atmospheres (atm), bars and millibar (mb), which
are mostly, used in weather
1 atm is the standard atmospheric pressure
INSTRUMENTS
A barometer is the instrument used to measure pressure.
There are two types: mercury and aneroid barometer.
HOW A MERCURY BAROMETER WAS DESIGNED
 1M glass tube without air (vacuum), containing mercury, is inserted inverted, at
sea level in a container without mercury.
 The mercury will draw from the tube to fill the container.
 After some time, the level of mercury that has remained in the tube is up to the
76cm (760mm) mark.
Effects of Pressure
 It enables us to suck liquids through straws.
 It makes rubber suckers to stick on surfaces.
 Makes cans with less pressure in them collapse.
 It makes it difficult to open containers with less pressure in them.
 Ears pop when you climb up the cliff.
Explain the effects of atmospheric pressure in the following scenarios:
 Sucking liquids using a straw.
 Sucking creates___________________________________________ in a straw
 Hence reducing air pressure in the straw
 The atmospheric pressure outside the straw is_______________________ than that
inside the straw
 Therefore, the outside atmospheric pressure forces/pushes the liquid up the
straw consequently in the mouth

 Below is the diagram of a mercury barometer diagram:

 Crushing a can
 When a can is filled with hot water and cooled rapidly, this is what
happens:

Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level = 760 mm Hg

Low atmospheric pressure = less 760 mm Hg
High atmospheric pressure = Greater 760 mm Hg
Pressure in Pascal is, calculated from the formula below:
33
 atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure therefore, pushes the
liquid inside the syringe

 Explanation:
_________________
_________________

 Sticking a rubber to glass

 Air is evacuated from the inside of the rubber
 The atmospheric pressure on the outside of the rubber sucker is
greater than the pressure in the inner part of the rubber sucker
 The greater the atmospheric pressure on the outside pushes the
sucker down on the glass and makes it to stick to the surface.
USE OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IN ISOBARS
Isobars are lines of equal atmospheric pressure drawn on a metrological map.
Below is an example of surface weather map

 Ears pop when moving up and down a steep hill

Remember, atmospheric pressure is _________ in all directions, _______ at
lower levels on earth and lower at _______up into the sky Low pressure areas-aka Cyclone
 When one moves up a steep hill, the atmospheric pressure drops hence The area is represented by many isobars that are close together and predicted
the eardrums pop out some (atmospheric pressure) from the ears to weather could be:
balance with one that is up the hill i) Increased cloudiness
 When one moves down the hill, the atmospheric pressure increases ii) Winds
hence the eardrums open up to balance with the atmospheric pressure iii) Hurricanes
down the hill iv) Low temperatures
v) Chances of precipitation/rainfall
 Filling up a syringe with a liquid when the plunger is pulled
Pulling the plunger reduces the pressure inside the syringe than the TASK:WEATHER CONDITIONS OF AREAS OF HIGH PRESSURE

34
(The opposite of low pressure area)
i) __________________________ TASK:
ii) __________________________ 1. Study the diagram below and carry out the calculations that follow
iii) __________________________
iv) __________________________
v) __________________________

LINEAR MOTION

DEFINITION:
 Linear motion
-Refers to the movement of an object along a straight line
-Motion can be described in terms of distance, displacement, speed, velocity and
acceleration.
 Distance:
-This is the description of how far apart two objects are. It is the actual length What was the runner’s average velocity?
between two points along a given path Velocity (V) = end point (x2) – starting point (x1)
 Displacement:
-It is the shortest distance between two given points in a stated direction. end time – starting time
-i.e. it can be described as how far is the object displaced from its original
position V = 30.5m – 50.0m
NB: Both Distance and Displacement use the SI unit of meter (m)
3.00s
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
 Distance is a scalar quantity whereas displacement is a vector quantity V= -19.5m
 Distance is the actual length from one point to another along a path whereas
displacement is the shortest distance between two points in a stated direction 3.00s

 Speed: V = -6.50m/s
-Refers to the rate at which an object moves
-It can also be defined as the distance travelled in unit time The answer means that, the runner’s average velocity is 6.50m/s (magnitude) to the
-It is a scalar quantity expressed by a magnitude and no direction left (direction). The direction is ________ by the negative sign gotten from the
-SI unit for measuring speed is meters per seconds (m/s) calculation. If it was positive, it would mean the direction is to the left
-Below is the formula for calculating speed:
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN SPEED AND VELOCITY
Speed = distance / time taken
 The difference between velocity and speed is that velocity is speed in a certain
direction. i.e. speed is a scalar quantity and velocity is a vector quantity
 Velocity:
-Refers to the rate at which an object moves in a particular direction
 Acceleration
-It can also be said to be, the speed of an object in a particular direction
-It is the rate of change of velocity or the increase of velocity over time
- It is a vector quantity expressed by a magnitude and direction.
-Velocity of an object changes as the object moves, it may increase (acceleration)
-It is measured in meters per seconds (and direction) (m/s) n or kilometers per
or decrease (deceleration) at some instances
hour, direction (km/h) s
- Acceleration is measured in meters/seconds squared (m/s2)

Velocity = Displacement / time taken Acceleration = (final velocity – initial velocity)

(Total time taken)

35
 Illustration:
OR

a= v – u
t Post Office
a = acceleration
v = final velocity (the one it ended up with)
u = initial velocity (the one it started with) a) Calculate his average speed from the Post Office to business A
t = time b) What is the total distance that he travelled?
c) Calculate the postman’s average speed from the Post Office to business B
Example 1: If a car changes from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 8 seconds, d) Calculate the postman’s average velocity from the Post Office to business B
what is its acceleration?
v = 30, u = 10, t = 8
UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM MOTION
a = (30 - 10) ÷ 8  Uniform motion:
= 20 ÷ 8 -It refers to when an object moves at a constant velocity in one direction
= 2.5 m/s2 -In this case, both the velocity and direction do not change. Object with uniform
Example 2: If a bicycle moving at 15 m/s takes 10 seconds to stop, motion has:
what is its acceleration? a) Constant or uniform velocity
In this example, the final velocity is zero because the bicycle has stopped. b) Zero acceleration
v = 0, u = 15, t = 10
 Non-uniform motion:
a = (0 - 15) ÷ 10 -Is any case in which an object moves at different speeds or this is when the
= -15 ÷ 10 motion of an object changes
= -1.5 m/s2 -In this case, it could be the velocity that changes or the direction or both
-Change in velocity tells that the object is travelling at non-uniform velocity. The
The acceleration is negative because the bicycle has slowed down. i.e. deceleration change in velocity could be an acceleration or deceleration.
-Objects with non-uniform motion have:
a) Accelerating from starting point
CALCULATE THE AVERAGE SPEED OF A BODY MOVING IN A STRAIGHT LINE b) An object decelerating until it stops
c) Non-uniform velocity
Average speed = Total distance travelled / total time taken

A car drives from Matopi to Francistown (60km) in 40 minutes. What is the average
speed of the car (in m/s)?
Average speed = distance travelled/ time taken
Average speed = 60 000m ÷ 2400s
Average speed = 25 m/s

TASK: GRAPHS OF MOTIONS

1. A girl rides a bicycle from her house to school. The school is 800m East of her
house. It takes her 5 minutes (300 seconds) to get to the school. Velocity-time graphs showing uniform and non-uniform motion
a) What is her average speed in meters per second?
b) What is her average velocity?
2. The postman has to deliver post to two businesses. Business A is 200m West of
the Post Office and business B is 400m East of the Post Office. It takes him 20
seconds to travel from the Post Office to business A and 45 seconds from A to B.

36
 MOTION OF OBJECTS IN FLUIDS
 A falling object speeds up when it is released. As it speeds up, fluid friction
(resistance/drag) acting on it increases until it is equal to the weight of the object
 As the air resistance increases the object’s acceleration decreases until it can no
longer accelerate and moves at a constant velocity called terminal velocity.
 Terminal velocity is therefore, the constant velocity of an object falling through a
liquid

Definition:
Terminal velocity of an object is the maximum speed that an object can travel at
as it falls through a fluid

NB: it occurs when the force of gravity on the object is equal to the
resistance/drag force opposing the movement of the object. The diagrams below
illustrate terminal velocity:
 AB: object has non-uniform motion because it is travelling at non-uniform
velocity and accelerating from rest
 BC: object has uniform motion because it is travelling at uniform velocity with
zero acceleration
 CD: object has non-uniform motion because it is travelling at non-uniform
velocity as it is decelerating to rest

Distance-time graph showing uniform and non-uniform motion

 AB: graph is a slope showing non-uniform motion because distance covered

every second changes (increases) because of change (increase) in velocity GRAPH SHOWING MOVEMENT OF AN OBJECT IN FLUIDS
 BC: graph is a straight line showing uniform motion because distance covered The graph of a skydiver falling from the sky
stays the same every second because the object has constant velocity
37
  If the rays hit a rough surface, the rays are scattered. This is, called diffuse
reflection. The diagrams below show regular diffuse reflections:

 AB: skydiver is travelling at a non-uniform velocity as he is accelerating

downwards. At this stage force of gravity is greater than the drag force
 BC: skydiver is travelling at a uniform velocity (reached terminal velocity). At this
stage force of gravity is equal to the drag force therefore there is zero resultant
force
 CD: the shape of the graph shows rapid deceleration (non-uniform velocity)
because the skydiver has reached the ground level

The Relationship between the Angle of Incidence and the Angle of Reflection
Below are simplified diagrams of rays of light hitting plane mirrors and how they are,
reflected

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Light has three main properties:
 It travels in straight lines NB: -Note that the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.
 It can be, reflected when it strikes an opaque material -Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal line all lay on the same plane
 It can be, refracted when it strikes a transparent material at an angle
Images formed by plane mirrors have the following properties:
REFLECTION OF LIGHT  Always upright
Reflection  Laterally inverted: the left side of the object appears as the right side of the
 Light rays reaching a shiny surface bounces back. The bouncing back of light image and the right side of the object appears as the left side of the image
when it strikes an object is, called reflection.  The same size as the object.
 If the rays hit a smooth plane, shiny surface such as a mirror, the reflected  The same distance from the mirror as the object
rays are uniform or parallel. This is, called regular reflection.
 Virtual or not real

38
  Used in torches or search lights.
 In some types of telescopes (i.e. reflector telescopes) to enhance vision

Convex Mirror
Images formed by convex mirrors have the following properties:
- The image is smaller than the object.
- Is always the right way up or upright.
Uses of plane mirrors
 In periscopes
 Light microscope
 Looking at yourself

Curved Mirrors
There are two types of curved mirrors. These are concave mirror and convex mirrors:
 A concave mirror bulges inwards. It has its shiny surface on the inside of the
curve.
 A convex mirror bulges outwards. Its shiny surface is on the outside of the
Uses of convex mirrors
curve.
- They are used as rear-view mirrors on vehicles
 Below are the diagrams of the two types of mirrors:
- They are used as security mirrors.
- For lookout for oncoming traffic around a blind corner.

REFRACTION AND DISPERSION

Convex mirror Concave mirror
Concave Mirror
Images formed by concave mirrors have the following properties:
- Appears much bigger than the object if the object is close to the mirror.
- The right way up or upright if the object is close to the mirror.
- Smaller than the object if the object is far from the mirror.
- Upside down or inverted if the object is far from the mirror.
 Refraction of light is the change in direction of light when it travels from one
transparent medium into another medium.
 The speed changes because the materials have different optical densities
 Optical density means the degree of the refraction effect of a material as light
passes through it
NB: the greater the optical density of the material, the slower the light travels through
it
Refraction of Light through a Glass Block
- At point B, the ray is refracted closer to the normal when the ray enters from a
less dense optical medium (the air) to a denser optical medium (the glass block).
- At point C, the ray is refracted away from the normal when the ray passes from a
dense optical medium (glass) to a less dense medium (air).
- The emergent ray (CD) is parallel to the incident ray (AB).

Uses of concave mirrors

 Shaving or make-up mirrors, as they give an enlarged image.
 Used as dentists’ mirrors to see teeth inside the mouth.
 Used as headlamps of vehicles to produce a strong beam.

39
 Refraction of Light: Air to Water

- The fish appears as if is close to the fisher man because the light rays from the
actual fish bend when they leave water to air before they reach our eyes
- This forms a virtual image of the fish close to the surface
- Real/Actual depth: the distance of the real from the water surface
- Apparent depth: distance of the image from the water surface

Refraction by lenses
NB. When a ray passes through a glass block, it bends towards the normal and when A lens consists of a piece of glass or other transparent material with one or two
it leaves it bends away from the normal curved surfaces.

Refraction of Light through Prisms There are two different types of lenses, convex (converging) lenses and concave
 A prism is a triangular block of glass. (diverging) lenses.
 Unlike a glass block, when light passes through a prism, the incident and
emergent rays are not parallel. Convex Lens
 When light rays pass through a glass prism they are bent twice: first towards the  Convex or converging lenses are thicker in the middle than at the edges/ends.
normal and then away from it. They bulge outwards
 Parallel light rays that pass through a convex lens are refracted towards each
other and they converge (come together) at a single point. This point is known as
the focal point (F).
 The distance from the centre of the lens to the focal point is the focal length
 Thicker lenses have shorter focal points

Refraction of Light through Water

When a stick is placed in a beaker full of water it appears bent at a point where it
enters the water. This is because light rays bend when passing through water into the
air.
Concave Lens
 Concave or diverging lenses are thicker at the edges than in the middle. They
bulge inwards-they are thin in the middle and thicker at the ends
 Light rays that pass through a concave lens are refracted away from each other-
they diverge as shown below.

40
A concave lens causes parallel rays passing through it to diverge and refract
outwards so that they appear to come focal point F.
THE EYE
Uses of Optical instruments
Optical instruments are instruments used to aid or help the capabilities of our eyes
a) Microscope – to enlarge very small objects.
b) Camera – to focus and enlarge images onto film.
c) Telescopes – to enlarge objects in the night sky.
d) Binoculars – to enlarge distant objects on earth.
e) Spectacles – to correct defects of the optical system of the eye.
f) Periscope- to see things over an obstacle e.g. submarines to see things above
water
g) Projectors- to enlarge images or pictures from slides It is an organ that detects light and allows us to see. For us to see an object light rays
strike on it and the object reflects the rays into our eyes. The image is formed into the
The Phenomenon of Light Dispersion retina and sent to the brain for interpretation.

Parts and Functions of the Eye

Light from the sun or other sources appears to be white light, while it is made up of
many different colours of light. Light rays are waves and different colours of light
have different wavelengths. When light passes through a prism it splits into different
colours. The colours are Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet
(ROYGBIV).
Red is refracted least (lowest refractive index) and violet is refracted most(highest
refractive index).
[NB: The rainbow of colours is known as a spectrum and the splitting of white light is
called dispersion.] Part Description Function
Cornea A clear curved layer in -bends light rays inwards.
The Phenomenon of Rainbow Formation front of the eye. -covers and protects the eye.
When the sun shines on water drops as they fall through air, the light is refracted as it Pupil An opening in the centre -admit light into the eye.
enters the rain drops. The arrangement of colours is exactly the same as when light of iris
dispersed through a prism because the water droplets act as prisms.

41
Iris A ring of muscles -control the amount of light entering the
behind the cornea eye. Near objects
-contracts and relax to control the size Ciliary muscles contract and squeeze the lens, making it thicker and shorter. This
of the pupil. creates a shorter focal length for the lens.
Ciliary muscle A ring of muscles -contract and relax to change the shape
of the lens to focus objects at different
distances clearly.
Lens A transparent jelly-like -refract light rays so that it focuses
convex lens images on the retina.
Retina Contain light sensitive -a screen where images are formed.
cells- rods and cones -rod cell allow us to see in dim light
-cone cell allow us to see colour& in
bright light
Optical Nerves Nerves from the retina -carry electrical impulses from the retina
to the brain to the brain.
Choroid layer Black layer behind the -prevents internal reflection.
retina Distant objects
Ciliary muscles relax and release the lens from pressure, making it thin and longer.
This creates a longer focal length the lens.

How we see
We can see an object only if light is reflected from the object and it is focused on the
retina. To see an object:
 Light enters the eye through the cornea, which bends it slightly inwards.
 The light then passes through the pupil.
 Then it passes through the lens, which bends it even more to focus it on the
retina.
 When light falls on the retina, an upside-down image of the object is formed.
 The optic nerve then takes the messages from the retina to the brain.
 The brain then interprets and makes sense of the upside-down image so that you
see it upright.
Pupil Reflex Action
The size of the pupil changes depending on light intensity. This is to protect the eye
from damage by too much light and allow enough light to enter the eye. The iris
controls the size of the pupil.

Focusing in dim light

Iris contract and the pupil become bigger so that more light enters the eye.

Accommodation
It is an ability of the eye lens to change shape or thickness to focus near and distant
objects on the retina. It is controlled by the ciliary muscles. Focusing in bright light
Iris relaxes and the pupil become smaller as that less light enters the eye.
42
 Light rays converge
after the retina.
The diagram below shows the pupil changing from dim light intensity to bright light Lack of -Occurs in older -Hardening of the eye Bifocal spectacles
intensity (X -> Y) accommodation people when the lens which occurs whose lenses
(Presbyopia) lens loses its with aging have a top part for
flexibility. looking at distant
-The lens and the objects and
Ciliary muscles bottom part for
cannot change the looking at close by
shape of the lens to objects, e.g.
focus near and far reading.
away objects on the
retina.
Astigmatism A person cannot Spectacles with
focus on horizontal cylindrical lenses
Eye Defects and Their Correction and vertical lines at are used. These
This happens when the eye lens is not able to change the shape of their lenses the same time. If the are special
sufficiently to produce a sharp, focused image on the retina. horizontal lines combinations of
appear in focus, the convex lenses.
Eye Defects Problem Cause Correction vertical one appears
blurred.
Short- The person can see - Eyeball is elongated -Spectacles with a
sightedness nearby objects and the retina is too concave lens to Colour Blindness Faulty cones in the No known cure
(Myopia) clearly and cannot far back. diverge the retina. Cannot see
see objects that are - The lens is too incoming rays red or green
far away. They curved and cannot be before they reach
appear blurred. The made flat. the cornea Eye Diseases
image is formed
before the retina Eye Disease Signs Cause Treatment
Cataracts Clouding/ opaque eye lens -Old age - Replacing the
Can lead to -Painless blurring of vision -Ultra violet rays lens surgically
blindness -Glare/light sensitivity damaging the - Certain eye
- Light rays converge -Poor night vision lens. droplets to reverse
before the retina. -Double vision in one eye -Diabetes cataracts
Long sightedness The person cannot -Too short eye ball Spectacles with -Air pollution
(hypermetropia) see near objects making the retina too convex lens to -Dehydration
clearly but can see close for the focal refract the rays Stye -Boil/painful red bump on -Poor general - Antibiotic cream
far objects clearly. length. before reaching the margins of eyelid. health - Sulphur drugs
The lens cannot be -The lens cannot be the cornea -The eye becomes -Diabetes - Hot compress
made thick enough made round enough. sensitive to light
to reduce the focal -the eye may tend to water
length. and become blurry

43
Trachoma -Redness of the membrane -Bacteria - Sulphur drugs The shutter When a picture is taken the shutter opens and closes quickly
Can lead to -Watery discharge (Chlamydia - Antibiotics to let a small amount of light in the camera. Normally the
blindness -Itchy eyes trachomitis) - Hot compress shutter is closed to prevent light reaching the film
-Swollen eyelids -Overcrowding - Improved hygiene The film Very sensitive to light and located at the back of the camera.
-Sensitivity to light -Poor hygiene Form images when a picture is taken
Conjunctivitis - Swelling under the -Viruses -Cleansing eyelids The casing Painted black on the inside to absorb any stray light
surface of the eyelid. -Bacteria e.g. and lashes with
- Watery discharge gonorrhoea cotton wool
- Discharge (mucus and Irritants soaked in warm
pus) water twice a day. Comparison of the Eye and Camera
-Burning sensation in the - Eye drops/
eyelid ointment Eye Camera
- Antibiotics Lens Lens
- Sulphur drugs Iris Diaphragm
Night Difficulty in seeing at night Lack of vitamin -Eat food rich in Pupil Aperture
blindness A in the Diet vitamin A
Eyelids Shutter
- Vitamin A tablets
Retina Film
Glaucoma - Patchy loss of vision/ -Increase in -Surgery and
Choroid Casing
Can cause clarity of colours pressure of the medication to
diabetes and - Painful eyeball eyeball which reduce the
blindness damages the pressure
Uses of Different Colours in Communication
optic nerves
Colours can be used to communicate messages to humans, animals, birds and
Retinal Flashes of light are seen Retina separated Surgery to
insects.
detachment from the eyeball reconnect the
due to injury or it retina
1. Traffic Control
may just happen
- Traffic lights
- Lights on vehicles
* Brake lights
APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT
* Indicator – showing that the car is turning
* Red lights for ambulance
* Blue lights for police
* Red-cross for ambulance
* Road marks
* Safety clothing (white or red stripes)
2. Red button on remote control (on/ off)
3. Colour coding of electrical cables
4. Colour communication in nature
- Insects like bees and butterflies are attracted to colourful flowers.
- Some insects and frogs use bright orange, yellow and red colours to warn predators
that they are dangerous or to attract other insects for mating or to lure prey.
Functions of Parts of a Camera
- Animals, snakes, insects and frogs use colour combinations to camouflage
Camera part Function
themselves in order to catch prey or to avoid other predators.
Lens Focuses or directs the light rays from an object onto a film at
- Fungi use colour to warn predators such as humans that they are poisonous.
the back of the camera
- Different species of animals, plants, insects and birds are easily identified by their
Diaphragm Opens and closes the aperture to control the amount of light colour combinations
entering
Aperture A hole that allows light into the camera. It larger in dull
conditions to allow enough light in.
44
 SPACE EXPLORATION Electrics and Burns and *Make sure that all appliances are wired correctly
electrical shocks and earthed.
ASTRONOMY: study of space. appliances *Do not plug in too many appliances into one
socket.
Possible benefits of space exploration *Do not use electrical appliances near water.
 Has helped improve communication through satellites Obstacles and Bruises, *Keep your environment clean, neat and tidy.
 Satellites has also helped in observing and predicting weather obstructions grazes, *Do not leave things lying around in passage
 It can also create the possibility of travelling to other planets and live there. sprains and ways or in places where people walk.
Technology used in space exploration fractures
 Telescopes – used to view planets, moons and stars Fires and heaters Burns and *Always make sure that the heater can be seen.
 Rockets – used to propel or push space craft into space breathing This will stop people from tripping over or
 Space craft – a vehicle used to travel into space problems colliding with the heater by accident.
 Artificial satellites- these are space craft which rotate around the earth into outer *Do not use the heater to burn things or set fire to
space. things.
 Probes – are space vehicles that are used to explore the solar system. *Always turn a heater off if no one is going to be
in the room for a long time.
 Space suits – these are special clothes that astronauts wear to protect themselves
*Do not stand too close to a heater.
while in space.
*Make sure that the fire or heater is in a properly
Careers in space exploration
ventilated room. This prevents the build-up of
 Astronomy
gases.
 Engineering
Lifting or moving Muscle *Do not attempt to lift things that are too heavy
 GPS services heavy objects strains and for you. Ask someone to help you.
back injuries *Take your time. If an object begins to feel too
heavy, then put it down and take a rest.
*Use the correct lifting techniques
Broken glass Cuts *Clean up broken glass straight away and make
HYGIENIC SURROUNDINGS: LIVING SAFELY
sure that you collect every single piece. Some
pieces may be very small but these can still cause
Prevention of Common Injuries
cuts.
Type of hazard Common *Do not place glass objects close to the edges of
injuries Prevention of common injuries surfaces where they can be easily knocked off.
caused *Use reinforced glass for applications where the
Knives and other Cuts *Work slowly and with care. glass may have to carry weight or cope with
sharp kitchen *Do not leave knives lying around that are not shocks from time to time.
implements being used.
*Keep knives in a drawer away from children.
*Make sure your knives you knives are sharp.
Blunt knives are more dangerous than sharp
knives because you have to apply more force
when using them.
Household tools Cuts and *Read the instructions about how to use a tool
and gardening bruises properly and follow any safety rules.
implements *If you do not know how to use a tool, ask
someone who does to show you.
*Do not use a tool for an application that it was
not designed for.
* Make sure that tools are well maintained.
*Work slowly and with care

45
Safe Physical Movement
This means carrying out actions in a safe way to prevent injuries from happening. SANITATION
This deals with the proper removal or disposal of sewage and other domestic refuse
 Carry out your physical actions slowly and carefully and know your physical limits. Refuse – waste from our daily activities
Sewage – waste water and waste materials produced by our bodies e.g. urine and faeces
 The correct way to lift objects
Lifting objects can cause muscle strain and back injuries if the correct technique is The Need to Dispose-Off Waste Properly
not used. When lifting a heavy object, you should lift the object with your legs bent -Sewage and refuse can cause diseases
and back straight. This reduces the amount of strain that is placed on the spine and -Sewage waste has an unpleasant smell. Untreated sewage can enter the natural water
muscles of the lower back and allows the stronger muscles of the legs to lift most of system and pollute the water way.
the load. -Refuse can pollute the environment
-Uncollected waste can attract flies, rats and other unwanted animals which spread
 The correct way to sharpen a knife diseases.
If you draw it towards you, the blade moves towards your fingers and body and if you -Refuse can make the environment look bad.
make a mistake, you can cut your fingers and your body.
Hygienic ways of disposing sewage
 Do not try to catch falling objects *Spade method: about a 15cm deep-hole is dug with a spade and after defecation the
We can hurt ourselves badly if we try to catch falling objects before they hit the ground, faeces are covered well with soil.
e.g. catching a falling glass, may shatter in our hands and cause cuts. *Pit latrine: faeces are slowly broken down by micro-organisms
*Flush toilets: use water to help dispose sewage through sewer pipes
Using recommended safety and protective devices *Chemical toilets: consists of a collecting bucket with a disinfectant. The buckets are
emptied regularly and disposed off elsewhere. These are used as temporary facilities (at
Protective Devices functions)
*Gloves –safety items used to protect the hands from injury, e.g. oven gloves worn
handling hot objects in the kitchen. Methods of Disposing Domestic Refuse
*Gardening gloves also worn to protect hands from corrosive and poisonous substances. 1. Compost heap – organic matter can be buried underground and used to make
* Eye protection –safety glasses, goggles and welding masks worn to protect eyes from compost.
injuries 2. Burning – refuse can be burnt (but not recommended on large scale as it causes air
*Face masks –cover the mouth and nose and prevent foreign objects from entering the pollution)
mouth, lungs and nose. Most worn to protect the user from fine dust and mist that is 3. Burying – a hole is dug and refuse is buried underground.
made by activities such as sanding and spraying chemicals. 4. Collection by council to the dumping sites or landfills.
*Strong boots –worn to protect the feet from damage by objects falling on them or when 5. Recycling – paper, metals, glass and cans can all be recycled
the person is working in an area where there may be hazardous objects on the ground that
could damage the feet.
*Protective headwear –e.g. hard hat used to give the hat protection in activities where MANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES
there is a risk of falling objects.
POLLUTION
Safety Devices Pollution refers to the presence of harmful, substances in the environment. A pollutant is
These are things that make the equipment safer to use or that help control the situation. any harmful substance found in the environment. A polluted environment is often harmful
to the life that exists in it. There are seven types of pollution. These are land, water, air,
Fuses noise, visual, radioactive and thermal pollution.
A fuse with a wire that has a low melting point is placed in areas or series in the circuit
electrical appliance. The fuse wire will melt and break the circuit if the current flowing is Types of Pollution
too big due to short circuits. This prevents fire, electric shock and burns 1. Water pollution: any undesirable change in the water that can harm organisms
2. Air pollution: any undesirable change in the air that can harm organisms
Fire extinguishers 3. Land pollution: any undesirable change in the soil that can harm organisms
It is used to put out fire. Some contain carbon dioxide. All materials used in fire
extinguishers are non-flammable materials. Common Sources of Pollution
1. Industrial activities
HYGIENIC SURROUNDINGS: SANITATION 2. Domestic activities
46
 3. Agricultural activities

Discuss Problems Caused by Pollution

1. Global warming INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
2. Destruction of the ozone layer
3. Poisoning of organisms TECHNOLOGY COMMUNICATION TOOLS
4. Death of organisms Communication is any activity or process that results in information being transferred
5. Loss of habitat by some other organism from one person to another. For technological communication to take place there must be
6. Spread of infections a device for sending information (a transmitter) and a device for receiving information (a
7. Damage to living things receiver). All different tools, devices and technologies used for collecting, transmitting,
storing, retrieving and processing information are known collectively as information and
Methods of Controlling Pollution communication technology (ICT) tools.
1. Use of scrubbers in chimneys through which gaseous pollutants pass.
2. Use of catalytic converter in car exhausts that use petrol
3. Use of settling chambers in chimneys Media for communicating scientific knowledge
4. Pass contaminated water through filters to remove solid particles Media refers to ways or means of communication. The media that could be used to
5. Use of organic material to clean contaminated water communicate scientific information include, radio, computers, television, books
6. Placing solid in landfills newspapers and journals.
7. Incinerating solid waste
8. Allowing organisms to break down organic waste. Formats for communicating scientific knowledge
9. Recycling A format refers to the way in which information is arranged or presented for use in
10. Passing laws that help prevent pollution different media. The formats used for communicating scientific knowledge and
information include, tables, graphs and diagrams.
Effects of Air Pollution on our Health
1. Irritation of eyes, nose, and throat Impact on society of having limitless access to information provided by communication
2. Bronchitis networks
3. Pneumonia Connection of various communication devices to a larger number of other communication
4. Headaches devices is known as communication networks. This makes the amount of information
4. Nausea available to anyone connected to these networks to be limitless (very large). This has had
5. Allergic reactions both positive and negative impact on the society:
Positive Impact
Effects of Water Pollution on our Health 1. People have more knowledge of the world
1. Water borne infections. 2. Hard to take advantage of people
2. Damage to body organs 3. People are able to gather the information themselves instantly
3. Death 4. No information is withheld from the people
4. Poisoning 5. Helps gain knowledge to solve problems
6. Allows people to make informed decision about things that affect them
Most Common Pollutant
1. Pit latrine staff
2. Papers Negative Impact
3. Metal objects 1. Hard to control people
4. Plastics 2. Loss of culture
3. Leads to global crimes
Measures Taken to Prevent Pollution 4. Encourages emigration and immigration
1. Pass laws that prevent pollution 5. Learning of wrong things
2. Provision of landfills, refuse plastic bags and rubbish bins 6. Spread of illegal or offensive material
3. Education on preventing pollution
4. Stopping burning of things Cultural Impact of Global Communication
Communication technologies have made it easier for people to learn about the cultures of
other societies around the world and to share their own culture with others. This cultural
47
exchange of information has also had both negative and positive impact on the cultures of from objects that are far away.
societies around the world:  The use of spectacles (glasses) with specially shaped lenses.

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

Positive Impact The nervous system is a body system which allows the body to detect a stimulus and
1. Helps view and experience other cultures without having to travel long distances react accordingly. Stimulus: change in the surrounding e.g. heat, cold, pain, sound, texture,
2. Knowledge gain about other cultures taste e.t.c
3. Encourages tourism Parts of the Nervous System
4. Helps in global communication  Spinal cord
 Brain
Negative Impact  Nerves (neurons)- Peripheral Nervous System
1. May lead to stoppage of practicing own culture  Sense organs
2. May lead to conflicts and war
3. May discourage tourism
4. May lead own language dyeing
5. Encourages emigration and immigration

Potential Careers in ICT

1. Computer programmer
2. Soft developers
3. Hardware technician
4. ICT trainer
5. Multimedia developer

COMMUNICATION IN HUMANS

COMMUNICATING BY USING SENSES

The Central Nervous System (CNS)
Definition:  The Central Nervous System comprises the Brain and the Spinal Cord
Communication is the sending receiving of information  It works out the response to stimulus

Ways of communication include: hearing, seeing, tasting, touching and smelling. A  The brain: main organ of the CNS which coordinates and controls most nerve
stimulus is a factor in the surroundings that causes the sense receptors to function. activities. It is responsible for voluntary actions

SENSE SENSE ORGANS STIMULUS  The spinal cord: runs from the brain and consists of nervous tissue which is
Pressure, temperature, connected to receptor and effector organs. It is involved in reflex (involuntary) actions
Touch Skin
texture
Smell Nose Airborne chemicals The Peripheral Nervous System
Taste tongue Ingested chemicals  It includes all nerve cells, are called neurone.
Sight Eyes Light
 It is made of the neurone, receptor and effector organs
Hearing Ears Sound  Receptor: a sense organ which detects the stimuli. e.g. eyes, nose, skin, tongue
 Effector: organs which produce a response to a particular situation
Methods That Humans Use To Enhance Their Sense of Sight
 Microscopes are used to enhance our sight by magnifying objects that are very  Neurone (nerve cell)
small.  A specialized cell which can transmit electrical messages (nerve impulses)
 Telescopes and binoculars are used to enhance our sight by magnifying the light
48
 around the body
 Types of neurone: sensory, relay and motor nerves.

 Sensory nerves transmit nerve impulses from the receptors to the central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
 Relay nerves connects the sensory neurone and the motor neurone together.
 Motor nerves transmit nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the
effectors to produce an action.
A Reflex Arc
 A reflex arc involves transmission of a nervous impulse or message from
sensory receptors to the spinal cord and back to muscles. Later, the message
also reaches the brain for interpretation.

Functions of the Nervous System

a) Helps body to detects and respond to stimulus so as to prevent harm
b) Allows parts of the body to communicate by sending and receiving impulses.

Distinguishing Between a Voluntary and Involuntary Action

Voluntary Action Involuntary/Reflex Action Gland Hormone Effect of Hormone

One which is controlled by conscious One which is not controlled by conscious Produced
activity of brain. activity of brain. Adrenaline - Prepares the body for action in threatening
Examples include: writing, dancing, Examples include: heart beat, peristalsis, situations
walking, talking blinking, sweating, breathing Adrenal Cortisol - Regulates the body’s response to physical stress
gland such as starvation. Helps the body to cope with these
stresses.
Testes Testosterone - Controls the development of male secondary sexual
characteristics.
- It controls the production and development of
Reflex Action sperms
There are two types of reflex actions: Thyroid Thyroxine -Controls metabolic rate
 Simple reflex action gland
These are quick involuntary actions that happen automatically, which are a Thymus Thymosin -Promotes production and maturation of white blood
response to possible danger. They are interpreted at the spinal cord. e. g. knee gland cells
jerk and pupil reflex Pineal gland Melatonin -Affects reproductive development and daily
 Learned reflex action physiological cycles
These are reflex actions we do automatically that are acquired from past Oestrogen -Causes secondary sexual characteristics in females.
experiences. These are also not controlled by one’s own will e.g. salivating when Ovaries -Causes the lining of the uterus to become thick.
hearing of your favourite food, swimming, catching a ball Progesterone -Maintains the lining of the uterus
Insulin -Reduces the blood glucose level when high by
Pancreas stimulating the liver cells to take up glucose from the
HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM blood and convert it to glycogen and stored.
 Hormone - A hormone is a chemical secreted by an endocrine gland and carried Glucagon -Raises the blood glucose level when it is low by
in the bloodstream to target organs where it performs a specific function. stimulating the liver cells to convert the stored
 Endocrine Glands - These glands are ductless, and secrete hormones directly glycogen to glucose.
into the bloodstream. Growth -Stimulates growth (controls growth of bones and
Pituitary hormone muscles)
 Examples of Endocrine Glands - adrenal glands, thyroid gland, and ovaries and
gland Anti-diuretic -Increases reabsorption of water in the kidneys
testes
hormone (ADH)

49
 Gonadotrophin -Controls development of ovaries and testes

Medical Conditions Caused By Hormonal Imbalances

 Diabetes
 Low blood sugar
 Goitre /Hypothyroidism MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS IN TERMS OF BONES, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
 Gigantism Bones, joints and some muscles work together to create movement in animals. This is
 Dwarfism because they are arranged as levers.

Joints and Movement

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system is made up of a variety of bones. An adult person has 206 bones.
These bones are of different shapes and sizes. A bone is a living tissue containing bone
cells and nerve cells. It is made up mainly of the minerals such as calcium, phosphorus
and fluorine. The main bones within the human skeleton are vertebral column, the skull,
ribs, ulna, radius, humerus, the femur, tibia and fibula. Below is the human skeleton:
Joints are places where the bones of the body are joined together. A joint consists of
ligaments which join a bone to another, tendons which connect a muscle to a bone,
cartilage which covers the end of each bone to reduce friction and lastly, synovial fluid
which lubricates the joints, where they are found in the human body and the type of
movement they bring about:

Types of joints
 Hinge joint e.g. knee joint, elbow joint(resembles a door with hinges in many
aspects)

FUNCTIONS OF SKELETONS  Ball and socket joint e.g. shoulder and hip joints
 Gives the body shape
 Provide support for body organs
 Provide protection for vital organs such as the brain, heart and lungs
 Provide a place of attachment of muscles for movement
 Produce bone marrow
 To move the body
 For storage of calcium and phosphorus

50
 biceps).
 Extensor - The extensor is the muscle in each pair which contracts to straighten the
joint (triceps).

The arm can be compared to a lever. The elbow represents the pivot, biceps and triceps
are the effort and the object in the hand the load. The arm is therefore a third class of
levers which is a force reducer

THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD POSTURE AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE TO THE BODY

 Posture: is the way the body is held when doing any activity.
 Fixed joint e.g. the skull joint
 Good posture: how we hold our body so that we do not cause stress or damage to
 Slightly movable/Gliding joint e.g. the joint between the vertebras of the spine
the joints, muscles and bones of the body
 Pivot joint e.g. between the skull and the first two vertebras of the spine
Importance of Good Posture
1. It keeps the bones in the correct position
2. It helps avoid straining muscles
3. It helps avoid fractures and sprain
Muscles and Movement
4. Helps keep body organs in the correct position
There are three types of muscles found in the body:
-Skeletal muscles- these are important for movement in the body and are attached to the
bones by a tough tissue called tendons.
Importance of Physical Exercise to the Body
- Smooth muscle
- Heart (cardiac) muscles
 It strengthens the muscles, tendons and ligaments. This reduces chances of injuries
NB. The body has over 600 muscles.
 Reduce stress and improve mood attitude
Muscles work in pairs in order to bring about movement. If one muscle contracts, the
 It burns out fat which keeps weight under control and prevent risk of blockage of
other relaxes.
blood vessels

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

CIRCUITS
An electric circuit is a path followed by an electric current through interconnected devices
to achieve a certain electric effect. Circuit diagrams are usually used; to represent the path
followed by an electric current. The components of a circuit are, represented by symbols.
Below are symbols of common components of electrical circuits:
Component Name Symbol
Cell
 Movement is controlled by forces produced by skeletal muscles.
Bulb
 Skeletal muscles are made of many smaller muscle fibres that slide across each
other. When a muscle is relaxed, the muscle appears long and thin. When a muscle is
contracted, the muscle appears short and thick. Resistor
 Many muscles work together in antagonistic pairs: these pairs of muscles oppose
each other. For example, to lift your forearm, the biceps muscle at the front of your Switch
upper arm contracts to lift the forearm. At the same time, the triceps muscle at the Ammeter
back of your upper arm relaxes. The opposite occurs when you lower your arm
(triceps contracts and biceps relaxes).
 Flexor - The flexor is the muscle in each pair which contracts to bend the joint (e.g.

51
 Voltmeter  If more bulbs are added in series with other components, their brightness
decreases.
 Bulbs in series also burns with less brightness compared to those in parallel with
Fuse the same components because the resistance in a series circuit is more than of a
parallel circuit with the same components.
 If one bulb in a series circuit is removed or blows out the whole circuit is broken and
all the lamps go off. Bulbs in a Christmas tree are, normally connected in series

There are two types of circuits. These are Series circuit and parallel circuit. The two
depend on the arrangement of components in a circuit. The diagrams below show these.

NB note how the ammeter is, connected in relation to the circuit components.

Current in a Parallel Circuit

In a parallel circuit, current splits and follows different path, but its total value remains the
same. That is A1 = A2 + A3.
 If the bulbs are of different resistance, their brightness will be different. The one
with less resistance will be brighter.
Series Circuit  If they are of the same resistance, they will burn with the same brightness, but
Components are, arranged in such a way that there is only one path for current to follow. brighter than, those in a series circuit with the same number of components.
 The current from the source is equal across all components in the circuit.  Adding extra bulbs parallel to the circuit does not affect the brightness of the bulbs.
 The potential difference (P.d) across the battery is equal to the sum of all p.d’s  The failing of one bulb also does not affect the other bulbs. Bulbs in houses are
across the components. (P.d changes across the circuit) usually, connected in parallel.
 If one component stops working then no current will flow through the circuit

Parallel Circuit
Components are arranged in such a way that there can be more than one path for current
to follow.
 Current splits up and passes through each branch at the same time. The size of the
current at each branch totally depends upon the resistance of the branch
 The total current is equal to the sum of all currents in the branches
 If one component stops working, current can still flow to other components
The total current entering a junction in a circuit is equal to the total current leaving it.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
An electric current is the flow of electrons. It can also be defined as the flow of electric POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
charge (electron) through a conductor Potential difference is the force that drives electrons through a circuit. It is, also referred
to as voltage or electro-motive force. It is measured in volts (V) using an instrument
It is measured in ampere (A) using an instrument called an ammeter. The ammeter is, called a voltmeter. A voltmeter is, connected parallel to a component.
connected in series with the components. Current flows from the positive to the negative
of the source. For current to flow there must be a complete circuit or closed circuit. Voltage in a Series Circuit
In a series circuit, the voltage across components adds up to the total voltage from the
Current in a Series Circuit source. Thus VT = V1 + V2.
Current flowing in a series circuit is the same at every point (A1=A2=A3) Hence the bulbs
burning with the same brightness regardless of the difference in the resistances of the
bulbs.
52
 Where:
R is the resistance
V is the voltage
I is the current

RESISTORS
A resistor is an electrical component designed to provide resistance in an electric circuit.
Resistors control the flow of current in a circuit. When an electric current flows through a
resistor, it causes a heating effect. This heating effect is used in heating elements of
stoves, kettles, irons, heaters and filaments of electric bulbs. Resistors are also used to
control the amount of voltage in a circuit.
Voltage in a Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit the voltage across components are equal to the voltage produced by
the source. VT =V1 = V2.
Resistors in a series circuit
The resistance of two or more resistors connected in a series circuit adds up to make the
total resistance. That is RT = R1 + R2 + R3.

Example
Below is the diagram of series circuit with resistors connected as shown, calculate the
total resistance in the circuit.

ELECTRIC RESISTANCE
 Is the ability of a conductor to oppose the flow of electric current. It can also be Solution
defined as the tendency of an electric component to oppose the flow of electric RT = R1 + R2 + R3
current.
 If the resistance of a circuit increases, the current decreases = 2Ω + 3Ω + 4Ω
 SI unit for resistance is the ohms (Ω)
= 9Ω
Measuring Instrument: ohmmeter
ohmmeter Position: ‘in series’ Resistors in a parallel circuit
 Good conductors have low resistance. Parallel circuits always provide an alternative pathway for current flow. The total
 Insulators have very high resistance. 1 1 1 1
resistance RT for resistors in parallel is calculated by the formula: = + +
RT R1 R2 R3
Ohms law: states that the ratio of potential difference across the ends of a metal Example
conductor to the electric current flowing through the conductor is a constant. This The diagram below shows some resistors connected in parallel with one another.
constant is the resistance of the conductor. Calculate the total resistance in the circuit.
R= V/I V= I X R

53
  Materials that do not allow any current to flow through them are called insulators
 All metals conduct electricity
 However different metals conduct electricity at different rates. This is because
some have high resistance that allows only a small current to flow through them
 Some have a small resistance which allows larger current to flow through them
 Copper and aluminium are the best conductors of electricity. this is because they
have low resistance
 Nichrome and tungsten are poor conductors of electricity because they have high
resistance

Solution The difference is resistance is due to different physical properties of the materials. The
1 1 1 1 value of the resistance of a particular material e.g. copper is affected by the following
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3 factors:
a) Length of the resistor wire
1 1 1 1 Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length of the wire i.e. the
= + +
RT 4 6 12 longer the wire the greater will be the resistance and the shorter the wire the
smaller will be the resistance
1 3+2+1
= b) Cross-sectional area of the resistor
RT 12
Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area of the cross-section
1 6 of the uniform wire. That means the thinner the wire, the greater resistance and the
= thicker the wire the lower the resistance.
RT 12

1 c) Type of wire
= 0. 5
RT

1
RT x = 0.5 X RT
RT

0.5 RT = 1
FORCE MOTION AND ENERGY
1
RT = MOTION- It is the movement of an object
0.5
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
RT = 2Ω
1. Newton’s first law (inertia)
It states that, an object will stay at rest and a moving object will continue to move with a
OR: reciprocate
uniform velocity unless an external force acts on it.
 That is, a coin placed on a sheet of paper, will try not to move when the paper is
1 6
= quickly pulled.
RT 12
 Another example can be when one is standing on a moving vehicle and it quickly
come to a stop: they would sway forward as they “want” to continue to move with
12
RT = their movement. This is called inertia
6  Inertia
RT = 2Ω Inertia is the property of a body that causes it to resist any change to its state of
motion. Example: when you in a car travelling at 100km/h your body will also move
at that speed. If the car came to a sudden stop, your body will continue moving
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE RESISTANCE OF A RESISTOR forward at that speed unless you had your seat belt on.
Resistance: is defined as an obstacle to the flow of electric current.
54
 Mass of a body is a measure of how much inertia that body has. This means:
 A body with a bigger mass will have a bigger inertia than body with small
mass
Example: 40N applied on two bodies of 10kg and 20kg. Which of the two will have the
greatest acceleration (change in velocity)?

Answer: body with small mass (10kg)

Explanation: because the smaller the mass the less the inertia a body will have, it was
easy to change the velocity of 10kg than 20kg.

3. Newton’s third law

2. Newton’s second law
When a force acts on a body, it causes the body to accelerate in the direction of a force.
This means:
 Acceleration is directly proportional to the force applied
 Acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the object
It can also be described as follows: acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass.
The greater the mass of an object being moved, the smaller the acceleration produced on
the object. This means, objects with bigger masses require more force to move them at
the same velocity as lighter objects. This law gives us an exact relationship between force,
mass and acceleration. The relationship is expressed as:
CALCULATIONS
There is an important formula which can be used in calculations that involves Newton’s
laws, which is; F=ma, where F = applied force
m = mass of an object
a = acceleration
If object “A” exerts a force on object “B”, then object “B” will exert an equal force on object
“A” but in opposite direction
 It can be summarized as: for every action force there is an equal reaction force
 This is why when one stands on rollers and try to push the wall they would move
away from it instead of the wall moving
 When you are sitting on a chair, you exert a downward force on the chair; the
chair will also exert an upward force on you. This is why you are not falling on the
chair
SIMPLE MACHINES
 A machine is a device that makes work easier.
 They do this by reducing the amount of effort needed to move a load through
providing mechanical advantage. This refers to the effectiveness of a machine in
reducing the effort needed to move a load.
 The force needed to move an object is called an effort. The object to be moved is
called a load
 A machine that produces a larger force than the effort is called a force magnifier.
 Those that produce a small force than the effort we apply are called force reducers.
Below are some simple machines and their use in daily life situations:

1. Lever
A stiff bar that turns on a support called pivot or fulcrum which lifts or moves loads

Example
A horizontal force of 100N is applied to a body with a mass of 25kg lying on a frictionless
floor. What is the acceleration of the object?

2. Inclined plane

55
It is a slope (a leaning surface) along which objects may be pushed or pulled. Examples
stairs

6. Screw
A screw has a spiral shape.

3. Wheel and axle

This is a wheel with a rod, called an axle through its centre to move or lift objects.
Example;

7. Pulley
A pulley is a simple machine made up of a grooved wheel over which a rope or chain
4. Gears passes through it to raise, tower or move a load.
These are wheels with teeth and they are mainly used to change the speed or direction of
the moving parts of the machine.

LEVERS
 A lever is a simple machine in which the effort moves the load by turning on the pivot
or fulcrum.
 The force applied to the lever is known as the effort
 The mass to be moved is called the load
 Levers can be divided into three depending on the arrangement of their components.
These classes of levers include; first class levers, second-class levers and third class
levers. These classes of levers however have the effort, load and fulcrum but they are
arranged in different ways.

5. Wedge
A wedge has a slope like an inclined plane.

56
 Applications of Simple Machines
Machine Application
Lever As a seesaw, carrying a load, using a pair of scissors, using a bottle
Example of first class lever
opener
In the first class lever the fulcrum is between the load and the effort. The fulcrum
supports the device so that work can be done easily. Wheel & axle In car wheels, tap turning mechanism, roller skate
Inclined plane As a parking ramp, stairs, ladder, forklifts, tipper truck
Gear Found in bicycle wheels joined by a chain
Wedge Pin, nail, axe, chisel
Screw Drill, screw lid on a jar or a bottle
Pulley Block and tackle used in butchers to raise carcasses, used by
aeromechanics to lift car engines, window blinds (as curtains)

MAGNIFIED & REDUCED FORCES EXERTED BY LEVERS AND INCLINED PLANES

 Mechanical Advantage is a way of measuring how effective a machine is in reducing
the effort needed to move a load.
Example of second-class levers
The load is between the fulcrum and the effort.
The effect of using a lever causes mechanical advantage. With mechanical advantage:
 A large load is moved by a small effort
 Small effort marks larger movement
 Improves strength

Formula for Calculating Mechanical Advantage

Mechanical advantage = Load ÷ Effort

Class 1 and 2 levers:

a) If the mechanical advantage is greater than 1, the effort you put is less than the load
Examples of third class levers that is being affected by it. In other words the lever is magnifying the effort.
In this class the effort is between the fulcrum and the load Example;
Mechanical advantage = Load ÷ Effort
= 400N ÷ 50N
= 8N
Then we say, the lever has magnified the effort 8 times. Therefore, class 1 and 2 levers
magnify the force of the effort

57
Class 3 levers:
b) If the mechanical advantage is less than 1, then it means the effort being put in is
greater than the load and so the force of the effort is reduced.
Example;
Mechanical advantage = Load ÷ Effort
= 100N ÷ 200N The direction in which the torque is acting should always be indicated
= 0.5N
NB: Class 3 levers reduce the force of the effort and there is no mechanical advantage Examples:
Class 3 levers are still useful because:
 They make a load move a greater distance
 They make a load move faster
While effort:
 Movement distance is smaller/shorter
 Slower

Inclined Planes:
An inclined plane/slope is a simple machine that reduces the effort needed to lift an
object from one level to a higher level

Moments of Force in Everyday Life

 Turning a water tap on and off
 Using a spanner to turn a nut
 Closing a door
c) For inclined planes mechanical advantage is calculated using:  Propelling a car
Mechanical advantage = distance along inclined plane  Using a can opener
Height of plane  Pedalling a bicycle
The longer the distance the higher the mechanical advantage, but its gained at a cost of  Rolling an object along the ground
moving a greater distance  Doing sit-ups in the gym
A mechanical advantage of:  Turning the volume button on the radio
 Greater than 1, means the effort is magnified  Seesaw
 Less than 1, means the effort is reduced
Law of Moments
The law of moments states that “when a body is in equilibrium (balanced), the sum of the
MOMENT OF A FORCE clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments, and
then the object is in a dynamic equilibrium”. The principle is demonstrated in everyday life
Turning Effect of a Force situations such as seesaw and weighing machines. The law of motion is shown by the
 Moment of a force is a physical quantity that measures the turning ability of a formula below:
force about a fulcrum/pivot. i.e. The moment of a force is its turning effect
 It occurs when a force acts on an object that has a pivot. Calculating the Moment of a Force about a Fixed Point
 The moment of force is also known as torque. It depends on the magnitude (size)  Moment of force = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
of the force and its distance of the force perpendicular to the pivot:  Moments are measured in Newton metre(Nm)
 The bigger the force, the larger the moment Example 1
 The longer the distance the larger the moment
 The units of moment are Newton metres (Nm). The moment of a force is
calculated as follows:

Moment= force applied X perpendicular distance from pivot

Or 58
T= F. r
Clockwise moment = Force × Distance 0.5W= 112 500 Nm
= 300N × 2m
= 600Nm W= 112 500 Nm
0.5m
Anticlockwise moment = Force × Distance
= 400N × 1.5m W = 225 000 N
= 600Nm
Results: The clockwise moment equals the anticlockwise moment. The lever is balanced
and does not turn.
Example 2

Clockwise moment = Force × Distance

= 720N × 2m
= 1440Nm

Anticlockwise moment = Force × Distance

= 600N × 2m
= 1200Nm
Results: The clockwise moment is greater than the anticlockwise moment. The lever is not
balanced and therefore it will turn clockwise.

Example 3
The diagram below shows a crane used to lift heavy loads. W is the weight of the counter
weight. The crane is in equilibrium. Use the diagram to answer question (a)

a) Calculate the moment of the load about the pivot.

Moment of force = force × perpendicular distance (Torque= F. r)
15000N X 7.5m= 112 500 Nm

b) Calculate force W of the counter weight.

∑ (F. r anticlockwise) = ∑ (F. r clockwise)
W X 0.5m = 15000 X 7.5m

59