SEE6101 03 BiomassEnergy 2015

SEE6101/8111 – 03 Bio energy
Dr. Denis Y.W. Yu

Assistant Professor
School of Energy and Environment
Sept 18, 2014

Brainstorm
What is bio energy?
Give one word related to bio energy
Brainstorm with different categories

Chemistry
Physics
Mathematics
Engineering methods
Less focus on
Economics
Environmental
Social
School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 1

Biomass
Biological materials that are derived from living things, or recently living
organisms
photosynthesis
Characteristics of biomass
→ Abundant
→ Renewable (non-fossil)
→ Potentially carbon-neutral (less emission)
Bio-degradable
→ Sustainable source of hydrocarbons.
Potentials of bio energy

→ Fill the gap between energy demand and petroleum availability in the
near to mid-term.
→ Be a renewable source of hydrogen in the long term

Biomass and the environment
Fossil fuel Biomass
Photosynthesis
Renewable
Potentially carbon neutral

Benefits and challenges in bio energy
Benefits Challenges

How to use biomass energy? Contain
Plant, animal, waste, micro-organisms, C, H, O
Source etc.
Conversion
Bio-gas
Bio-alcohol
Bio-diesel
Bio-refinery
Uses

1. Liquid fuels from biomass
Biomass to alcohol Biomass to oil
Methanol Ethanol Butanol Bio-oil Biodiesel
CH3OH C2H5OH C4H9OH

• Conversion techniques
• Utilization
• Benefits and drawbacks

1-1. Methanol (CH3OH)
• pure clean burning liquid fuel with the highest available hydrogen
to carbon ratio (i.e. lowest CO2 emission)
• long history of use in racing vehicles
• less flammable fuel than gasoline.
• competitive with gasoline and a biofuel competitive with ethanol.
Traditional method production method

Replace source of
Syn gas: H2O + C → H2 + CO syngas by biomass
Methanol: CO + 2 H2 → CH3OH
• Form H2 and CO from syngas – from natural gas or coal

• Pass syngas through catalysis (e.g. copper, zinc oxide,
alumina mixture) at 5-10 MPa and 250ºC to form methanol
Methods of producing methanol, US Patent 4,994,093, 1991

1-1. Methanol from biomass – gasification
Biomass Syngas
2 C16H23O11 + 19 H2O + O2 → 42 H2 + 21 CO + 11 CO2
→ 21 CH3OH + 11 CO2
Methanol
Biomass gasification:
→ converts biomass into CO, H2,

CO2
→ reacting the material at high

temperatures (>700 °C), without
combustion, with a controlled amount
of oxygen and/or steam.

1-2. Ethanol (CH3CH2OH)
• Well-known as a major component in “alcohol” for drinking
• Can easily be made through fermentation
World ethanol production (1975-2009)

Million Litre

1-2. Ethanol – “alcohol” (for age 18 or above)
mainly from wheat and barley (starch) ;
Beer typically 4-6% alcohol by volume
mainly from grape and other fruit (sugar);

Wine most wine contains 12.5-14.5% alcohol by
volume
Distillated spirit Vodka – potato

Japanese sake – rice
>20% alcohol Whisky – grain (e.g. barley)
Brandy – grape/wine
Boiling point of ethanol – 78.5°C Gin – juniper berries
Boiling point of water – 100°C Tequila – agave plant
Distillation by heating mixture <100°C Rum – sugarcane
to evaporate ethanol
The point here: Ethanol can easily be produced in nature
Need: Carbohydrate + yeast (enzyme)

Fermentation – decomposition of carbohydrate (especially sugar) to ethanol
1-2. Bio-ethanol – fermentation
Turning organic material (carbohydrate/sugar) into ethanol
Bagasse – fiber
remain from
sugarcane
Corn
AKA lignoncellulosic
Straw, wood, Break into Make into ethanol
grain shells small pieces sugar
Lignocelluloses feedstock biorefinery as
petrorefinery substitutes:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51491

1-2. Bio-ethanol – production flow
Shredding Hydrolysis
Biomass Addition of Sugars

Lignocellul Enzymes or
chemicals
ose Addition of
Yeasts
Fermentation
Bioalcohols
Distillation
and
Extraction
Chemicals

1-2. Ethanol in combustion engines
- Most gasoline engines will run on ethanol,
though less efficiently
The Honda Biz 125 flex
Common
ethanol
fuel
mixture
(E10,
E20, etc)

1-3. Butanol (C4H9OH) from biomass
tert-butanol
n-butanol
4 different kinds of butanol
2-butanol
isobutanol
• Butanol can be prepared from any number of biomass feedstocks.
• It is easier to produce butanol directly from a source of sugar.
• More similar to gasoline than ethanol

1-3. Biobutanol – a replacement for bioethanol?
J. Niemistö et al. “Biobutanol as a potential sustainable biofuel – assessment of

lignocellulosic and waste-based feedstocks”, J. Sustainable Development of Energy,
Water and Environment Systems, 1 (2013), 58-77

1-3. Production of butanol from biomass
ABE (Acetone-butanol-ethanol) fermentation with bacteria
Developed in Germany during WWI
distillation
ABE-process
• Bacteria produces enzymes
• Anaerobic reaction – absence of oxygen
• Produces 3 parts acetone, 6 parts n-butanol and 1 part ethanol (no direct
process to make butanol alone)
• More costly than methanol/ethanol
Lignocelluloses feedstock Biorefinery as Petrorefinery Substitutes:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51491

1-4. Bio-oil
• Bio-oil or pyrolysis oil – a synthetic fuel as a possible substitute for
petroleum.
• Highly viscous (grease-like)
• Not a single component (mixture of liquid and solid)
Typical Composition:

1-4. Bio-oil – from pyrolysis of biomass
→ Pyrolysis is a thermo chemical decomposition of organic

material at elevated temperatures in the absence of oxygen.
→ Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure & at operating
temperatures about 400-500°C.
Feedstock: e.g. wood

Not directly burn, but
heat in oxygen-
absence environment
Brazilian Journal of Chemical

Engineering:
http://www.scielo.br/pdf/bjce/v28n
4/a11v28n4.pdf

1-4. Characteristics of bio-oil
Bio-oil is water miscible and is comprised of many

oxygenated chemicals (different from hydrocarbons)
→ Dark brown mobile liquid

→ Combustible
→ Immiscible with hydrocarbons (petroleum)
→ Pungent odour
Challenges of bio-oil
→ Limited suppliers for testing.
→ Lack of standards and inconsistent quality prevents
wider usage.
→ Incompatibility (cannot mix) with conventional fuel.
→ Cost: 10%-100% more than fossil fuel.
→ Not very “clean”

1-5. Biodiesel – AKA fatty acid methyl esters
• Extract fats and oils from biomass
• Convert to biodiesel by transesterification with methanol (MeOH).
Heat, Chemical,
catalyst, enzyme
transesterification
Glycerol
Fats and oils Biodiesel
Soybean
Rapeseed Biodiesel
(canola)
Glycerol
Sunflower
1-5. Biodiesel production – feedstocks
First Generation:
These are also used as food
• Vegetable food oils: rapeseed, Competition with food production
palm, soybean, sunflower affects price of bio-diesel
Second Generation:
•Nonedible oils
•Waste oils and fats
•Used frying oil, trap grease
Third Generation:
•Algae oil
Criteria: cheap and non-edible

1-5. Biodiesel production
1.Non catalyzed method
2.Chemical method
3.Enzymatic method
1. Non catalyzed method
Disadvantage: Reaction at high temperature and pressure
Saka et al. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research. 2006, 65, 420-425

2. Chemical method
®KOH is the most
common catalyst.
®H2SO4 and HCl can
also be used as
45 oC, catalysts.
1 hour
Soap
formation in
Biodiesel presence of
Glycerol water
Disadvantages:
• Formation of soap in presence of moisture (feedstock needs to
be moisture-free)
• Acid and base catalysts are corrosive
3. Enzymatic method – proteins that catalyze chemical reactions
®Lipase is an enzyme Typical enzyme used:

that breaks down dietary Lipase
fats in human digestive
system. It converts
triglyceride to fatty acids
and glycerol.

3. Enzymatic method – procedure
100
90
80
70
1 mmol of MeOH
Conversion(%)
60
50 1 mmol of MeOH
è Methanol was added in a step-
40
wise manner to avoid lipase
30 1 mmol of MeOH
inactivation (methanol toxic to
enzyme) 20
1 mmol of MeOH
10
Conversion 90%, 60h 0

0 12 24 36 48 60
Time(h)
SK Karmee, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects ,

DOI:10.1080/15567036.2011.572131

Comparision of chemical and enzymatic methods
Fukuda, et al. J. Biosci. Bioeng., 92: 405-416.
Major advantages of using enzymes

ü Mild reaction condition
ü Reusable
ü No soap formation
ü No corrosion because of enzymes

1-6. Biofuel – advantages and disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
œ Reduction of greenhouse œ Losing of nature (clearing of land for getting

effect oil)
œ Less toxic œ Acidification of fields (fertilizers)
œ Energy security œ Higher price of corn, palm oil etc. (need
œ Saving of resources cheap feedstock)
œ Renewable œWater pollution by pesticides
œ Eutrophication of waterbodies (excessive
plant growth and decay reduces water quality;
reduces fish and animal population)

1-7. Biofuel – economics
→ Methanol and butanol

are emerging biofuels.
→ Ethanol is used as an
alternative fuel and very
popular in Brazil.
→ Bio-oil is a potential
alternative fuel. But not
commercialized yet due
to poor quality of oil.
→ Biodiesel is
commercialized and
available in many
countries.

1-8. Biofuel – future prospects
— National independent security of fuel supply.

— Employment and economic benefits through the development of
a new fuel production.
— Investors, companies and governments must continue to inject
money into the biofuel industry, despite the “food and fuel”
debate.
— Biofuel production technology
— Cost of feedstocks

2. Alternative source of biofuel – food waste
2-1. Food waste issue in Hong Kong
2-2. First generation of food waste valorization technology
2-2-1. Incineration
2-2-2. Anaerobic digestion
2-3. Biorefinery concept
2-3-1. Food waste to bioethanol
2-3-2. Food waste to other useful chemicals
2-3-3. Algal biomass utilization
Incinerator in Osaka, Japan

2-1. What is food waste?
Definition:
Any by-product or waste product from the production, processing, distribution and
consumption of food (Westendorf, 2000)1.
• Leftover from meal
Characteristics: • Unconsumed, unsold
• High proportion of organic matter (high C/N ratio) • By-product (e.g. orange peel)
• High moisture content
Table 1. Characteristics of food wastes reported in literature (Zhang et al., 2006)2.
Source Moisture Carbon / Country

Content (%) Nitrogen
A dining hall 80 14.7 Korea
A dining hall 93 18.3 Korea
Mixed municipal sources 90 *NA Germany
Mixed municipal sources 74 *NA Australia
Emanating from fruit and vegetable, 85 36.4 India
markets, household and juices centers
*NA – not available, MC = moisture contents, C= carbon, N= nitrogen,

1Westendorf, M.L., 2000. Food waste as animal feed: An introduction. In: Food Waste to Animal Feed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA.
2Zhang, R., El-Mashad, H.M., Hartman, K., Wang, F., Liu, G., Choate, C., Gamble, P., 2006. Characterization of food waste as feedstock for anaerobic digestion.
School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong
Bioresour. Technol. 98, 929–935.
31
2-1. Food waste problem in Hong Kong
• 3584 tonnes / day of food waste were generated (EPD, 2011)

• 39.8% of the total Municipal Solid Waste disposal
• Waste to landfill approach
27% food is thrown away in HK
<3% recycled
The composition of MSW in Hong

Kong in 2011
Grass
3% Others
15%
Metal Food
2% waste
Plastic 40%
19%
Paper
21%
Increased 280%
Figure 2. The composition of food
Figure 1. The amount of food waste generated daily in Hong Kong(EPD,2011)1 waste in Hong Kong (EPD,2011)1
1EPD (Environmental Protection Department of HKSAR). Monitoring of Solid Waste in Hong Kong 2011.
https://www.wastereduction.gov.hk/chi/materials/info/msw2011tc.pdf
32
2-1. Food waste problem in Hong Kong
• Waste-to-landfill approach
> Odor problem
> Leachate problem (waste water)
> Greenhouse gas emission (CH4)
> Closure of landfill
Table 2. The expected closure time of strategic landfill in Hong

Kong (EPD,2011)1
Strategic Landfill Expected closure time

SENT 2014
NENT 2016
WENT 2018
Locations of landfills in Hong Kong
1EPD (Environmental Protection Department of HKSAR). Monitoring of Solid Waste in Hong Kong 2011.
https://www.wastereduction.gov.hk/chi/materials/info/msw2011tc.pdf
33
2-2-1. Incineration
Principle:
Combustion process converts organic substances into ash, flue gas, and heat
(Cherubini et al., 2009)1.
From 1970s to 1990s, MSW used to be

incinerated first and dumped to landfills
at last. According to the “White Paper,
Pollution in Hong Kong - A Time to Act”
issued by government, in light of the
severe air pollution resulting from the
incineration, incineration was phased
out in the 1990s (EPD, 1989).2
Dioxin (toxic gas)

production if incineration
Kwai Chung Incineration Plant Kennedy Town Incineration Plant at insufficient temperature
1Cherubini F, Bargigli S, Ulgiati S., 2009. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of waste management strategies: landfilling, sorting plant and incineration.
Energy. 34, 2116–23.
2EPD (Environmental Protection Department of HKSAR). White Paper, Pollution in Hong Kong - A Time to Act.
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/resources_pub/policy/files/White_Paper-A_time_to_act.pdf.
34
2-2-1. Incineration
Process:
• Processing Time: 4-5 hours
• Four-stages: 1) Material feeding
2) Combustion
3) Exhaust gas treatment (Ca(OH)2)
4) Ash disposal (send to landfill)
Table 3. The main input flows and output flows of incineration (Cherubini et al., 2009)1.
Input Output
Raw waste 1g Ash 0.22 g
Natural gas 6.01E-05 g Electricity 5.94E-04 kWh
Electricity 6.68E-05 kWh
Ca(OH)2 3.20E-03 g
1Cherubini F, Bargigli S, Ulgiati S., 2009. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of waste management strategies: landfilling, sorting plant and incineration.
Energy. 34, 2116–23. 35
2-2-1. Incineration
Evaluation:
Table 4. The advantages and disadvantages of incineration(Takata et al., 2012)1.
• Public opposition
Social /
• Closed electricity supply network
• Short processing time
Technological • No input requirement /
• 80% volume reduction
• Ash
• Net greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
Environmental / (55.53 kg-CO2/ton-waste )
• Air pollution

2-2-1. Integrated Waste Management Facilities (IWMF)
• Capacity: 3,000 tonnes/day (plan for 2017/2018)
• Approximately 660 tpd of bottom ash and 120 tpd of fly ash
• Electricity for supply to more than 100,000 households
• Waste will be delivered to the IWMF by sea
1EPD (Environmental Protection Department of HKSAR). Integrated Waste Management Facilities.

http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/waste/prob_solutions/WFdev_IWMF.html
37
2-2-1. Integrated Waste Management Facilities
Steam turbine ® electricity
850°C
Table 9. Air emission from incinerator (Jeswani et al., 2012)1
Excess air
waste
scrubber
ash
recycle
Figure 3. Treatment process in Integrated Waste Management Facilities (EPD,2013)1

1EPD (Environmental Protection Department of HKSAR). Integrated Waste Management Facilities.
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/waste/prob_solutions/WFdev_IWMF.html
38
2-2-1. Integrated Waste Management Facilities
Advances:
-Controlled burn time to ensure complete combustion
-Enough temperature to breakdown dioxin
Post-treatment:
-Scrubber to remove acid gas
-Activated carbon to remove dioxin
-Bag filter to remove particulates
-Catalytic converter to remove NOx

2-2-2. Anaerobic digestion (AD)
Principle: Bacteria turns food ® methane
Microbial decomposition of organic matter into methane, inorganic nutrients and
compost in anaerobic environment (without oxygen) with microorganisms1.
Process:
• Processing Time: 10 – 40 days
• Three-stages: 1) Size reduction
2) Separation Overall equation
C6H10O4 + H2O ↔ CO2 + CH4
3) Fermentation
城大助理教授李鈞瀚（左）研究出將廚餘加入特定細菌，產生
Table 6. The main input flows and output flows 高純度甲烷發電；右為能源及環境學院院長陳仲良。
of anaerobic digestion (Takata et al., 2012)1.
Input Output
Food waste 1000 kg Biogas 223 m3
Water 4.3 m3 Compost 300 kg
Electricity 149 kWh
1Garcia, A., Esteban, M., Marquez, M., & Ramos, P., 2005. Biodegradable municipal solid waste: characterization and potential use as animal
feedstuffs. Waste Management, 25, 780–787.
1Takata, M., Fukushima, K., Kino-Kimata, N., Nagao, N., Niwa, C., Toda, T., 2012. The effects of recycling loops in food waste management
in Japan: Based on the environmental and economic evaluation of food recycling. Science of the Total Environment. 432, 309–317
40
2-2-2. Anaerobic digestion
Evaluation:
Table 7. The advantages and disadvantages of anaerobic digestion (Takata et al., 2012)1.
• Usually does not attract public • Closed electricity supply
Social
opposition (no odor) network
• Biogas production yield varies
Technological • Reasonable processing time (depends on feedstock)
• If too much N, can inhibit bacteria
• Biogas as renewable energy
• Substitution of chemical fertilizer
Environmental • Net saving of GHG emission /
(-48.45 kg-CO2/ton-waste )
1Takata, M., Fukushima, K., Kino-Kimata, N., Nagao, N., Niwa, C., Toda, T., 2012. The effects of recycling loops in food waste management
in Japan: Based on the environmental and economic evaluation of food recycling. Science of the Total Environment. 432, 309–317 41
2-2-2. Anaerobic digestion (plan in HK)
Tanks for fermentation
HK plan to build an Organic Waste
Treatment Facility (OWTF) - 2015
Table 5. Information of Organic Waste Treatment Facilities
Information of OWTF
Technology adopted: Anaerobic Digestion
Capacity: 200 tonnes/day
Area: 2 ha
Artist's Impression of the OWTF
Construction cost: $500 millions
Expected Electricity
14 million kWh/year
generation:
7% food waste in HK
Expected compost
7,000 tonnes/year
generation:
Expected Net Saving
50,000 tonnes-CO2/year
of GHG gas:
1Garcia, A., Esteban, M., Marquez, M., & Ramos, P., 2005. Biodegradable municipal solid waste: characterization and potential use as animal
feedstuffs. Waste Management, 25, 780–787.
42
2-2-2. Organic Waste Treatment Facilities
Figure 4. Treatment process in Organic Waste Treatment Facilities (EPD,2013)1

1EPD (Environmental Protection Department of HKSAR). Organic Waste Treatment Facilities.
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/waste/prob_solutions/WFdev_OWTF.html
43
2-2. Discussions
• Which technology do you think most suitable for food waste treatment?
Why?
• Which technology do you think most suitable for HK? Why?
• To facilitate food waste treatment in HK, what are the measures do you
think necessary?

2-3. Biorefinery Concept Biomass ® useful chemicals
Definition: Integrated facilities that convert biomass into energy, chemicals and
other valuable materials cleanly and efficiently
Biomass: Biological material derived from living organisms
Biorefinery process
James H Clark, 2007. Green chemistry for the second generation biorefinery—sustainable chemical manufacturing based on biomass.
School
Journal of Chemical of Energy
Technology and Environment,
and Biotechnology, 82(7):603-609. City University of Hong Kong 45
2-3-1. Biorefinery concept: Bioethanol production
Figure 6. Process flow diagram for biorefinery ethanol production (Koutinas et al.,2014)1
1Koutinas AA, Vlysidis A, Pleissner D, Kopsahelis N, Garcia IL, Kookos IK, Papanikolaou S, Kwan TH, Lin, CSK, 2014 Valorization of industrial waste and by-
product streams via fermentation for the production of chemicals and biopolymers. Chemical Society Reviews, DOI: 10.1039/C3CS60293A.
46
2-3-2 Food waste biorefinery
0.6-3.6 g of PHB
• 22.4 g of
remaining solid
100 g of food waste
Remaining
solids
5-7 days
55 g of succinic acid
• 39-61 g of glucose
2 days • 0.255-0.7 g of free

amino nitrogen
7 days
10-20 g of biomass
5-7 days
Process flow diagram for food waste biorefinery

2-3-2. Product of food waste biorefinery:
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)
1. A bio-polyester synthesized by bacteria intracellularly

2. Stored as carbon and energy reservoir in Granules
n=100-30000
3. Biodegradable and non-toxic plastic
4. Similar physical properties as polyethylene (PE)
PHB granules

2-3-2. Product of food waste biorefinery: succinic acid
1. A platform chemical for the synthesis of a multitude of compounds
2. Acid form of succinate (metabolite in the citric acid cycle).
3. Industrial biotechnology that seeks to displace petroleum-based
production is available

2-3-3. Algal biomass utilization
Convert light
to food and
fuel through
microalgae

2-3-3. Algal biomass production and advantages
Advantages:
•Rapid growth rate
•High lipid content
•High CO2 absorption and uptake rate
•Can grown in waste water
•Does not have food vs. fuel competition

2-3-3. Algal biomass utilization Can convert lipid to biodiesel

Biomass summary
Plant, animal, waste, micro-organisms,
Source etc.
Conversion
Bio-gas
Bio-alcohol
Bio-diesel
Uses

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SEE6101/8111 – 03 Bio energy

Dr. Denis Y.W. Yu

Sept 18, 2014

Brainstorm with different categories

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 1

Potentials of bio energy

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 2

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 3

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 4

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 5

Methanol Ethanol Butanol Bio-oil Biodiesel

CH3OH C2H5OH C4H9OH

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 6

• less flammable fuel than gasoline.

• competitive with gasoline and a biofuel competitive with ethanol.

Traditional method production method

• Form H2 and CO from syngas – from natural gas or coal

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 7

→ converts biomass into CO, H2,

→ reacting the material at high

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 8

• Can easily be made through fermentation

World ethanol production (1975-2009)

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 9

mainly from grape and other fruit (sugar);

Distillated spirit Vodka – potato

The point here: Ethanol can easily be produced in nature

Need: Carbohydrate + yeast (enzyme)

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 11

Biomass Addition of Sugars

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 12

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 13

• Butanol can be prepared from any number of biomass feedstocks.

• It is easier to produce butanol directly from a source of sugar.

• More similar to gasoline than ethanol

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 14

J. Niemistö et al. “Biobutanol as a potential sustainable biofuel – assessment of

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 15

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 16

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 17

→ Pyrolysis is a thermo chemical decomposition of organic

Feedstock: e.g. wood

Brazilian Journal of Chemical

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 18

Bio-oil is water miscible and is comprised of many

→ Dark brown mobile liquid

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 19

• Convert to biodiesel by transesterification with methanol (MeOH).

Criteria: cheap and non-edible

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 21

1. Non catalyzed method

Disadvantage: Reaction at high temperature and pressure

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 22

®Lipase is an enzyme Typical enzyme used:

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 24

Conversion 90%, 60h 0

SK Karmee, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects ,

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 25

Fukuda, et al. J. Biosci. Bioeng., 92: 405-416.

Major advantages of using enzymes

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 26

œ Reduction of greenhouse œ Losing of nature (clearing of land for getting

School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong 27