C 6 C E I A: Hapter Onducting An Nvironmental Mpact Ssessment

CHAPTER 6
CONDUCTING AN ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Conducting an environmental impact assessment (EIA) and suggesting

specific mitigation measures to bring down environmental impacts to
acceptable levels, and preparing an EIA report to seek environmental
approval for a proposed development project at a given location is at the
heart of an EIA study.
Before commencing an EIA, it is necessary to recognize that the

environment is dynamic, that it consists of an integrated group of natural
and social systems, and that EIA is a technique to analyze the impacts of
project-related activities which involve complex procedures. After
developing a complete understanding of the building blocks of an EIA,
described in the earlier chapters, we should focus on the following:
a. the terms of reference (TOR) prescribed for the preparation of an

EIA report
b. the project location and its surroundings in the study area
c. the type of project and detailed project-related activities involved
in each phase of the project lifecycle
This chapter will enable EIA professionals to conduct an EIA study for
proposed projects and prepare an EIA report to seek environmental approval
from the competent authority specified in the applicable EIA regime, e.g.
MOEF (2006, 2020).
6.1 The EIA team leader

The EIA team leader studies the TOR prescribed by the competent
authority, carries out desk research on the proposed project site, and
simultaneously obtains the following basic documents from the project
proponent and studies these thoroughly:
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i. detailed project description

ii. material and utilities flow diagrams and flow charts
iii. plant layout in case of manufacturing and energy projects, and
alignment in case of linear projects
iv. project report available in the form of pre-feasibility, feasibility, or
detailed project report
Based upon the characteristics of the project and the information on the
project site gathered from the desk research carried out, the EIA team leader
selects some key functional professionals to carry out a joint reconnaissance
survey of the project site to develop a preliminary understanding of the
environmental settings of the site. Thereafter, efforts are made to understand
the intricacies involved in the project to identify all the project-related
activities that may have the potential to cause environmental changes, and
hence environmental impacts could be identified. The composition of a
multidisciplinary EIA team of functional professionals is accordingly
decided. While selecting functional professionals to assign work to each of
them, the EIA team leader makes sure that the functional professionals
possess:
a. a basic understanding of the fundamentals of the concerned

environmental components
b. knowledge of the current developments in the concerned
functional areas
c. knowledge of the applicable regulations, and relevant international
protocols and treaties related to the functional areas
d. the requisite experience in conducting field monitoring and
investigations
e. the competence to develop a complete understanding of the finer
aspects of the project-related activities that may cause potential
changes to the environmental components of their respective
functional areas
f. the requisite experience in identifying and predicting impacts
g. the proficiency to conduct an EIA and to determine significant
impacts
h. the capability to propose specific mitigation measures for each of
the significant impacts determined, and an environmental
management program including an environmental monitoring
program for the respective environmental components, etc.
Depending upon the type and size of the project, environmental settings of
the site, the TOR, and the expertise of the selected functional professionals,
Conducting an Environmental Impact Assessment 231
more than one functional professional may have to be engaged in the studies
on a given environmental component. For example,
a. the biological environment may need different professionals for

the studies related to terrestrial flora, terrestrial fauna, aquatic
biota, coastal and marine organisms, avifauna, etc.
b. the water environment may require different professionals for the
studies related to surface water, groundwater, wastewater, etc.
c. the land environment may need different professionals for the
studies related to land use/land cover, landscape, soil, industrial
hazardous waste disposal, municipal solid waste disposal; etc.
Depending upon the level of expertise available within the EIA consulting
organization, prospective external sources having the requisite expertise are
identified and engaged to supplement the expertise available within the EIA
team. Further, in addition to the environmental professionals in the EIA
team, depending upon the type and size of the project, the TOR, and the
environmental sensitivity of the study area, the EIA team leader may have
to engage some professionals who have a good understanding of and
exposure to the project sector or the project for a specific set of activities or
any specific tasks. For example,
i. seismologists to evaluate the degree of neo-tectonic activity,

identify active faults, the design of faults crossing, etc., especially
for major water reservoirs, underground mining, oil/gas
exploration, large manufacturing, and energy and infrastructural
projects
ii. geotechnical professionals to evaluate areas of ground instability
and recommend suitable construction techniques for avoiding geo-
hazards, especially for underground mining and oil/gas exploration,
water resources, large manufacturing and energy infrastructure,
and projects to be undertaken in coastal areas
iii. professionals having expertise and experience in a specific sector
or project, e.g. manufacturing, viz. petroleum, metallurgical,
cement or chemical, energy such as thermal power, hydroelectric
or nuclear power, and infrastructure, viz. water resources, roads,
ports, or airports, etc.
iv. logistics and transportation professionals having expertise and
experience in infrastructural or transport planning and traffic
management for projects like ports, cement, petroleum refining,
metallurgical, and cement which involve storage and transportation of
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large tonnage of materials through road, rail, or water transport,

and urban transport and highways
v. architectural professionals having expertise and experience in
preparing building plans following town planning and zoning
regulations for construction and township projects, use of green
building materials, and designing green buildings
vi. planning professionals having expertise and experience in regional
or urban planning and environmental planning for area development
projects like industrial estates, integrated townships, projects
proposed in urban areas, etc.
vii. professionals having expertise in the use of specific prediction
models or software
viii. professionals whose expertise could be used for the development
and analysis of alternatives to select the best alternative for
conducting a detailed EIA
Further, depending upon the complexities of the project, the environmental

sensitivity of the study area, the limitations of the expertise available with
the EIA team, and public apprehensions regarding the proposed project, etc.,
the EIA team leader may also consider engaging some mentors or advisers,
who could be individuals or institutions, to seek their advice on specific
issues and for peer review of the work carried out by the EIA team.
The EIA team leader has regular meetings with the functional professionals
and the external experts, individually as well as in a group, to make sure
that they have a clear understanding of their respective roles vis-a-vis the
applicable TOR provided, to coordinate and review the work assigned to
each of them, and to monitor the overall assignment periodically.
6.2 Functional professionals

Each functional professional details the tasks and prepares a detailed work
plan about the work assigned in a manner that fits into the overall objective
and the schedule given by the EIA team leader. For the work related to the
assigned environmental component, each functional professional takes the
entire responsibility for the activities involved, including the following:
i. being thoroughly familiarized with the study area

ii. developing an overall understanding of the project configuration,
and a thorough understanding of the finer aspects of the work
segment assigned
iii. understanding the intricacies involved and meticulous

planning for the timely completion of work assigned
iv. detailed scoping of the work based on the TOR, environmental
settings of the study area, and project-related activities
v. identifying information requirements like general as well as
specific information on the study area, relevant maps, and
specific information on the project-related activities and
applicable regulatory framework, etc.
vi. having a work plan to gather the required information about
the project and the current scenario of the assigned
environmental component, following the quality management
system (QMS) of the EIA consulting organization, which may
consist of, e.g.:
a) identification of the parameters and preparation of a
monitoring plan for generating primary data
b) identification of the authentic secondary sources of data,
collection and collation of the data
c) ensuring integrity and quality assurance of the data
d) the compilation, analysis, and interpretation of the data on
different parameters
vii. preparation of base maps showing sampling and monitoring
locations and the measured values of the environmental
baseline parameters, representing baseline data generated in a
tabular and/or graphical form, preparing a brief write-up on
the interpretation of the baseline data, providing a graphical
representation depicting behavioral trends of critical
parameters based on authentic historical data compiled for a
longer period of, say a decade or so, developing a complete
understanding of the status of the pre-project environment,
etc., and preparing a suitable write-up for the chapter
description of the environment
viii. identification of all the activities, including core activities that
are integral to manufacturing and allied ones like those related
to utilities, material handling, storage, transportation, etc., and
the activities in other phases of the project lifecycle that have
the potential to cause changes in any parameter of the assigned
environmental component
ix. identification of potential critical environmental issues in each
lifecycle phase of the project
x. identification of the potential environmental impacts due to
the identified activities under different scenarios, viz. normal
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and abnormal operation, start-up and shutdown of operations,

and accidental
xi. mapping the predicted values of the environmental parameters
on the base maps, which are examined in the chapter
description of the environment, at the corresponding
monitoring and sampling locations depicting the baseline
parameters
xii. prediction or estimation of the environmental impacts using
appropriate techniques, deterministic or probabilistic models,
and/or software, and assessment of the environmental impacts
including:
a) determining significant environmental impacts
b) suggesting specific mitigation measures corresponding to
each of the significant impacts determined
c) assessing residual environmental impacts that may
remain even after implementing the suggested mitigation
measures, and suggesting a corresponding residual
impact management program
xiii. preparation of a suitable write-up for the chapter impact
assessment and mitigation measures, based on the above
xiv. preparation of an environmental monitoring program for the
critical parameters and those specified in the applicable
regulations, and project-specific parameters and issues
identified earlier for the respective environmental components
xv. preparation of inputs for the environmental management
program which will be drafted by the EIA team leader based
on the reports received from each functional professional and
specialized agencies on impact assessment, significant
impacts determined, corresponding mitigation measures
suggested, residual impacts, environmental monitoring, etc.
It may be emphasized that none of the functional professionals can work in

isolation or water-tight compartments. Each functional professional needs
to have a full appreciation of the fact that the environmental components are
interrelated and inter-dependent, not stand-alone. For example, ecological
impact assessment professionals will be able to do justice to the assigned
work only by taking into consideration the relevant information received
from the functional professionals working on air, noise, water, soil, and land
use/land cover. A complete and comprehensive EIA thus necessitates that
the EIA team leader ensures the free flow of information among functional
professionals, and facilitates regular interaction among them.
Depending upon the complexity of the project, sensitivity of the project site,
and specific environmental issues involved, the EIA team leader may have
to get involved more closely with some functional professionals. The
mechanism of preparing periodic reports by each functional professional,
their feedback during periodic review meetings, and the documentation of
the deliberations help the EIA team leader to monitor the overall
assignment, schedule, budget, and to ascertain:
a. proper coordination
b. a seamless flow of information from one functional professional to
another
c. a proper understanding and smooth functioning of the EIA team
d. good performance of each of the functional professionals
e. a complete and good-quality EIA report
f. timely completion of the EIA study
6.3 Kick-off meeting

The EIA team needs to do quick desk work to identify additional
information required from project proponent, issues that need clarification,
and broad aspects to be addressed in the EIA report after familiarizing itself
with:
i. the TOR
ii. the project configuration based on the details obtained from the
project proponent and other sources
iii. the environmental settings of the project site with the help of desk
research and the reconnaissance survey of the study area,
consisting of the project location and its surroundings decided
based on the TOR, applicable regulations, or potential impacts
anticipated from the project-related activities and the environmental
sensitivity of the project site
The requirement for information may include the following:
a. the applicable regulatory regime and the regulations applicable to

the project at the proposed site
b. phases involved in the project lifecycle, viz. pre-construction
(seismic, geological, geotechnical investigations, etc.), construction,
operation, and post-operation (closure, restoration, decommissioning,
or demolition), and the duration of each phase
c. construction schedule and methodology for project implementation
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d. additional details and clarifications on the project-related activities

in each phase
e. additional details and clarifications on the manufacturing process
f. practices proposed to be adopted for construction, material
handling, storage, and transportation, etc.
g. characteristics of all the inputs including feedstock, additives, fuel
and lubricants, packaging materials, etc. proposed to be handled,
stored and the corresponding inventory levels and sourcing
h. characteristics and quantities of all the intermediates and products
including side- products and by-products proposed to be produced,
handled, and stored, along with the corresponding inventory levels
and evacuation
i. details of anticipated emissions, discharges, disposals, rejects,
spills, leakages, etc. from different sources in each lifecycle phase
of the project, and how these are proposed to be managed; etc.
The project proponent needs to be made aware of the environmental

conditions of the site, and potential issues to be studied and addressed in the
EIA report. For this purpose, and also to set the ball rolling for the detailed
study, the EIA team leader along with his functional professionals needs to
have a kick-off meeting with the key personnel of the project proponent. It
is likely that all the desired information may not be readily available in the
pre-feasibility report or feasibility report of the project, and the project
proponent may have to gather the additional information asked for by the
EIA team. Sometimes, especially in infrastructural projects, a detailed
project report may be available containing detailed information on the
project and allied infrastructural facilities proposed.
In the kick-off meeting, several matters are to be discussed to arrive at a

broad understanding of the following aspects:
i. exchange of information
ii. work schedule regarding conducting the EIA study in
compliance with the TOR
iii. preparation of the draft EIA report while adhering to the
mechanism outlined in the applicable regulations and
following standard operating procedures
iv. mode of communication
v. frequency of regular interaction
vi. responsibility and obligation of the project proponent and the
EIA team
vii. reporting mechanism; etc.
Adopting a formal system of documenting the deliberations of the kick-off

meeting and subsequent meetings helps to develop clarity on the roles and
responsibilities of the different people in the EIA team and the project
proponent, and establishes a good communication network. This facilitates
smooth and cordial functioning, which goes a long way to
a. assuring the timely completion of a good-quality EIA report

b. avoiding any misunderstandings or blame games later
When the project proponent expresses an inability to provide certain

information asked for, the EIA team shall have to explore how to look for
that information from other sources. While doing so, it needs to be ensured
that the assumptions made in terms of bridging the information gaps, and
the sources explored for the information, are documented and stated in the
EIA report.
6.4 Description of the project

The EIA team leader, in consultation with the concerned functional
professionals, carries out due diligence of the documents and information
received from the project proponent during the kick-off meeting, and
subsequently seeks clarifications, if any, from the project proponents team.
The project-related information and the supporting documents are compiled
and the project description is prepared as outlined in Chapter 5 in such a
manner that it enables the identification of environmental impacts from the
project-related and allied activities.
It may be prudent to get the endorsement of the project proponent, on the

chapter description of the project, to ascertain that the EIA team has
developed a full understanding of the project and project-related activities,
and the applicable regulations.
6.5 Establishing environmental baseline conditions

(Description of the environment)
Each functional professional, in consultation with the EIA team leader,
makes an elaborate plan for gathering data to understand and describe the
status of the environment in the delineated study area before the
commencement of the project-related activities at the project site. The data
essentially consists of
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a. secondary data, i.e. the historical data that is required to be

collected from the published sources
b. primary data, i.e. the data that is required to be generated by
carrying out field monitoring
To establish realistic baseline environmental conditions in the study area, it

must be ensured that both the secondary data collected and the primary data
generated are relevant, representative, and authentic.
6.5.1 Baseline data

To generate primary data, a monitoring network is designed based on the
established QMS and standard guidelines. A sampling plan is prepared for
the field monitoring of the predefined physical-chemical parameters (based
on the TOR and the project) of the respective environmental components,
consisting of:
i. a selection of sampling locations

ii. sampling duration
iii. sampling frequency
iv. sampling methodology
Specific protocols, in line with the QMS, are followed for the field
investigations in generating baseline data for the ecological and social
components. The information on the prevailing sources of hazards and the
risk management mechanism in the study area is also collected.
The selected sampling locations are marked on the base maps. After
developing a thorough understanding of the study area by carrying out well-
planned field visits after the kick-off meeting, and knowing the ground
realities, some sampling locations may have to be fine-tuned. Reinventing
the wheel every time is avoided by following standard guidelines and well-
accepted standard methodologies for sampling, sample preservation, sample
transportation from the site to the off-site laboratory, sample analysis at the
site as well as off-site, sample disposal and destruction, etc. This saves
resources and also helps to assure the credibility of the data. It is advisable
to meticulously follow the sampling and analytical methods (Metcalf and
Eddy 2003, APHA 1998). The minimum detection levels or limits are to be
specifically documented for every analytical method employed. The bottom
line for any sampling program is to ensure that the data collected is
representative, reproducible, defensible, and useful.
The primary data, while it is being generated, is analyzed and interpreted

periodically over the entire duration of monitoring, and accordingly,
suitable changes are made in sampling locations, the number of samples to
be taken, sampling frequency, etc., wherever necessary. The selection of
sampling and monitoring locations in the study area for the primary data
generation is required to be justified and suitably documented.
While developing the environmental baseline scenario, it needs to be

ascertained that:
a. standard equipment, instruments, and materials are used

b. skilled professionals and technicians are involved
c. standard operating procedures are followed along with the
prescribed formats
d. the QMS is adhered to, etc.
The above should be demonstrable, and the documentary evidence needs to

be preserved for verification if necessitated later for establishing
authenticity, relevance, validation, and appropriateness of the environmental
baseline data. For this purpose, extensive documentation of the following
is important:
i. Methodologies followed for primary baseline data generation on

the different physical-chemical parameters concerning, e.g.:
a) ensuring the generation of relevant and authentic data
b) validation of the data
c) selection of the locations mentioning coordinates obtained
from GPS for establishing authenticity for sampling and
monitoring
d) suitability of the monitoring equipment and instruments used
e) analysis of samples at the sampling locations
f) sample preservation and transportation to the off-site
laboratory
g) agencies and technicians involved in the analysis of samples
in the off-site laboratory
h) analytical methods and maintenance of records of the results
obtained
i) reporting the observations
j) record control of the field data sheets in standard formats with
dates and names of the technicians involved in the sampling
and the analysis at the site, and the photographs taken from
GPS-loaded cameras to support the fieldwork carried out; etc.
240 Chapter 6
ii. Methodologies followed for secondary baseline data collection or

procurement for different physical-chemical parameters for, e.g.:
a) ensuring that the data collected is relevant to the study area
b) ensuring the authenticity of the sources explored for
secondary data, age of data, collation of data, and its relevance
and appropriateness for the study area
c) validation of the data
iii. Protocols and methodologies followed for establishing baseline
data on ecological aspects concerning, e.g.:
a) identification of rare and endangered species and habitats
universal, national as well as local
b) ensuring the authenticity of the sources explored for collecting
secondary data, age of data, collation of data, and its relevance
and appropriateness to the study area
c) sample surveys carried out when secondary data is resorted to
d) validation of the data
e) record control of the field data sheets and notes made while
undertaking field investigations on the different aspects of
species and habitats of flora, fauna, and avifauna in different
ecosystems, viz. terrestrial, aquatic, coastal and marine, and
wetland, as applicable, and the fieldwork supported with
photographs taken from GPS-loaded cameras, etc.
It needs to be recognized that biodiversity is not limited to the

designated protected areas only and that non-protected areas could also
have a rich biodiversity. Accordingly, ecological studies are undertaken
systematically in the study area by a group of professionals having
varied expertise. Further, the field studies are conducted over a longer
duration and in different seasons to determine important attributes of
the biodiversity, viz. abundance, variation, distribution, and the
functional relationship with the proposed project-related activities. The
data collected on ecological-related aspects must be specific to the
study area and relevant to the EIA, considering that the data generally
available for a jurisdictional region, i.e. the state or district, may not
be of specific relevance to the study area.
iv. Protocols and methodologies followed for establishing baseline

data on socio-economic and cultural aspects concerning, e.g.:
a. ensuring the authenticity of the sources explored for collecting
secondary data, age of data, collation of data, and its relevance and
appropriateness to the study area
b. sample surveys carried out when secondary data is resorted to
c. extrapolation of dated data, if required for attempting to establish

its current relevance or for making future projections, etc.
d. validation of the data
e. record control of the data sheets and questionnaires and notes
prepared while undertaking field investigations on the different
aspects of socio-economics and culture, public consultations, and
social need assessments, and the fieldwork supported with
photographs taken from GPS-loaded cameras; etc.
Collecting and presenting all kinds of socio-economic statistics from

the census and other records may be unnecessary for social and
economic studies. It is important that the data collected reflects a fairly
deep understanding of the people, their demography, occupations,
sources of livelihood, lifestyle, customs, cultures, etc. in reference to
the proposed project-related activities. The data collected on social-
related aspects must be specific to the study area and relevant to the
EIA, considering that the data generally available for a jurisdictional
region, i.e. state or district, may not be of specific relevance to the study
area.
For brownfield projects, i.e. expansion or diversification of the existing

project(s) at the same location, the monitored data is obtained from the
project proponent for the operating project(s) along with the monitoring
reports of statutory authorities and third parties including NGOs, if any.
This serves as secondary data, and after due diligence, it becomes useful in
planning the primary data generation for establishing the environmental
baseline conditions along the lines of that for the greenfield projects
described above. Observations are documented on the level of compliance
with the respective applicable regulations.
6.5.2 Baseline monitoring of the environmental components

The environmental baseline conditions in the delineated study area, with a
focus on the proposed project location, are generally established for
different environmental components as described below.
6.5.2.1 Air environment
The baseline studies for air environment essentially include gathering the
following information:
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i. major sources of air emissions including point sources, area

sources, linear sources, and fugitive sources in the study area
ii. their respective locations relative to the project location
iii. ambient air quality
iv. local meteorological conditions
v. sensitive receptors
The air environmental baseline studies for greenfield projects broadly

consist of the following activities:
i. surveying the existing major sources of air emissions, their relative

locations with reference to the project location, and the air pollutants
being emitted
ii. obtaining the updated land use map depicting industrial, commercial,
and residential areas or zones as per the approved development
plans
iii. identification of local topography and physical conditions
affecting the dispersion of pollutants
iv. obtaining information of the past 5-10 years on the meteorological
parameters specific to the project location, or the nearest available
location
v. obtaining data of the past 5-10 years on ambient air quality,
specific to the project location, or the nearest available location
vi. identification and mapping of the sensitive receptors, i.e. the
receptors likely to be exposed to the emissions generated from the
project-related activities and their relative locations with reference
to the project location. Such receptors could be, e.g.:
a) residential areas
b) schools
c) hospitals
d) health resorts
e) ecologically sensitive areas
f) wildlife sanctuaries
g) National Parks
h) notified agriculture and horticulture sensitive to air
pollution
i) forests and plantations
j) biosphere reserves
k) archaeological monuments
l) religious, historic, and scenic tourist attractions, or any
valued places; etc.
vii. measuring ambient air quality especially at sensitive locations for

the parameters decided based on the TOR, and in conformity with
the applicable regulations. MOEF (2009) specifies the parameters
for ambient air quality as SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5, O3, lead, CO,
ammonia, benzene, benzopyrene, arsenic, and nickel. A well-
designed network of monitoring stations helps to generate primary
data at the predetermined locations
viii. measuring local climate and meteorological parameters like wind
speed, wind direction, dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature,
rainfall, solar radiation, and cloud cover
Guidelines for the baseline data collection on ambient air quality (CPCB
2003) and those for manual sampling and analyzes of various parameters
(CPCB 2011) may be followed. The air quality monitoring techniques
suggested by Barrowcliffe (1992) for the pollutants like SO2, NO2, O3, CO,
benzene, volatile organic compounds, and metals may be considered. The
monitoring is, however, preceded by the collection of the background
information including:
a. the location of major sources of air pollution and the pre-identified

air pollutants emanating from these sources
b. local (micro) meteorological data
c. topography and terrain
d. historical data of the last 5-10 years on the quality of ambient air
e. the health and demography of the population
The background information is used as a basis for planning ambient air

quality monitoring while ensuring that the TOR are complied with. The
ambient air quality is measured ideally at a height of 1.5 m above ground
level in the vicinity of the receptors. However, practical considerations in
the field will influence the final decision on the placement of monitoring
stations, viz.:
a. the availability of a secure and suitable location

b. the availability of an uninterrupted power supply
c. obstructions
d. interference from other sources of emissions, etc.
Considerations for establishing air environmental baseline conditions
The following aspects need to be considered when establishing the baseline

conditions for the air environment by measuring the desired parameters of
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the ambient air quality over a predetermined duration and meteorological

parameters:
i. monitoring network design considering the background information

and the TOR for the selection of monitoring stations based on
factors like:
(a) the number and type of receptors
(b) access to the location
(c) representativeness and security of the location
(d) the availability of a continuous power supply
(e) interference from the existing sources of major emissions
and obstructions to the airflow
(f) topographical and meteorological factors
(g) the pollutants to be measured based on:
the pollutants anticipated from different sources
in each phase of the project lifecycle
sampling duration
sampling frequency considering the diurnal and
seasonal variations in wind velocity, etc.
ii. resource requirements including well-trained manpower for field
monitoring and analytical work, capital for equipment and
instruments for monitoring, testing, and allied infrastructure, and
recurring expenses for manpower, glassware, consumables, power,
maintenance, calibration, transportation of samples, support
facilities, etc.
iii. standard continuous sampling and measurement methods using
standard glassware and equipment, reagents, consumables, etc.
iv. project location-specific local meteorological parameters, consisting
of temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, wind direction,
predominant wind direction in different months, and precipitation
v. a fully equipped off-site (distantly located) laboratory, having
relevant certification or accreditation, and a mobile laboratory in
the field; both adopting standard procedures, analytical
methodologies, and practices
vi. quality assurance of the monitored data
vii. representation of the data and data management including
(a) use of standard formats
(b) validation of the data to ensure its correctness and
repeatability
(c) compilation of data on a daily basis
(d) frequency of interpretation of data by the concerned

functional professionals
(e) a mechanism of incorporating necessary changes in
monitoring the program of particular parameters
concerning, e.g.
sample location
duration of sampling
frequency of sampling, etc.
(f) data representation in tabular and graphical form, etc.
The parameters that are specific to the proposed project are identified and
specifically monitored even if these do not appear in the TOR.
Brownfield projects
For brownfield projects, the concerned functional area professionals:
a. obtain the past monitoring data for the operating project(s), viz. the
sources of air pollution, stack emissions, ambient air quality,
receptors, etc. from the project proponent
b. obtain reports from the project proponent on the stack emissions
and ambient air quality monitored by statutory authorities and third
parties, if any
c. identify all the sources of emissions for the operating project(s) and
conduct baseline monitoring for emissions from stacks of the
major sources, whether these operate continuously or periodically
for ascertaining emissions at source for the operating project(s),
following the methodology described above for greenfield projects
d. monitor the ambient air quality at the sensitive locations and
receptors in the study area including the operating project(s),
e. obtain EIA report(s) prepared for seeking environmental approval
of the existing project(s) and study the sub-chapter on baseline
conditions of the air environment
f. verify compliance with the environmental approval conditions for
the air environment
Based on the above, due diligence is done on the information at a and b

above, and this is compared with the monitored data at c and d above, i.e.
with the primary data generated, and the applicable regulatory standards.
The status of compliance with the applicable regulation on the air
environment is described. Observations on e and f above are also described.
246 Chapter 6
Output of the establishment of baseline conditions for the air environment
The output of the establishment of the air environment baseline conditions,

duly documented, generally includes:
i. justification of the monitoring locations selected

ii. the period during which the baseline monitoring for the air
environment was conducted
iii. a description of the methodology used for gathering the air
environment baseline data
iv. tabulation of the meteorological data, i.e. secondary data collected
for the nearest location as well as primary data, consisting of
precipitation, temperature, wind speed, wind direction, prominent
wind direction in different months, mixing height and stability
class
v. a graphical representation of the historical data of the past 5-10
years, depicting variations in the meteorological data and the
ambient air quality, and trend analysis
vi. tabulation of the primary data on ambient air quality-related
parameters at the selected monitoring locations in compliance with
the TOR, highlighting minimum, maximum and average values,
and corresponding permissible values as per the applicable
regulations
vii. mapping of the monitoring locations and the corresponding
monitored ambient air quality-related parameters, relative
locations of the existing (major) sources of emissions, and
sensitive receptors on the base maps
Considering that both speed and direction of the wind change over time in
a specific region, for ease of interpretation and a good representation of the
baseline data for the air environment in the EIA report, wind-related
information consisting of wind speed, direction, and intensity is represented
in a graphical form termed as the wind rose diagram. It summarizes the
incoming direction, speed, and intensity of wind at a specific location. It
may be noted that the direction marked on the wind rose is the direction
from which the wind blows. While carrying out 24-hourly monitoring at
different locations, sometimes it is likely that the monitored data may show
some unusual surges or dips in the values of a certain parameter(s). Such
variations could be explained if the field monitoring data sheets record such
abnormal happenings or incidents, if any, during the continuous monitoring
cycle. The suitably represented monitored data is interpreted properly and
discussed briefly. The unique features, if any, observed during field visits
and monitoring are described. The limitations of the air quality baseline
monitoring, if any, are distinctly mentioned.
6.5.2.2 Noise environment
The baseline studies for noise environment essentially include gathering

information on the major sources of noise emissions and vibration, whether
continuous, intermittent, or periodic, their locations with reference to the
project location, ambient noise levels, and sensitive receptors in the study
area. The baseline studies for the noise environment for greenfield projects
involve:
a. identification of all the existing major sources of noise along

with the periodicity of noise generation, viz.
a) continuous noise, e.g. from industrial
operations, construction, and traffic
b) intermittent noise, e.g. from blasting in mining,
and industrial venting
c) periodic noise, e.g. from sirens
b. identification of the sensitive receptors and their relative
locations
c. collection of the information on land use, viz. residential,
commercial, and industrial zones
d. collection of the information on the topography and terrain
The information on b, c, and d above would have already been gathered for
establishing baseline conditions for the air environment. Since the sensitive
receptors are the prime consideration for measuring sound levels, the
monitoring locations for noise would invariably be the same as those
selected for ambient air quality monitoring. The locations for monitoring
vibration levels at the existing monuments, cultural resources, and other
structures are required to be suitably selected, depending on the proposed
activities. The monitoring stations for baseline data generation are to be
selected diligently for projects like railways, and highways, mining and
infrastructural projects involving blasting operations, constructions
involving piling, etc. since the noise and vibration generated have the
potential to be transmitted or propagated even to the receptors located far
beyond the source of the generation of noise and vibration.
For baseline noise level monitoring, the ambient noise levels are generally
measured in the vicinity of the pre-identified receptors at a height of 1.5 m
above ground level on the lines of ambient air quality monitoring. Based on
248 Chapter 6
the TOR, spot noise monitoring is done at given locations using a hand-held
sound-level meter, during daytime (0600 to 2200 hrs) and nighttime (2200
to 0600 hrs) separately, or continuous monitoring is done for 24 hours using
sophisticated sound-level meters that integrate sound-level measurements
recorded every 30 seconds over the half-hour duration.
Brownfield projects
For brownfield projects, the concerned functional area professionals
a. obtain the past monitoring data for the operating project(s), viz.
sources of noise and vibration, and the ambient noise levels from
the project proponent
b. obtain reports from the project proponent reports on the monitoring
of noise levels carried out by statutory authorities and third parties,
if any
c. identify all the major sources of noise and vibration for the
operating project(s), whether these operate continuously or
periodically, and conduct baseline monitoring for noise and
vibration at a distance of 1 m from the sources of noise to ascertain
the noise levels generated at source for the operating project(s)
d. monitor ambient noise levels at the sensitive locations and
receptors in the study area including the operating project(s), and
vibration levels depending on the project-related activities,
e. obtain EIA report(s) prepared for seeking environmental approval
for the operating project(s) and study the sub-chapter on baseline
conditions of the noise environment
f. verify compliance with the environmental approval conditions for
the noise environment
Based on the above, due diligence is done on the information at a and b

above, and these are compared with the monitored data at c and d above, i.e.
with the primary data generated, and the applicable regulatory standards.
The status of compliance with the applicable regulation on the noise
environment is described. Observations on e and f above are also described.
Output of the establishment of baseline conditions for the noise and

vibration environment
The output of the establishment of baseline conditions for noise and

vibration, duly documented, generally includes:
i. justification of the monitoring locations selected

ii. the period during which the baseline monitoring for noise and
vibration levels was conducted
iii. description of the methodology used for gathering the noise
environment baseline data
iv. tabulation of the primary data generated for ambient noise levels
at the selected monitoring locations in compliance with the TOR,
highlighting minimum, maximum and average or equivalent
values, and corresponding permissible values for day and
nighttime as per the applicable regulations
v. mapping of the monitoring locations and corresponding monitored
ambient noise and vibration levels, relative locations of the
existing (major) sources of noise and vibration, and sensitive
receptors on the base maps
For ease of interpretation and a good representation of the baseline data for
the noise environment in the EIA report, a graphical form may be used as
far as possible. While carrying out 24-hourly monitoring at different
locations, sometimes the monitored data likely shows some unusual surges
or dips in the monitored values of noise or vibration levels. Such variations
could be explained if the field monitoring data sheets record such abnormal
happenings or incidents, if any, during the continuous monitoring cycle. The
suitably represented monitored data is interpreted properly and discussed
briefly. The unique features, if any, observed during field visits and
monitoring are described. The limitations of the baseline study, if any, are
distinctly mentioned.
6.5.2.3 Water environment
The baseline studies for greenfield projects essentially involve the

collection of information on water resources, both surface and groundwater,
for water availability and water quality in different seasons. It also involves
the identification of all the water bodies in the study area which may have
the potential to be affected by any of the project-related activities. The
baseline information to be gathered for the study area primarily consists of:
i. existing sources being exploited for water intake, major users, and
major uses of water
ii. existing (major) sources of wastewater generation, treatment
facilities along with the type and level of treatment being given to
wastewater, and mode(s) of disposal of the treated wastewater
from different facilities
250 Chapter 6
iii. estuaries, coastal and marine waters for tides, currents, and water
quality if these are likely to be affected by any of the proposed
project-related activities
iv. existing water runoff pattern and watershed/drainage basin/catchment
areas
v. trend analysis on surface water flows with flow variations in
different seasons and corresponding water quality, based on the
authentic past data of a decade or so
vi. trend analysis on groundwater availability and water table in
different seasons and corresponding water quality, based on the
authentic past data of a decade or so
When secondary data for the project location is not available, the data of
upstream and downstream locations or nearby locations are obtained,
analyzed, and interpreted using appropriate techniques, and extrapolations
or interpolations are resorted to for estimating the prevailing status at the
project location.
In addition to gathering the information on sensitive water resources,

degraded water resources, new water resources explored, and controversial
issues, if any, it is necessary to collect information on the critical
occurrences of the following incidents in the past:
i. water scarcity
ii. flooding
iii. excessive algal or weeds blooms
iv. thermal discharges causing stratification in the water bodies
v. fish kill, etc.
Keeping in view the universal hydrological cycle and the local hydrological
cycle, Fig. 6.1 is to be studied, analyzed, and described to reflect a full
understanding of the correct and realistic scenario of the overall status of
the water environment, more so when the proposed project is water-
intensive.
Based on the TOR and the local circumstances, locations for monitoring and
sampling are selected for primary data generation. For river or stream water
monitoring, sequential segmentation of rivers or streams is done to arrive at
uniform reaches based on depth, velocity, re-aeration rate, decay rate, etc.
The water bodies from which the water is proposed to be drawn for meeting
the requirement of the project-related activities, and those in which the
treated wastewater from the project is proposed to be discharged as a point

source, are carefully monitored over different seasons for
a. water flow rates and the corresponding water quality

b. downstream activities
c. downstream uses and users of water
d. aquatic biota, etc.
252 Chapter 6
Considerations for establishing water environmental baseline conditions
The following standard guidelines, modified from CPCB (2008) could be

followed:
a. monitoring network design, considering background information

and the TOR, for the selection of
a) parameters (the physical-chemical and biological) to be
measured
b) sampling locations
c) frequency of measurement
b. standard methodologies for sampling, whether grab, composite,
and/or integrated sampling, ensuring the representativeness of the
samples, selecting containers for samples, sample preservation,
and transportation, etc.
c. appropriate kits for on-site analysis of the collected water samples
d. off-site laboratory having relevant certification or accreditation for
the analysis of samples using standard glassware and equipment,
reagents, consumables, etc. for physical, chemical, and biological
parameters, following standard analytical methods and practices
(APHA 1998)
e. quality assurance system for the monitored data
f. resource requirements including well-trained manpower for
monitoring and analytical work, funds for meeting capital
expenses for monitoring, testing, and allied equipment and
instruments as well as recurring expenses for manpower,
glassware, consumables, power, maintenance, calibration,
transportation, etc.
g. representation of the data and data management including
a) use of standard formats
b) validation of the data to ensure its correctness and
repeatability
c) compilation of data on a daily basis
d) periodicity of interpretation of data by the concerned
functional professionals
e) mechanism of incorporating necessary changes in
monitoring the program of particular parameters for, e.g.
sample location
duration of sampling
frequency of sampling, etc.
f) data representation in tabular and graphical form; etc.
The parameters that are specific to the proposed project are identified and
specifically monitored even if these do not appear in the TOR.
For the coastal and marine areas in the study area, which have the potential
of being affected due to any of the project-related activities, coastal as well
as marine water quality is monitored. The information is collected on the
estuary including its type, flows into and from it in a tidal cycle, mixing
pattern, water quality, primary productivity, etc.
The primary biological productivity of water, exhibiting the diversity of

plankton, represented by the Shannon Weaver Index (1948) is measured
with the understanding that the value of 6 reflects clean waters and an
increase in the pollution levels results in the reduction of this value.
Brownfield projects
For brownfield projects, the concerned functional area professionals
i. obtain the past monitoring data documented by the project

proponent for:
a) status of the water resource(s) being exploited along with
water quality
b) users of water in the existing project(s) along with their
water usage pattern
c) wastewater generated from different users and activities,
whether continuous or periodic, and the characteristics
d) type and level of treatment given, whether individually
and/or in a central facility
e) treated wastewater being discharged and its characteristics
f) water flow rates and water quality of the water body
receiving treated wastewater
ii. obtain reports from the project proponent on the monitoring of the
discharged wastewater and its sink, carried out by statutory
authorities and third parties if any
iii. obtain reports from the project proponent on the performance audit
of the wastewater treatment facilities
iv. obtain reports from the project proponent on the water audit
v. monitor the following in the study area including the operating
project(s), using methodology described for greenfield projects:
a) water resources being exploited for meeting the water
requirementflow rates and quality
254 Chapter 6
b) water users and wastewater generated from different

users and activitiesflow rates and quality, whether
continuous or periodic
c) sink(s) of wastewaterflow rates and quality
vi. conduct audit of the water network and water usage, and
performance and adequacy audit of the wastewater treatment
facility of the operating project(s)
vii. obtain EIA report(s) prepared for seeking environmental approval
of the operating project(s) and study the sub-chapter on baseline
conditions of the water environment
viii. verify compliance with the environmental approval conditions for
the water environment
Based on the above, due diligence is done on the information at i-iv above,
and comparison is done with the monitored data at v-vi above, i.e. with the
primary data generated, and the applicable regulatory standards. The status
of compliance with the applicable regulation on the water environment is
described. Observations on vii and viii above are also described.
Output of the establishment of baseline conditions for the water

environment
The output of the establishment of the water environment baseline

conditions, duly documented, generally includes:
i. a justification of the sampling and monitoring locations selected

ii. the period during which the baseline monitoring for the water
environment was conducted
iii. a description of the methodology used for gathering the water
environmental baseline data
iv. a representation of the past data obtained from secondary sources
on water availability and corresponding quality in tabular and
graphical forms, and analysis of the trends
v. tabulation of the monitoring data collected on surface and
groundwater resources availability with variations, and
corresponding quality concerning
a) the physical-chemical characteristics, highlighting
minimum, maximum, and average values of different
parameters and the corresponding permissible values as
per the applicable regulations
b) biological characteristics including fecal coliform and

total coliform content, and the Shannon Weaver diversity
index
vi. tabulation of the monitoring dataflow rates and quality collected
for the water bodies into which the treated wastewater is proposed
to be discharged
vii. mapping of the following information on the base map along with
specific locations relative to the proposed project:
a) water bodies along with water availability and water
quality
b) water resources proposed to be exploited for meeting the
water requirement along with water withdrawal from
these and its quality with seasonal variations
c) wastewater treatment facilities
d) sinks for treated wastewater disposal
For ease of interpretation and a good representation of the baseline data in

the EIA report, a graphical form is used as far as possible. While carrying
out 24-hourly monitoring at different locations, sometimes the monitored
data likely shows some unusual surges or dips in the values of some
parameters. Such variations could be explained if the field monitoring data
sheets record such abnormal happenings or incidents, if any, during the
monitoring cycle. The suitably represented monitored data is properly
interpreted and briefly discussed. The unique features, if any, observed
during field visits and monitoring are described. The limitations of the
baseline monitoring, if any, are distinctly mentioned.
6.5.2.4 Land (Soil, land use/land cover, and landscape and visual)
environment
The information on land use/land cover for the study area is generally
obtained from the survey maps and development plans prepared by
government agencies. However, it may be generally observed that such
maps are dated since the updating does not keep pace with the developments
taking place. Thus, the changes due to rapid all-round developments, which
is a regular phenomenon, especially in developing countries, may not be
visible on such maps. Fairly good information on the land use/land cover of
the study area could be obtained from Google Earth. The current, accurate
and authentic information on the soil, land use/land cover, geological
features and topography could be obtained from the latest remote sensing
maps procured from the concerned government agencies like the National
Remote Sensing Agency. For inaccessible areas like swamps, mudflats, and
256 Chapter 6
ravines, remote sensing may be the only accurate and real-time data source
for synoptic coverage and information.
Soil
To establish the soil environmental baseline conditions, the soil properties

which determine the availability of the plant nutrients and hence the soil
fertility, viz. soil color, soil depth, bulk density, field capacity, soil pH, soil
acidity, alkalinity and salinity, cation-exchange capacity, soil organic
matter, and nitrogen cycle are required to be gathered.
For primary data collection on soil, suitable sampling locations are selected,
and sampling and sample analysis are done using standard methodologies
(IARI 1999, Singh et al. 2005, IRD 2009). The following soil parameters
are generally measured/estimated:
a. physical: type of soil and texture, bulk density, particle size

distribution, porosity, permeability, water holding capacity, soil
moisture content, hydraulic conductivity, and coastal morphology
b. chemical: pH, electrical conductivity, cation-exchange capacity,
exchangeable cations, sodium absorption ratio, organic carbon,
sodium, calcium, magnesium, heavy metals, and nutrients, viz.
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K)
c. biological: micro-organisms
The trend analysis of the past data and the monitored data are properly
interpreted using standard soil classification criteria.
Land use/land cover
The following information is obtained, separately for the core zone and
buffer zone:
a. land use, i.e. the purpose for which land is designated for use, e.g.
residential, commercial, industrial, transportation, utility facilities,
communication, etc.
b. land cover, i.e. biophysical aspects found on earth, e.g. agriculture,
forest, grassland, wetland, barren land, water, etc.
c. waste management facilities, if any
d. drainage pattern, etc.
Field investigations of some locations using GPS and GPS-enabled cameras

are carried out for ground-truthing or verification of the information
obtained from remote sensing. A Geographic Information System (GIS)

could be used to represent the spatial, i.e. location data, and the attributes,
i.e. characteristics of given locational data.
Landscape and visual environment
The landscape is defined as an ecologically significant large area of land

and/or water that contains geographically distinct assemblages of natural
communities. The baseline information on the existing distinctive as well as
common landscape is obtained using different methods or sources, viz.:
i. visually during field investigations

ii. aerial photographs and/or the photographs taken from GPS-
enabled cameras
iii. remote sensing maps for the following features:
a) landform including topography, contours, break of slopes,
ridges, valleys, watersheds, drainage lines, water bodies, etc.
b) land cover including land use pattern and main vegetation
cover
c) daytime and nighttime variations
d) seasonal variations in leaf coverthe least as well as
maximum leaf cover periods
e) landscape character including project location and site
settings, built environment, coastal features, appearance, etc.
f) historical and architectural monuments, religious and cultural
sites, etc. (details of which are to be discussed under social and
cultural environment), and wildlife (details of which are to be
discussed under ecological environment)
Brownfield projects
For brownfield projects, the concerned functional professionals
i. obtain the past monitoring data on soil, land use/land cover,

landscape, and waste management from the project proponent
ii. obtain reports from the project proponent on monitoring of waste
management practices and facilities carried out by statutory
authorities or third parties, if any
iii. conduct baseline monitoring for soil, land use/land cover,
landscape, and waste management practices and facilities in the
study area including the operating projects, following the
methodology described above for greenfield projects
258 Chapter 6
iv. obtain EIA reports prepared for seeking environmental approval of

the operating project(s) and study the sub-chapter on baseline
conditions for soil, land use/land cover, landscape
v. verify compliance with the environmental approval conditions for
soil, land use/land cover, landscape, and waste management
Based on the above, due diligence is done on the information at i and ii

above, and these are compared with the monitored data at iii above, i.e. with
the primary data generated, and the applicable regulatory standards. The
status of compliance with the applicable regulations is described.
Observations on iv and v above are also described.
Output of the baseline conditions for the soil, land use/land cover, and
landscape and visual environment
The output of the establishment of the soil, land use/land cover, and
landscape and visual environmental baseline conditions, duly documented,
generally includes:
i. the period during which the baseline monitoring was conducted

ii. a description of the methodology used in collecting the baseline
data
iii. a justification on the soil sampling locations selected
iv. mapping of the soil sampling locations on the base map along with
soil quality parameters
v. a tabulation of soil characteristics depicting soil classification,
fertility, and productivity
vi. mapping of the information on contaminated soils, soils rendered
degraded and unproductive, and those affected by salinity increase
or ingress, etc.
vii. base maps showing land use/land cover, separately in the core zone
and buffer zone
viii. details on the land use/land cover in a tabular form mentioning the
area for each of the purposes and attributes, also expressed in
percentages, and specific classification of the land use for waste
management facilities and practices followed in the core zone and
buffer zone
ix. mapping and description of the drainage pattern in the core zone
and buffer zone
x. a description of visual features and unique features in the core zone
and buffer zone
xi. mapping of the locations where ground verification was carried out
For ease of interpretation and a good representation of data, a graphical form

is used as far as possible. The suitably represented monitored data is
interpreted properly and discussed briefly. The unique features, if any,
observed during field investigations and monitoring are described. The
limitations of the baseline monitoring, if any, are distinctly spelled out.
6.5.2.5 Ecological environment
The baseline studies on the ecological or biological environment are aimed

at collecting relevant and updated information on the ecological resources,
especially on the identification of the resources which are likely to be
affected due to any of the project-related activities. Depending upon the
TOR, secondary data is collected and collated, and/or field investigations are
undertaken for generating primary data. It primarily involves gathering the
following information, with a special focus on rare and endangered species of
flora as well as fauna, using well-established and accepted standard
methodologies (Krebs 1999, Brower and Zar 1998, Edwards 2010):
a. species and their taxonomical aspects

a. habitats
b. influencing environmental variables
Secondary data
The secondary data on the rare, threatened, and endangered species, as well
as habitats, are obtained from authentic sources while ascertaining that the
data is relevant to the study area, not macro-level information of the
administrative or jurisdictional region like state or district. The categorization
of the rare, threatened, and endangered species and habitats are documented
based on standard classification (IUCN 2004, MOEF 1995). The local
species that are endangered and threatened are also identified even though
these may not find a mention in the IUCN.
The places falling in the study area or its vicinity, having high conservation
status, are specifically listed, e.g.:
a. National parks
b. Wildlife sanctuaries
c. National marine parks
d. Designated forests
e. Designated wetlands
f. Ramsar wetlands of international significance
g. Internationally designated biosphere reserves
260 Chapter 6
It may be recognized that while the designated sites are known to have high
ecological value, it does not mean that non-designated sites are devoid of
such value. Only baseline studies can bring out the ecological importance
of such non-designated sites. Further, managerial interventions carried out
or proposed in the study area by the concerned authorized agencies, if any,
for the protection and development of certain species and habitats are
documented after comprehending these thoroughly, considering that such
interventions often have a significant influence on the composition of
species and habitats.
Field investigations for primary data
The field studies for primary data generation, involving detailed investigations
to identify habitats, individual species, and groups are generally preceded
by extensive desk research and elaborate planning for such studies.
Appropriate seasons must be selected for detailed field investigations
(Wathern 1988). The available literature on the protocols to be followed for
wildlife study designs and data collection, reviewed by Ramesh (2008), may
be used as follows:
1. Targets and field methods

i. inventory and spatial distribution
ii. abundance estimation
a) random sampling
b) systematic sampling
c) replicates and pseudo-replicates
d) plot methods
e) point methods
f) line methods
iii. monitoring
iv. ecology and behavior
2. Landscape ecology
3. Data analysis and interpretation
Statistical determination of random sampling for field investigations is

documented while ensuring that the sample size is determined based on the
species and their distribution. The data on biological diversity, an indicator
of the variety and variability of living organisms and the biological
communities in which they live in, and expressed as diversity indices (Izsak
and Papp 2000), reflecting distribution and abundance, is compiled from
different sources and collated for:
a. flora: trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers, endemic and exotic

species, and rare plant species
b. fauna: amphibians, mammals, reptiles, and rare faunal species
c. avifauna: native, migratory, and rare species of birds
d. aquatic organisms: phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthic, and other
aquatic and marine life including fish, coral, mangrove, and rare
aquatic organisms
e. critical environmental variables
Information on the abundance and diversity of species is generally described

in terms of biodiversity indices, viz. the Shannon Index, Simpson Index, and
Sorensons coefficient (Biodiversity Indices, Student Handout, Shannon
and Weaver 1948 and 1963, Simpson 1949). The primary productivity of
aquatic and marine ecosystems, derived from investigations on water
quality, is generally expressed in terms of the Shannon Weaver Index.
Detailed investigations
In EIAs for large projects like water reservoirs, mining, and area development,
the baseline studies would also involve establishing ecological biodiversity at
different levels, viz. species, genetic, and ecosystem. Information on the
following ecological resources categories, defined by the Ecological
Monitoring and Assessment Program of the US EPA (Canter 1996), is
required to be collected for the study area:
i. near coastal waters

ii. inland surface waters
iii. wetlands
iv. forests
v. arid lands
vi. agro-ecosystems
Depending upon the TOR, the type of the project, and the project site, the
decision is taken to carry out detailed investigations on the entire range of
easily identifiable species existing in terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosystems
including flora, mammals, lower and vascular plants, invertebrates, amphibians,
reptiles, fish and other aquatic animals, reptiles, amphibians, avifauna, etc.
in addition to the higher species and those which are better ecological
indicators. The studies are taken up by professionals of the relevant
disciplines for assessing biodiversity related to regional and local
ecosystems, and species.
262 Chapter 6
The following information, considered to be useful for EIAs, is also

collected:
i. flowering seasons of different vegetation

ii. breeding periods of different fauna
iii. nesting periods of indigenous birds
iv. the breeding period of migratory birds and their migrant routes
v. migratory routes of large animals
vi. breeding and spawning periods of specific types of marine
organisms, etc.
The inherent weaknesses of different methodologies employed in the field

investigations need to be recognized and highlighted in the report. Further,
the limitations of the baseline studies, like the following, should also be
brought out:
i. surveys conducted over a short time

ii. superficial surveys conducted
iii. individual areas not visited at all or visited just once
iv. seasonal aspects not taken into account
v. small areas not delineated
vi. the omission of important areas and rarities
vii. many surveyors involved without following uniform standard
protocols and methodologies; etc.
Brownfield projects
i. obtain the past monitoring data on the different aspects of ecology

from the project proponent
ii. conduct baseline monitoring and investigations in the study area
including the operating project(s), following the methodology
described above for the greenfield projects
iii. obtain EIA report(s) prepared for seeking environmental approval
conditions of the ecological environment
iv. verify compliance with the environmental approval conditions for
the ecological environment
Based on the above, due diligence is done on the information at i above, and
it is compared with the monitored data at ii above, i.e. with the primary data
generated, and the applicable regulatory standards. The status of compliance
with the applicable regulation on the ecological environment is described.

Observations on iii and iv above are also described.
Output of the establishment of baseline conditions for the ecological

environment
The output of the establishment of baseline conditions for the ecological or

biological environment generally includes:
i. secondary data collected on flora and fauna: species, and habitat

along with the sources of information, and analysis of the trends
ii. the period during which the field monitoring and investigations
were undertaken
iii. a description of the methodologies used for collecting the
secondary data
iv. listings of the rare, threatened, and endangered species of flora
and fauna along with their population and categorization, and their
mapping on the base map
v. a justification of the sampling and monitoring locations selected
vi. mapping of the sampling and monitoring locations on the base
map
vii. mapping of the places having high conservation status along with
their spatial distribution relative to the project location on the base
map
viii. listings of different species based on secondary sources of
information, duly specified, and primary data, separately for
a) flora: natural vegetation including trees, shrubs, herbs,
and climbers, grassland, freshwater, coastal and marine
organisms, crops, horticulture, social forestry, medicinal
plants, etc.
b) fauna: terrestrial including mammals, reptiles, and
amphibians, freshwater, and marine organisms, avifauna
with their population, migratory fauna, migratory routes,
and corridors of wildlife, etc.
ix. listings of species which are better ecological indicators
x. important environmental variables and critical ecological
processes that control the structure and functioning of the
ecosystems present
xi. a description of the status of different habitats
The interpretation of data is described briefly. The unique features, if any,

observed during the field visits and monitoring are described. The
264 Chapter 6
weaknesses or limitations of the ecological baseline study, if any, are

spelled out clearly.
6.5.2.6 Social environment
Considering that an enormous amount of data is generally available from

various sources on different aspects of the social and economic
environment, the baseline study needs to be planned with a focus on
collecting the information that will be used for social, economic, and
cultural impact assessment, and social needs assessment.
The information would generally include demographic, livelihood, cultural,

heritage, and economic aspects of the population living in the study area.
Specific information on social issues like educational facilities, health care,
water supply, liquid and solid waste disposal, stormwater drainage, means
of livelihood, income, employment potential, commercial facilities,
security, fire protection, recreation, transportation, religious and cultural
facilities, social services, etc. is required to be collected.
For the baseline study, a wide range of stakeholders are contacted for
interaction or collection of data, viz.:
i. people: individuals, groups, and communities who are at potential

risk of being affected directly or indirectly by the project
ii. the project proponent, project financing agencies, and project
beneficiaries
iii. governmental agencies including local self-government and
regulators at regional and national levels
iv. non-government organizations (NGOs), non-profit organizations
(NPOs), community-based organizations (CBOs), and other
interest groups like academicians and media
v. others such as infrastructural support providers, prospective
neighbors, international organizations, etc.
Well-structured focus group discussions, meetings with the potential

project-affected persons and other stakeholders, key informant interviews,
etc. can help in obtaining certain information that may be useful for the
social need assessment.
The extent of socio-economic data generation and collection shall depend

upon the:
a. TOR
b. type and size of the project
c. settings of the site
d. potential and extent of impacts on the livelihood and lifestyle of
project-affected persons (PAPs)
e. perceptions of the people on the proposed project
A good understanding of the population in the study area is developed by

collecting information on the various aspects highlighted below, and
documenting it properly:
i. peoples way of life, how they:

a) live
b) work
c) recreate
d) interact with one another on a day-to-day basis
ii. their culture:
a) shared beliefs
b) customs and traditions
c) morals and values
iii. their community:
a) its cohesion
b) stability
c) character
d) services and facilities
iv. their environment:
a) availability and quality of food
b) availability and quality of water
c) quality of air
d) sanitation facilities
e) noise and dust exposure
f) safety and fears about security
g) access to and control over resources
When authentic data specific to the study area is not available, field surveys
and investigations may have to be undertaken depending upon the type and
size of the project and the project site. Well-established and accepted
protocols are used for collecting data on households, and social and
infrastructural facilities at village/hamlet levels.
266 Chapter 6
Field investigations
The primary survey (ASI 2010) consisting of household socio-demographic

surveys, household health and nutrition surveys, and social-cultural surveys
in the study area is undertaken for gathering the following information:
i. The household socio-demographic surveys include the collection

of information on:
a) the target group and affected areas
b) the PAPs
c) age and sex composition
d) fertility and mortality profile
e) in- and out-migration profile
f) level and sources of income and expenditure
g) access to income-generating sources
ii. The household health and nutrition surveys of the households
include the collection of information on:
a) health
b) hygiene
c) nutrition
d) sanitation profile
iii. The social-cultural surveys involve:
a) examining the existing social support system in the form of
community-linked institutional support
b) assessing the roles of such principles as kinship, neighborhood,
and the common cultural-bearing tradition in maintaining
community structure to estimate how much of these
functioning principles are going to be affected due to the
project
c) identifying existing cultural resources and assessing their
gradual loss of importance due to the project
The information on cultural resources to be collected generally includes

historical, archaeological, religious, geological, and environmental
resources in addition to the designated World Heritage sites and national
heritage sites. Information on such resources in the study area and the
vicinity is collected from authentic secondary sources of data. In case the
proposed project location is closer to some known cultural resources,
suitable professionals are engaged by the EIA team leader to conduct
specific investigations to identify cultural resources that are not documented
yet, possibly because these are not well known or have not been studied.
Brownfield projects
i. obtain the past monitoring information on the different socio-

economic aspects from the project proponent
ii. conduct baseline monitoring and field investigations in the study
area including the operating project(s), following the methodology
described above for the greenfield projects
iii. obtain EIA report(s) prepared for seeking environmental approval
conditions of the socio-economic environment
iv. verify compliance with the environmental approval conditions for
the socio-economic aspects
Based on the above, due diligence is done on the information at i above, and
it is compared with the monitored data at ii above, i.e. with the primary data
generated, and the applicable regulatory standards. The status of compliance
with the applicable regulations on the socio-economic aspects is described.
Observations on iii and iv above are also described.
Output of the establishment of baseline conditions for the socio-economic

environment
The output of the establishment of baseline conditions for the socio-

economic environment in the study area generally includes the following:
i. secondary data collected along with sources of information, and

analysis of the past trends
ii. the period during which the baseline monitoring and field surveys
were carried out
iii. a description of the methodology employed for collecting the
baseline data
iv. the population, demographic structure, and skillsets
v. the current pattern of earnings, sources of livelihood, and
employment of the population classified as agriculture, construction,
industry, and self-employed
vi. a justification for the selection of the habitations for sample
surveys when the coverage is not 100%, taking into consideration
factors like the size of the community, demography, ethnic groups,
and vulnerability
vii. drinking water supply, sanitation facilities, and solid waste
management
268 Chapter 6
viii. the status of the existing physical infrastructural facilities like

power supply, water, sanitation, roads, transportation, etc., and
social infrastructural facilities for educational, health, recreational,
cultural services, etc.
ix. mapping of the habitations on the base maps, and highlighting the
locations where field investigations were conducted
x. mapping of cultural resources on the base maps
xi. attitude and perceptions of the people on the proposed developmental
activities
xii. the vulnerable population likely to be adversely affected
xiii. the PAPs and the landowners losing land
The interpretation of data is described briefly. The unique features, if any,

observed during the field visits and monitoring are described. The
weaknesses or limitations of the socio-economic baseline study, if any, are
spelled out clearly.
6.5.2.7 Risk assessment
Based on the TOR, type of the project, and environmental settings of the
project, information is collected on the existing activities which have hazard
potential, and the prevailing off-site emergency response plan that is
referred to as a disaster management plan, mutual aid mechanism, etc. in
the study area. Desk research and reconnaissance surveys are carried out to
get a fair idea of the overall status of the technology being used, practices
being adopted, and hazard potential due to
a. major ongoing activities and operations

b. inflammable, explosive, toxic, radioactive, corrosive, reactive, or
biologically active substances being used and/or produced as
intermediates, products, by-products, waste, etc.
c. modes of transportation, types of storage, and inventory of such
substances
d. material handling practices
e. traffic, parking, and road conditions
f. housekeeping practices; etc.
Based on the above, the risk potential of the existing activities in the study
area in general, and proximity to the project location in particular, is
mapped.
Brownfield projects
i. obtain past information on the operating project(s) like the history

of accidents, near misses, i.e. the accidents which almost took
place but did not take place, safety audit reports of internal as well
external audits, safety-related training programs conducted for the
working personnel, mock drills carried out, etc. from the project
proponent
ii. obtain reports from the project proponent on the monitoring or
inspection carried out by statutory authorities and third parties, if
any
iii. carry out a walk-through safety audit to get some valuable
information on the state of affairs concerning the risk management
and housekeeping practices in the operating project(s)
iv. conduct baseline studies in the study area including the operating
project(s) on the collection of information on the hazardous
substances being used and/or produced, corresponding inventory
and storage conditions, and handling practices, following the
methodology described above for greenfield projects
v. obtain EIA report(s) prepared for seeking environmental approval
conditions related to risk assessment
vi. verify compliance with the environmental approval conditions for
risk management
Due diligence is carried out on i, ii, and iii above, and comparison is done
with the information at iv, i.e. with the primary data generated, and the
applicable regulatory requirements. The status of compliance with the
applicable regulations on safety and risk-related aspects is described. The
observations on v and vi above are described.
Output of the establishment of baseline conditions for risk assessment
The output of establishing the baseline conditions for the risk potential
generally includes:
i. the period during which the baseline data was collected

ii. description of the methodology employed for collecting the
baseline information
iii. listing of hazardous substances and an overview of the handling
and storage practices being followed in the study area
270 Chapter 6
iv. description of existing (major) hazard potential activities and

description of risk potential in the study area, and mapping the
same on the base maps
v. description of the existing institutional framework for off-site risk
management in the study area including a disaster management
plan
The suitably represented baseline data is interpreted properly and discussed

briefly. The unique features, if any, observed during field visits are
described. The limitations of the risk assessment baseline data gathering, if
any, are distinctly mentioned.
6.6 EIA on different environmental components

and mitigation measures
The EIA of the different environmental components in each lifecycle phase
of the proposed project is undertaken for the delineated study area, primarily
based on the following:
a. the TOR
b. emissions, discharges, and risks from the project-related activities,
described in the chapter description on the project
c. resource use in the project, described in the chapter description
on the project
d. baseline environmental conditions detailed in the chapter
establishment of the environmental baseline conditions
e. applicable regulations detailed in the chapter introduction
6.6.1 Air impact assessment and mitigation measures

The prime objective of an air impact assessment is to ensure that the air
quality remains within the acceptable levels prescribed in the applicable
regulations, even after the proposed project is implemented. To define air
quality, the air quality index is also developed based on eight pollutants, viz.
particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide
(SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), ammonia (NH3), and lead (Pb).
6.6.1.1 Impacts of air pollutants
The air pollutants in the ambient air have the potential to cause risks to
human health, soil, surface water, flora, and fauna. The occupational health
impacts of air pollutants are described by the WHO (2010). In the Global
Burden of Diseases study 2017, it was highlighted (IHME 2018) that long-
term exposure to fine particulate matter contributed to 4.2 million premature
deaths and a loss of 103 million healthy years of life globally in 2015. The
number of premature deaths due to PM2.5 recorded in China and India was
1,108,100 and 1,090,400 respectively. Further, India recorded the highest
number of ozone-related deaths in the world, and deaths due to ozone are
showing a much higher rate of increase than deaths related to particulate
matter. It may be pointed out that ozone aggravates respiratory problems,
especially chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Some typical adverse health effects of air pollution include the following:
i. respiratory diseases
ii. reduced lung functioning
iii. asthma attacks
iv. respiratory symptoms: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
chronic bronchitis
v. restricted activity
vi. increased medication use
vii. increased hospital admissions
viii. increased emergency room visits
ix. premature death
Several studies have concluded that the people living in polluted areas tend
to get sick more often or for longer periods compared to those living in areas
with less pollution. Exposure to higher levels of air pollution has also been
linked to premature mortality. However, it may be appreciated that there is
a complex relationship between potential health effects on living beings and
exposure to air pollution because of the multiple variables involved, e.g.:
a. age and general health of the exposed population

b. type of air pollution and nature of pollutant(s)
c. level or duration of exposure
d. personal susceptibility of the exposed individual
e. level of activity of the population getting exposed; etc.
Because of this complexity, impacts of air pollutants are generally described

by researchers in terms of environmental risk, expressed by way of mortality
and morbidity (WHO 2002). Air pollutants, viz. SO2, NOx, and O3 can alter
the physiological processes of plants, and thereby affect growth patterns by
causing damage to leaf cuticles and affecting stomatal conductance. The
impact of air pollution on wildlife is like that of human beings. The impacts
272 Chapter 6
of different air pollutants on flora and fauna (Petts 1999) are discussed.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (MOEF 2009) and the WHO
(1995) guidelines on air quality for vegetation are available for the
permissible concentration limits of different air pollutants. Based on the
assessment, impacts of air emissions on humans, flora, and fauna, both
short-term and long-term, need to be described. The potential impacts of
physical and chemical contamination, corrosion, etc. due to fugitive
emissions on the visibility, health of human beings and other living beings,
flora, soil, water bodies, buildings, and structures, etc. are also to be
described.
6.6.1.2 Air pollution prediction modeling
The prediction of the concentration of each air pollutant in the ambient air
is carried out by using the information related to source emissions, local
atmospheric meteorological information, i.e. local or micrometeorological
data collected on wind speed and direction, relative humidity and
atmospheric turbulence, and emission factors available from the literature.
The air emissions to be considered are those specified in the TOR, the
project-specific parameters governed by specific regulations like those for
thermal power plants (MOEF 1998), petrochemicals (MOEF 2012), cement
(MOEF 2014), etc., and any other parameters considered crucial.
The quality and accuracy of the predicted values of concentrations of a

given pollutant, and the impact zone from the modeling process, depend
upon several factors, the most significant being the following:
a. suitability of the model used for predictions

b. availability of accurate source-related information
c. availability of accurate micrometeorological data
The prediction of air pollution is done by following a five-step modeling

process as follows:
Step 1: Selecting an appropriate atmospheric dispersion model

based on the source of emissions and environmental settings of the
site
Step 2: Data input including

i. background concentrations of the pollutants specified in
the TOR
ii. meteorological conditions/parameters
iii. source data, viz.
a) site description
b) emission rate
iv. model options, viz.
a) receptor grid
b) dispersion parameters
v. local topographical features
Step 3: Data processing including dispersion calculations for the

selected atmospheric dispersion model
Step 4: Data output including the prediction of ground-level

concentrations of the selected pollutant at different distances from
the source
Step 5: Data analysis including the assessment of potential

environmental and health effects on the receptors falling in the
predicted impact or vulnerable zone
The data requirement for air dispersion modeling consists of
a. source data-related information like the characterization of the

source and emission rates, i.e. type and quantity of a particular
pollutant to be released into the atmospheric air from each
emission source, derived from the detailed flow sheets and
flowcharts, description of the processes, and details of the
project-related activities, documented under description of
the project
b. background concentration levels of each pollutant in the
ambient air at the selected monitoring location as documented
under establishing the baseline conditions for air environment
c. meteorological parameters as documented as follows
establishing the baseline conditions for air environment
Stack height
Effective dispersion of the air emissions emanating from point sources into
the ambient air can be achieved by having tall stacks. The air-related
regulations generally specify minimum stack heights for the point sources
of emissions arising from combustion processes. Stack heights for different
types of operations, as well as industries, can be readily calculated (Stack
Height Calculator, n.d.). The stack height for emissions from combustion
processes using fossil fuels, whether liquids or solids, generally used in the
manufacturing sector and thermal power projects, is generally determined
274 Chapter 6
based on the maximum emission rate of SO2. The main consideration in the
case of gaseous fuels with NOx emissions and no SO2 emissions is avoiding
local down-draught effects. Nomographs (TRC 2009) are available for
determining stack heights for different levels of SO2 emissions. The stack
height for a low level of SO2 emissions of around 10 kilogram (kg)/hour
(hr) is calculated by using the formula:
H = 14 Q0.3
where
H is stack height, meter (m)
Q is SO2 emission rate, kg/hr
6.6.1.3 Source data-related information
The following five main types of emission sources, which are generally
considered in air dispersion modeling, are identified along with source-
related data:
i. Point sources (e.g. emissions from a small opening such as a stack,

flare, and vent):
a) location
b) nature of pollutants
c) the emission rate of pollutants (without and with
conventional control measures, if any)
d) gas efflux velocity
e) gas efflux temperature
f) source morphology and internal dimensions
g) release height
ii. Area sources (e.g. emissions from a source having a large surface
area such as landfill facility, contaminated site, open storage of
solid materials in a large area, a large liquid surface like ponds,
tanks, and lagoons, and a large number of sources in a given area):
a) source location
b) source dimensions
c) emission rate (without and with conventional control
measures, if any)
d) release height
iii. Line sources, i.e. a chain of volume sources (e.g. a long and narrow
source such as a moving vehicle, and conveyor belt):
a) location
b) volume dimensions
c) emission rate (without and with standard control

measures, if any)
d) release height
iv. Volume sources (e.g. bulky diffuse sources such as emissions
emanating from within a building):
a) location
b) volume dimension
c) nature of pollutants
v. Fugitive sources (e.g. leakages from pipe joints, valves, seals and
openings, open storage, and operations carried out in the open):
a) location
b) size
c) nature of pollutants
6.6.1.4 Selection of prediction models
Appropriate models for predictions are generally selected based on the

considerations of the type of sources, pollutants to be emitted, operational
scenarios, meteorological conditions, and time scales. For example, for an
EIA
a. over a long time, e.g. the EIA of a project with emissions over
different phases of its long lifecycle, long-term models are
employed
b. for sudden releases over a short time, e.g. accidental releases
from storage tanks, pipelines, or safety relief vents, short-term
models are employed
The models available for predicting the dispersion of air pollutants were
discussed in Chapter 4. A good understanding of air dispersion modeling
needs to be developed for its suitability under the given conditions, inherent
assumptions, built-in default values, limitations, etc. for selecting a most
appropriate model. The selection of an appropriate model helps to gain more
confidence that the predicted concentrations of the intended parameters at
different distances from the source of emission are near realistic or
conservative. The criteria used for selecting a particular model are required
to be properly documented.
6.6.1.5 Fugitive emissions
For assessing fugitive emissions, all the potential sources are identified from
the project-related activities. Typical sources of fugitive emissions may
include construction activities, unpaved land surfaces, transportation,
276 Chapter 6
equipment and piping, material handling, storage, spills, and leakages, etc.
The fugitive emissions anticipated from these sources could be continuous,
periodic or occasional, and in the form of dust or particulate matter, gases
or vapors. Suitable models could be adopted to predict concentrations of
fugitive emissions in the ambient air. The models compute the rate of
release of a pollutant based on emission factor and level of implementation
of a particular activity, using a simple equation:
rate of release of pollutant, quantity/time = rate of activity,

activity/time x emission factor, quantity of pollutant/activity
It needs to be ensured that realistic values of emission factors, available in

the literature (U.S. EPA 1995) are taken for different activities by giving
due consideration to the construction and operation practices, and
housekeeping being adopted in the place where the project is proposed.
6.6.1.6 Output of air dispersion prediction models
The predicted concentration of an air pollutant obtained from the air

dispersion modeling, which takes into account multiple emission sources, is
the incremental addition to the existing concentration levels of that pollutant
in the ambient air at different distances from the project location. The
predicted resultant concentration of a pollutant is obtained by adding its
predicted incremental concentration to the monitored baseline concentration
at a given location. Such predicted concentrations of the intended pollutants
at different distances from the emission source are represented in the form
of concentration contours, referred to as isopleths. An isopleth represents
the spatial distribution of a pollutant, i.e. predicted ground-level
concentrations (GLC) of a pollutant at different distances from the emission
sources under consideration, which is an indicator of how the pollutants get
dispersed in the ambient air. The impact zones for each pollutant are
delineated on the base maps taking into consideration the respective
permissible threshold concentration prescribed in the applicable regulation.
It is anticipated that the receptors falling in the impact zones will be exposed
to such GLCs of different air pollutants. The base maps on which isopleths
of each pollutant are plotted should depict the following information at each
of the locations where environmental baseline monitoring was carried out:
a. predicted GLCs
b. corresponding baseline values
c. receptors in the predicted impact zones
To make the air dispersion modeling exercise more meaningful, such maps
for each pollutant are prepared in an appropriate enlarged size in such a
manner that the following details are very clearly visible:
i. baseline GLCs of a pollutant measured at different monitoring

locations
ii. predicted incremental GLCs of that pollutant at different distances
due to emissions from the sources under consideration, including
at each of the baseline monitoring locations
iii. distance and direction of occurrence of the predicted maximum
concentration of the pollutant emitted from the emission source
under consideration
iv. extent of the impact zone, i.e. area surrounding the source
v. receptors in the predicted impact zone, which are anticipated to be
exposed to that pollutant and be impacted
6.6.1.7 Brownfield projects
a. study EIA report(s) of the operating project(s) for the air impact
assessment and mitigation measures proposed
b. check the veracity of the prediction models or software used,
estimations and assumptions made, and accuracy and completeness of
the air environmental impact assessment conducted, and performance
evaluation of the control and other mitigation measures employed
for the operating project(s), using the baseline air environmental
information collected for the proposed project
c. document observations on a and b above, and consider these for d
below
d. conduct an air impact assessment for the proposed project,
while taking into consideration c above
6.6.1.8 Impact significance
It is necessary to understand whether the predicted incremental increase in

the concentration of each pollutant at a given location is significant. The
establishment of the significance of the impacts was described in Chapter 5.
The significance of the increase in the concentration of an air pollutant can
be determined by comparing the
278 Chapter 6
a. predicted incremental concentration at a given location with

the corresponding baseline concentration established at that
location
b. the resultant concentration with the permissible concentration
specified in the applicable regulations or standards
The predicted change in the concentration of an air pollutant at a given

location and hence its environmental impact may be considered significant
under any of the following conditions:
a. the baseline concentration is fairly close to the permissible

concentration
b. the predicted incremental increase in the concentration adds
substantially to the baseline concentration
c. the predicted resultant concentration exceeds or is fairly close to
the permissible concentration
For example, consider the air pollutant NOx for which the permissible 24-
hourly average concentration in the ambient air in industrial, residential,
rural, and other areas is specified as 80 microgram ( g)/cubic meter (m3)
(MOEF 2009). The determination of the significance of impacts is
explained by the following illustrations:
i. Assume that at a receptor, located at a distance of 1 km from the

source of emission, the baseline concentration of NOx was
monitored (as specified in the TOR) as 50 g/m3, and the
incremental concentration is predicted as 35 g/m3, i.e. the
resultant concentration predicted at that receptor is 85 g/m3. Since
the predicted concentration of 85 g /m3 exceeds the prescribed
regulatory standard of 80 g/m3, the impact of NOx emissions from
the project-related activities would be considered to be significant.
ii. At another location where the baseline concentration of NOx was
monitored as 72 g/m3, and the incremental increase in
concentration is predicted as 4 g/m3, i.e. the resultant
concentration predicted at that receptor is 76 g/m3. The impact of
NOx emissions would be considered significant, irrespective of the
incremental increase since the baseline concentration itself is 90%
of the specified permissible standard.
iii. At another location where the baseline concentration of NOx was
monitored as 32 g/m3, and the incremental concentration is
predicted as 16 g/m3, i.e. the resultant concentration predicted at
the receptor is 48 g/m3, which is much lower than the specified
standard of 80 g/m3. However, the impact of NOx emissions

would be considered significant since the baseline concentration is
predicted to increase by 50%, a substantial amount.
iv. At another location where the baseline concentration was
monitored as 40 g/m3, and the incremental concentration is
predicted as 4 g/m3, i.e. the resultant concentration predicted at
the receptor is 44 g/m3. The impact of NOx emission would be
considered to be insignificant since there would be just a 10%
increase over the baseline concentration (not substantial), and also
since the resultant concentration of 44 g/m3 is in no way close to
the permissible standard of 80 g/m3.
The above illustrations may be helpful to the concerned functional

professionals in making a suitable judgment on assigning the significance
of the predicted concentrations of each pollutant. This could be considered
similar to assigning the significance of the predicted impacts due to an
increase in the concentration of a particular pollutant in the ambient air. The
additional dimensions of the time duration of exposure of the predicted
concentration of each pollutant, and presence of the type and number of
sensitive receptors in the predicted impact zones also require due
consideration in making a judicious decision on assigning significance as
discussed in Chapter 5.
Further, the environmental impacts of the predicted concentrations of

different pollutants in the ambient air could be ranked using different
methodologies. The simplest methodology may consider ranking the
predicted impacts of the emitted pollutants based on the predicted resultant
concentrations of each pollutant expressed as a percentage of the
corresponding permissible concentrations specified in the applicable
regulations. The pollutant with the highest percentage would be ranked as
the topmost air impacting pollutant. The same methodology could also be
adopted for ranking the residual air quality impacts.
6.6.1.9 Mitigation measures
After determining the significant impacts, suitable specific mitigation

measures are proposed to reduce emission levels of each air pollutant to a
level substantially lower than the permissible concentrations specified in the
applicable regulations and to ensure clean air (WHO 1999). While
suggesting mitigation measures in each lifecycle phase of the project, a
pragmatic approach is adopted by according the topmost priority to the
280 Chapter 6
avoidance aspects of the generation of emissions at source, and the least to

the compensation aspects, the hierarchy being as follows:
a. avoid the generation of emissions from the source

b. control to minimize the emissions at the source
c. transmission pathway control
d. receptor control
e. compensation to the affected receptors
For the avoidance of the generation of air pollutants at the source, suitable
process technologies need to be employed by the project proponent. The
role of the EIA team may be limited to this aspect. However, the concerned
EIA functional professionals and EIA team leader can play an important
proactive role in controlling and minimizing specific emissions at the source
by proposing the measures illustrated below.
i. measures for controlling and minimizing emissions of particulate

matter at source may include, e.g.:
a) adopting suitable technologies
b) use of granular solids in place of powders
c) adopting leak-proof, enclosed, mechanized, and automated
handling systems integrated with efficient dust control
systems
d) incorporating control equipment like a cyclone, bag filter,
baffle chamber, settling chamber, or wet scrubber, designed
for the worst-case scenarios
e) carrying out operations under negative pressure, integrated
with an efficient system for dust collections
f) adopting best practices and standard operating procedures for
material handling and storage
g) predictive maintenance of material processing and handling
systems
h) providing suitable wind barriers for open storage, considering
wind directions
i) soil stabilization and increased vegetation cover for unpaved
land surfaces
j) carpeting of mud roads
ii. measures for controlling and minimizing emissions of gases and
vapors at source may include, e.g.:
a) selecting appropriate operating parameters for the manufacturing
process, transportation as well as storage, and the associated
in-built systems
b) quenching of incineration gases to control gases like dioxins

c) desulfurization of fuel containing sulfur
d) suitable mechanical seals in place of conventional glands in
rotating equipment
e) two-stage cooling of vent gases or vapors with a cold solvent
followed by a chilled solvent
f) absorbing or scrubbing with a suitable solvent in a closed
system followed by recovery for a gainful purpose
g) adsorbing on a suitable adsorbent followed by recovery for a
gainful purpose
h) carrying out operations under negative pressure along with
suitable scrubbing systems
i) adopting best practices and standard operating procedures for
handling and storage of liquids and gases
j) predictive maintenance of equipment and piping
k) traffic control
For the control of pathway transmission of air pollutants, the installation of

suitable barriers like water curtains, sprinkling systems, etc. could be
suggested between air emission sources and receptors. Very dense
plantations of specific species close to receptors may also help in arresting
emissions reaching receptors to some extent. Receptor control measures
may include the use of personal protection equipment by the exposed human
beings. However, it will not be helpful to other receptors like flora, fauna,
and structures.
6.6.1.10 Output of an air environmental impact assessment
The output of an air environmental impact assessment study generally

includes the following:
i. details of emissions from each point source including efflux

velocity, efflux temperature, pollutants to be emitted, without
and with conventional air pollution control measures, stack
height, stack diameter, etc.
ii. details of emissions from each of the other sources including
fugitive sources, without and with conventional air pollution
control measures
iii. wind-rows diagrams
iv. trend analysis of the meteorological parameters based on the
past data
282 Chapter 6
v. methodologies used for impact identification, selecting the air

dispersion model for the predictions, assigning significance to
the predicted changes in the concentration levels of different
air pollutants, etc.
vi. mapping of isopleths, i.e. concentration contours depicting
predicted spatial distribution of ground-level concentration
(GLC) of each of the air pollutants specified in the TOR, and
the project-specific parameters under normal as well as
abnormal operating conditions, impact zones, and receptors
vii. assessment of fugitive emissions from different sources
viii. mapping baseline concentrations of each air pollutant in
ambient air at the monitored locations and the corresponding
predicted concentrations at those locations on the base maps
ix. suggested specific mitigation measures to avoid or prevent the
emissions predicted to result in significant changes in
concentrations
x. suggested specific mitigation measures to reduce each of the
predicted significant changes in the concentrations of each of
the air pollutants from different sources to a level substantially
below the permissible or acceptable level prescribed in the
applicable statutory regulations (also to be specified)
xi. impacts of emissions including fugitive emissions on the
receptors, i.e. on the health of human beings, flora, and fauna,
structures, and properties, and corresponding specific
mitigation measures suggested
xii. residual concentrations of each air pollutant envisaged even
after incorporating the suggested mitigation measures
xiii. air pollution load to be emitted into the environment from all
types of sources including fugitive emissions under normal as
well as abnormal operating conditions expressed as say,
kg/day of each of the air pollutants with and without the
suggested mitigation measures
6.6.1.11 Odor nuisance
Odor nuisance, also referred to as odor annoyance, is a common issue but

often difficult to resolve. It needs to be addressed with a complete
understanding that many of the substances have unique characteristic odors
and that most substances and their complex mixtures are odorous when
present in very low concentrations. For example, odor threshold levels of
ammonia, benzene, SO2, and NO2 are 0.1-11.6, 1.5-108, 0.02-2.0, and 9x10-
5
mg (milligram)/m3 respectively. Moreover, there exists no simple
relationship between individual odorants and their mixtures. In certain

operations, like the bottling of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), odorants like
mercaptans are specifically added to detect leakages of LPG. The
physiological, as well as psychological responses to odors, are found to vary
among those exposed. Many odorants are perceptible at concentration levels
far below their respective harmful concentration levels. For example, the
reported odor threshold level of hydrogen sulfide is 0.15 parts per billion
(ppb) whereas its threshold limit of toxicity is 10 parts per million (ppm).
Nevertheless, the perceived connection between odors and their health
effects remains.
Mitigation measures
Considering the above, it becomes necessary to propose suitable mitigation

measures for minimizing odor nuisance by according priority to control
odor at the source over other control measures, which generally involve the
use of certain chemicals for masking the odor.
The mitigation measures at the source may include:
a. incorporating suitable changes in the products and processes to

avoid the generation of such odorous substances
b. installing leak-proof systems and adopting preventive maintenance
practices
c. carrying out the operations and activities under negative pressure
by incorporating suitable vacuum systems, integrated with
efficient absorption or adsorption systems
d. use of certain chemicals in the processes that suppress generation
of specific odorous substances, e.g. use of caustic soda in sewage
treatment plants to suppress generation of odorous hydrogen
sulfide
Other odor control measures may require the collection of odorous gases
and vapors, and directing these through suitable:
i. bio-filter beds to break down odorous organic compounds

ii. activated carbon beds to adsorb odor-causing substances
iii. scrubbers to absorb these substances in a suitable solvent(s)
iv. combustion chambers for incineration of these substances
If the odor issue is expected to remain even after adopting the above
mitigation measures, the following may have to be resorted to:
284 Chapter 6
a. installing suitable water curtains

b. incorporating suitable changes in the plant layout
c. venting off the odorous gases and vapors through tall stacks for
better dispersion into the atmosphere
Output of the odor impact assessment
The output of an odor impact assessment study generally includes:
a. listing odorous substances along with the estimated concentration

levels, and sources of odor
b. suggested specific mitigation measures for the prevention and
control of odors of each of the odorous substances from each
source
6.6.2 Noise impact assessment and mitigation measures

6.6.2.1 Impacts of noise and vibration
High noise levels cause discomfort to human beings and affect vegetation
and animals too. The impacts of moderately high noise may include:
i. hearing loss or temporary or permanent deafness

ii. physiological issues like fatigue, irritation, insomnia, illness,
and digestive disorders
iii. psychological and sociological disturbances like speech
interference, annoyance, lack of concentration, sleep
interference, and mental health
iv. poor quality of crops
v. disruption to normal breeding patterns among different fauna
(Canter 1996), disturbance or damage to their habitats, and
migration of fauna
The impacts of moderately high vibration may include:
a. physiological damage to the spine, bones, blood vessels, and

nerves in the fingers of human beings
b. psychological disturbances
c. structural damage and weakening of the foundations of
structures and buildings
d. disturbance to habitats, and migration of fauna
6.6.2.2 Identification of sources of noise and vibration
All the sources of noise and vibration from the project and the allied
activities in different lifecycle phases of the project, whether continuous,
periodic or even occasional are identified along with the potential noise and
vibration levels that are envisaged to be generated at the source. The noise
generating equipment may broadly be classified as rotating, reciprocating,
vibrating, impact, and flow metering devices.
The typical sources of noise, depending upon the type of project-related

activities and the equipment employed, may be as follows:
i. stationary rotating equipment having moving metal surface

contacting fluids like a pump, compressor, blower, fan,
turbine, steam engine, blender, mixer, agitator, etc.
ii. combustion sources like boiler, furnace, and internal
combustion engine, etc.
iii. impact equipment like a hammer, punch, rock drill, pile driver,
etc.
iv. metal to metal contacts like gears, bearings, metal cutting, and
shaping, etc.
v. electro-mechanical devices like motors, generators, welding,
etc.
vi. gas or vapor streams like air intake, jet, vent, pneumatic
transport system, etc.
vii. moving fluids in confined metal spaces like ducts, pipes,
valves, metering devices, etc.
viii. unbalanced rotating parts like a shaft
ix. hydraulic equipment like a hydraulic press
x. presses like a printing press
xi. mills like steel and paper
xii. size reduction equipment like crushers and grinders
xiii. material conveying equipment like conveyors, and elevators
xiv. air conditioning and refrigeration equipment
xv. electrical transformers and rectifiers
xvi. earthmoving equipment like compactors, loaders, scrapers,
pavers, trucks, etc.
xvii. material handling equipment like cranes, concrete mixers,
concrete pumps, etc.
xviii. textile yarn preparation, spinning, weaving, etc.
xix. material processing like a vibrator, and a mixer
xx. motor vehicles
286 Chapter 6
xxi. railways
xxii. aircrafts
xxiii. blasting and detonation
xxiv. maintenance activities like cleaning and soot blowing
xxv. industrial sirens
xxvi. public address systems, etc.
The sources of noise could also be sources of vibration. Some typical major
sources of vibration may be as follows:
i. railways
ii. aircrafts
iii. motor vehicles
iv. high-speed vibrators and vibratory conveyors
v. high-speed rotary equipment
vi. hydraulic equipment
vii. heavy duty presses
viii. mills
ix. diesel generating sets
x. earthmoving equipment
xi. air conditioning and refrigeration equipment
xii. blasts and detonations
xiii. piling, etc.
The information on noise and vibration generated at the source, i.e. at a

distance of 1m from the equipment or machinery while it is in operation, is
generally obtained from the manufacturers of such equipment and the
literature. Table 6.1 illustrates the noise levels of some equipment, and
operations (Liu et al. 1997). The equipment manufacturers generally specify
noise and vibration levels generated under the ideal conditions of operation
and installation on the recommended type of foundation. In addition to the
sources of continuous noise, the sources of intermittent and periodic noise
arising from certain operations, or activities, or conditions, e.g. blasting in
the mining of minerals, explosions, industrial alarms, safety relief vents,
soot blowing in thermal power plants using solid fossil fuels, cleaning, and
maintenance are also identified along with the noise and vibration levels
envisaged. The propagation of noise and vibration generated from such
sources primarily depends upon the plant layout, characteristics of soil, land
use/land cover, topography, and relative location of receptors with reference
to the sources.
Table 6.1 Noise Levels from Typical Sources

Noise source* Noise levels, dBA
Industrial
Air compressor 85-115
Air-cooled condenser 90-105
Air intake fans for boiler 85-90
Boiler feedwater pump 95-105
Cooling towers (small) 80-85
Cooling towers (very large) 120-130
DG set 90-95
Forced draft fan 90-100
Gas turbine 90-95
Pump 55-105
Steam (high-pressure) piping wall 90-100
Steam valve 70-105
Transformer 80-90
Construction and Mining
Bulldozer (3) 85-105
Concrete mixer 75-85
Drill 85-90
Jackhammer 80-100
Pile driver (peak) 95-105
Rock drill (jumbo) 120
Transportation
Diesel truck 85-95
Dumper (15) 75-90
Front loader 75-85
Payloader 80-100
Passenger car (8) 70-80
Tractor-trailer (15) 90-95
Coal preparation
Primary crusher 90-95
Ball mill 90-95
Coal conveyor 95-100
Household
Kitchen grinder 90-95
*Figures in parentheses are distance to receptors, m)
(Compiled from several sources)
288 Chapter 6
6.6.2.3 Prediction of noise levels
The noise generated from different sources gets propagated to receptors

located at distant places. The noise levels at receptors are predicted using
appropriate models or software for different types of noise, viz.:
a. continuous noise, i.e. noise of low intensity and longer duration

like that from industrial machinery like pumps, and turbines
b. impulse noise, i.e. noise of high intensity and short duration like
that from explosions, and hydraulic equipment
c. aviation-related noise
Point source noise emissions
Noise level prediction (Canter 1996) from point source emissions,

propagating in a system of spherical waves, known as geometric
attenuation of sound, is described by the equation:
Lp2 = Lp1 - 20 log (r2/r1)

where
Lp2 is noise level at a distance r2
Lp1 is noise at a distance r1
This equation illustrates that noise levels decrease with increasing distance
from the source.
For a continuous noise source, the average sound level is the equivalent
sound level, expressed as Leq. It is a constant sound level that, in a given
situation and time, conveys the same sound energy as done by the actual
time-varying sound in the same period. When multiple sources of point
source noise are located close by, the cumulative noise at the source is
estimated by the addition of decibel values (Liu et al. 1997), reproduced in
Table 6.2.
For example, for two pumps placed nearby, having an operating noise level
of 90 dBA and 86 dBA, i.e. a difference of 4 dBA, the cumulative noise
level when both the pumps are operational is estimated as 91.5 dBA, i.e. by
adding 1.5 dBA suggested in the table to the higher sound level of 90 dBA.
For each of the two pumps having a noise level of 80 dBA, the cumulative
noise level is estimated as 83 dBA, i.e. by adding 3 dBA suggested in the
table to the sound level of 80 dBA.
Table 6.2 Addition Required for Estimating Cumulative Noise

Difference Between the Two Addition to the Higher Level,
Values, dBA dBA
0 3.0
1 2.5
2 2.0
3 2.0
4 1.5
5 1.0
6 1.0
7 1.0
8 0.5
9 0.5
10 0
(Reproduced from Environmental Engineers Handbook 1997)
The noise level resulting from multiple noise sources are estimated from the
equation:
Lp = 10 log [10 Lp1/10 + 10 Lp2/10 + 10 Lp3/10 + + 10 Lpn/10]

where
Lp is the resultant noise level
Lp1 and Lpn are the noise levels from source 1 and source n
respectively
Line-source noise emissions
The noise level prediction from line-source emissions, propagating in a

system of cylindrical or half-cylindrical waves is described by the equation:
Noise level2 = Noise level1 - 10 log (r2/r1)
The noise levels predicted at different distances from the source are plotted
in the form of isopleths, similar to those prepared for representing ground-
level concentrations of air pollutants, to get a graphical representation of
noise contours and the noise impact zone. Nomographs (Canter 1996) may
be used for estimating noise levels from traffic on highways.
6.6.2.4 Noise impact assessment
The noise impact assessment is primarily done based on:
a) predicted noise levels at the receptors

290 Chapter 6
b) sensitivity or vulnerability of the receptors

c) permissible noise levels specified in the applicable regulations
a. study the EIA report(s) of the operating project(s) for the noise
impact assessment and mitigation measures proposed
and/or estimations and assumptions made, accuracy and
completeness of the noise environmental impact assessment
conducted, and performance evaluation of the control and other
mitigation measures employed for the operating project(s), using
the baseline noise environment information collected for the
proposed project
below
d. conduct a noise impact assessment for the proposed project,
Noise impact is considered significant if the predicted noise levels at the

receptors located in industrial, commercial, residential, or silence zones
exceed the specified threshold limits in the applicable regulations (MOEF
2000a), separately for the daytime and the nighttime. The permissible noise
levels for occupational exposure in the work environment are specified in
the applicable regulations like the Factories (Amendments) Act (MOLE
1987), which are generally based on the noise levels recommended by the
US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA, n.d.). It may
be observed that no environmental regulations specify permissible vibration
levels in the work environment in India. However, guidance to assess
human response to vibrations (BS 6472:1984, BS 6472-1:2008, ISO 2631-
1:1997) may be used in the prediction and assessment process (Canter 1996)
along with professional judgment. Judicious decisions are taken while
determining the significance of vibration levels depending on the specific
project-related activities and those exposed to vibration.
The basic concept explained in the illustrations regarding the significance

for air impacts could also be applied to noise impacts. Residual noise
impacts can be ranked based on an incremental increase in the noise level
and also on the predicted noise levels at the sensitive receptors as a

percentage of the permissible values prescribed by the applicable
regulations.
After determining the significant impacts, suitable specific mitigation

measures are proposed for reducing the noise and vibration levels. The
mitigation of noise impacts may be accomplished by the following
measures, in order of priority:
i. elimination or minimization of noise and vibration at the source

can be achieved by engineering techniques and practices like, e.g.:
a. selection of equipment based on specific design features that
generate less noise
b. proper foundations for the equipment
c. process substitution, e.g. welding instead of riveting or metal-
forming done by impact
d. machine substitution, e.g. belt drives instead of gears, and
nylon gears in place of metallic gears
e. reducing the speed of rotating equipment like rotors, fans, and
motors
f. reducing pressure and flow of air, gases, and liquids handled
in close pipes/conduits
g. reducing frictional resistance by proper lubrication of
bearings, and alignment and balancing of shafts and couplings
h. noise attenuation devices at the source like mufflers and
silencers
i. preventive maintenance
j. soundproof enclosures with proper acoustics for the
equipment like turbines to reduce noise leakage
k. isolation and damping vibrating parts
l. proper plant layout
ii. controlling transmission or the propagation path of noise and
vibration by providing:
a. suitable acoustic separation
b. suitable absorbent materials on the walls, ceiling, and flooring
of the cubicle or building where the source is housed
c. suitable enclosures around the source like DG sets
d. physical barriers between the source and the receptors to act
as an obstruction to the path of propagation of noise, e.g.
292 Chapter 6
barriers on either side of highways and railways, and suitable

landscaping
e. providing discontinuity in the media or path of propagation of
vibration by taking measures like trenches
iii. controlling at the receptors end, generally within the project
premises, by:
a. limiting the exposure through work rescheduling
b. remote control operations
c. providing well-designed personal protective equipment like
earmuffs and earplugs
d. providing noise shelters
Once appropriate rotating equipment for the project and mountings for their
installations are selected with due diligence, the mitigation measures are
required to give more emphasis to scheduling the activities and adhering to
standard operating procedures for both the operation and maintenance of
such equipment, control of the propagation of noise and vibration generated,
and control at the receptors. For example:
a. scheduling of project activities like construction in such a way that

these do not overlap with the identified breeding cycle of the
nearby rare and endangered species, the key species of concern,
and the migratory avifauna
b. adopting controlled blasting, e.g. blasting with the help of
detonators in mining to reduce levels of noise, vibration and air
emissions, and dust nuisance
c. scheduling activities like blasting in mining, and confining
activities to selected daytime hours like construction, etc.
d. installing well-designed barriers to reduce noise levels reaching
nearby habitations from highway and railway projects
6.6.2.8 Output of the noise environmental impact assessment
The output of a noise EIA study generally includes:
i. details of the sources of noise and vibration along with noise

levels, and vibration levels at each of the sources, stationary
as well as mobile
ii. methodologies adopted for impact identification, selection of
the noise prediction model or software, establishing the
significance of the predicted noise levels, and vibration levels
iii. mapping of isopleths, i.e. noise level contours depicting the

predicted spatial distribution of noise levels under normal as
well as abnormal operating conditions, impact zones, and
receptors
iv. mapping baseline levels of the ambient noise at the monitored
locations and the corresponding predicted levels at those
locations on the base maps
v. suggested specific measures for prevention and minimization
of the noise generated at the sources
vi. suggested specific measures for the reduction of noise and
vibration, specific to each of the significant changes predicted
for daytime and nighttime to a level substantially below the
permissible level prescribed in the applicable statutory
regulations (also to be specified)
vii. impacts on the health of human beings, flora, and fauna,
structures, and properties due to noise and vibration, and
corresponding specific mitigation measures suggested
viii. residual noise levels envisaged even after incorporating the
suggested mitigation measures
ix. suggested personal protective equipment
6.6.3 Water impact assessment and mitigation measures

The prime objective of water impact assessment is to ensure
a. the sustainability of the water resources proposed to be exploited

for meeting the water requirement for the project-related activities
b. that the pollutants from the project-related activities do not find
their way to any water resources and contaminate them
6.6.3.1 Impacts of water
Water is important to sustain life on Earth. Even though about 70% of the
Earth is covered with water, less than 1% of the Earths freshwater is
accessible. A total of 1.8 million deaths in the world in 2015 were attributed
to inadequate availability and poor quality of water. The growing population
and faster pace of urbanization are putting stress on water resources and
water quality in several regions of the world.
Poor quality of water has the potential to cause disease outbreaks. 80% of
diseases are waterborne; these include typhoid, paratyphoid fever, cholera,
dysentery, jaundice, amoebiasis, malaria, encephalitis, poliomyelitis, hepatitis,
294 Chapter 6
and gastrointestinal and skin infections. A wide range of chemical pollutants

in water can cause several health issues, from cancer to hormone disruption
to altered brain function. The chemicals and heavy metals are toxic to
aquatic life and impact the life span of organisms and their ability to
reproduce, making their way up the food chain as predators eat prey.
6.6.3.2 Identification of water users and sources of wastewater
Depending upon the type of project-related activities, water users, and

purposes for which water is required are identified. These may include:
i. manufacturing processes
ii. water treatment, steam generation
iii. equipment and piping washing
iv. floor cleaning and washing
v. boiler feedwater make-up
vi. boiler ash handling
vii. dust control
viii. spray on coal
ix. quenching
x. once-through cooling
xi. cooling tower water make-up
xii. humidification
xiii. laboratory
xiv. wastewater treatment plant
xv. fire preparedness
xvi. maintenance
xvii. drinking
xviii. cooking
xix. washing
xx. domestic
xxi. sanitation
xxii. gardening
xxiii. landscaping
xxiv. green belt development during the non-monsoon period, etc.
Likewise, sources of wastewater generation are identified, which may

include:
i. manufacturing processes and operations

ii. water treatment facility
iii. boiler
iv. cooling tower

v. gas and vapor scrubbers or absorbers
vi. equipment, piping, and floor washing
vii. liquid wastes
viii. leakages and spills
ix. laboratory
x. sewage, etc.
6.6.3.3. Impact assessment
For water sustainability and water impact assessments, the following

information is collected and/or estimated for each activity proposed in each
lifecycle phase of the project:
i. quantity of water proposed to be used for different purposes

including firefighting, and anticipated evaporation losses, leakages,
pilferage, etc.
ii. quantity and characteristics of the used water and wastewater
generated from each operation or activity, whether continuous or
periodic; proposed treatment for the segregated wastewater
streams or wastewater collection from different discharge streams
and treatment in a central facility; reuse and recycling of the treated
wastewater, and mode of disposal of the treated wastewater
iii. quantities and characteristics of the other liquid wastes generated
from different operations or activities, whether continuous or
periodic like leachates, sewage, washings, leakages, maintenance,
accidental releases, firefighting, etc., proposed treatment, and
mode of disposal of the treated wastewater
iv. consolidation and representation of the above information at i-iii
in the form of a flowchart referred to as a water balance diagram,
showing all the streams of water and wastewater, including
estimated evaporation losses and leakages
v. changes in runoff anticipated from precipitation due to site
development, construction of buildings, roads and other
infrastructures, and open channels, open storage, open platforms,
etc., illustrated in Fig. 6.1
vi. status of water resources proposed to be exploited for sourcing
water for the project-related activities in each lifecycle phase of the
project, even if some of these sources are located beyond the study
area
vii. status of water bodies into which the treated wastewater is
proposed to be discharged
296 Chapter 6
A. Surface water: water quality prediction
Based on the baseline information and the project-related activities, issues

relating to water quantity and quality are identified. To predict the impact
on the quality of surface water streams (Petts 1999)
i. baseline data including the monitored physical data on streamflow

rate, velocity, and temperature of the surface water streams, which
are likely to be affected by the project-related activities, is
scrutinized
ii. occurrences of critical conditions are observed and documented
during the baseline data collection, viz. low flow, which affects
dilution potential, and high temperature, which reduces dissolved
oxygen (DO) levels
iii. assimilation capacity of the water bodies (into which the treated
wastewater is proposed to be discharged) is estimated by
determining the transport of conventional pollutants like BOD and
nutrients. The classical DO model for estimating oxygen depletion
due to organic pollution loading and natural re-aeration in the form
of an oxygen sag curve (Metcalf and Eddy 2003) is prepared for
different stretches of the stream
iv. toxicants in the wastewater that could cause significant changes
even if released in small quantities are identified. It is recognized
that some toxicants could get carried in the streams with flows but
some may become part of the suspended solids and get settled as
immobile sediments in the bed of the water body. These may have
a long residence time in the bed, resulting in impacts over a very
long period, which may run into years in some cases
Models are available for predicting the flow pattern and spatial distribution
of pollutants in the water bodies in which the wastewater is proposed to be
discharged. The water quality in a water body like a flowing stream, i.e. sink
of wastewater, is predicted at different distances in the flow direction for
different seasons. Thereafter, the impact on the water environment is
predicted.
The simplest approach to predicting water quality is to use basic mass

transfer principles. For example, the water quality of the flowing stream into
which wastewater is discharged through a pipeline, considered as discharge
from a point source, can be predicted from the basic equation:
Cf = (Ci Qi + Cs Qs)/ (Qi + Qs)

where
Cf = concentration of a pollutant, milligram (mg)/liter (L)
in the stream downstream of wastewater discharge
Ci = concentration of a pollutant, mg/L in the wastewater
stream
Cs = concentration of a pollutant, mg/L in the stream
upstream of wastewater discharge
Qi = wastewater discharge rate, m3/hr
Qs = stream flow rate, m3/hr upstream of wastewater
discharge
An inherent assumption in the above equation is instantaneous and complete

mixing of the wastewater taking place in the entire width or cross-section
of the stream. The rate of movement or transport of pollutants in the flowing
stream is estimated from the velocity of the streamflow using the equation:
Vs = (Qi + Qs)/ As
where
Vs = velocity of streamflow, meter (m) / hour (hr)
downstream of the wastewater discharge
As = equivalent cross-sectional area of the stream, m2
downstream of the wastewater discharge
The models like QUAL can be applied for predicting the flow and
concentration of pollutants discharged from point sources into surface water
streams. It needs to be recognized that the fate of a pollutant in a flowing
stream depends upon the:
a. transport processes, i.e. distribution of chemicals between

atmospheric, soil, and aquatic environments
b. transformation processes, i.e. chemical transformations of
pollutants under the prevailing conditions
The flow in a river or other surface streams proposed for sourcing the water
requirement is assessed especially for the summer when it is expected to be
lean. However, for the rivers originating from mountains laden with snow,
the lean period will be the winter. The dilution potential of the lean flow and
the rate of transport of pollutants is estimated, and assimilation capacity and
impacts on the aquatic organisms are assessed.
298 Chapter 6
B. Diffuse sources of pollution
It is often observed that impacts on the water bodies due to diffuse (non-
point) sources of water pollution could be substantial. It is, therefore,
necessary to estimate changes in diffuse source pollution loading, i.e.
sediment as well as nutrient transport, which is directly linked with the
change in the land use pattern caused by the project-related activities and
the other activities including induced development. The sources of diffuse
pollutants which may meet the altered drainage of precipitation or the flow
may include the following:
i. substances stored in the open like minerals, and fossil fuels

ii. wastes stored in the open like sludges, slags, and ash
iii. used or contaminated packaging materials of feedstock,
additives, and lubricants
iv. spillage from material handling, leakages, and accidental
spills
v. material carryover
vi. maintenance, and repair facilities
vii. soak pits, and septic tanks
viii. mining overburden dumps
ix. fertilizers and pesticides stacked, and/or applied in
agricultural fields
x. animal manures
xi. roadside wastes
xii. wastes dumped in low-lying areas
xiii. land-filled wastes
xiv. contaminated soils
xv. eroded soils
The simplest approach to predicting water quality is the application of basic

mass transfer principles. For example, the water quality in a flowing stream
in which pollutants from diffuse sources are likely to find their way through
multiple points into the stream stretch under investigation can be estimated
from the equation:
Cf = (C1 Q1 + C2 Q2 + C3 Q3 + + Cs Qs)/ (Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ..+ Qs)

= ( Ci Qi + Cs Qs) / ( Qi + Qs), i = 1 to n
where
Cf = concentration (average) of pollutant, mg/L in the
stream segment downstream of the entries of diffuse
sources of pollution
Cs = concentration of pollutant, mg/L in the upstream of

the entries of diffuse sources of pollution
Qs = stream flow rate, m3/hr upstream of the entries of
diffuse sources of pollution
Ci = concentration of pollutant, mg/L in the stream i
carrying a diffuse source of pollution into the stream
segment
Qi = flow rate, m3/hr of diffuse pollution source stream i
entering into the stream segment
i represents a diffuse source
The quantity and physical-chemical characteristics of diffuse sources of

pollution are generally related to basic soil characteristics. It may be
recognized that removal of construction material from a given place causes
changes in the local hydrological cycle and soil erosional pattern, creating
diffuse sources of pollution. The pollutants from several diffuse sources
ultimately get transported to nearby water bodies and even further through
flowing surface water streams, causing deterioration of water quality, and
posing a risk to the downstream water users and aquatic organisms even at
locations beyond the study area.
The changes in land use/land cover and drainage pattern due to any of the
project-related activities as well as induced developmental activities are to
be estimated. The changes in the flow of water and its characteristics in the
surface stream segment under investigation are predicted. The runoff
changes, i.e. changes in total flow as well as flow rates, are estimated using
the information on land use, type of soil, size of the watershed, and the
length of the stream.
The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), described under land and soil
impacts, is used to estimate sediments generated due to soil loss and
transported to water streams. Models are available to predict flow patterns
as well as the spatial distribution of pollutants from diffuse sources of
pollution. The pollution loads from diffuse sources are estimated using
equations that predict the movement of water runoff and percolation, and
sediments, i.e. transport of sediments along with the pollutants dissolved or
suspended in water, or attached to sediments. The impacts on the water
environment and the aquatic ecosystems due to diffuse sources of pollution
are accordingly predicted.
300 Chapter 6
C. Thermal pollution
The impact of thermal pollution on water bodies, including estuaries, is to

be assessed, especially for aquatic and marine ecosystems since thermal
pollution has the potential to:
a. deplete dissolved oxygen content in water and hence affect

oxygen-sensitive species
b. affect aquatic organisms sensitive to changes in temperature
c. change spawning patterns of fish
d. disrupt reproductive cycles of several organisms
e. cause changes in the submerged as well as the floating vegetation
pattern and other organisms
f. cause migration of fish; etc.
The effects cited above result in habitat modification, and shifts in the
composition of species due to depletion or migration of some species,
impacting the aquatic biodiversity in a particular stretch. The simplest
approach to predicting thermal pollution is to use basic heat transfer
principles. Models like CE-THERM can be used to predict the temperature
in water bodies from thermal discharges.
D. Groundwater
Groundwater depletion as well as pollution are causes of major concern

since groundwater is the major water resource being exploited in many
places. Wastewater and leachates of diffuse pollutants percolate to the soil
zone and contaminate the groundwater. It is difficult to manage diffuse
sources, which could be on or below the surface, or at times in locations that
are beyond the project jurisdiction. Moreover, it is difficult to remediate the
contaminated groundwater, primarily because
a. of difficulties encountered in isolating or eliminating pollution

sources
b. a long time elapses between the initiation and detection of the
contamination and its sources
c. of a lack of self-purification and the assimilative capacity of the
groundwater aquifers unlike the surface water
Thus, proper identification of the potential sources of groundwater

contamination is essential. For the prediction of the concentration of
pollutants in groundwater, models are available for the individual polluting
sources as well as for the transport of contaminants within the aquifers (Bear
and Verruijt 1987). An aquifer-vulnerability mapping technique, viz.

DRASTIC (depth to groundwater, recharge rate, aquifer media, soil media,
topography, the impact of the vadose zone, hydraulic conductivity of
aquifer) can be used for evaluating the potential of groundwater
contamination in a given area based on the hydrogeological settings (Canter
1996). SWAT (soil, water assessment tool) can be used for predicting an
impact due to non-point sources of pollution, requiring hydrogeological
information of different seasons.
When the groundwater is proposed to be exploited for meeting the water

requirement of the project and the allied facilities, the impact on
groundwater depletion becomes a major concern and is required to be
predicted along with the changes in the recharge of nearby wells under use.
The safe yield of each well is estimated, i.e. the condition when a well does
not go dry and nearby wells also do not get adversely affected ensuring that
the water table is maintained during water withdrawals. The impact
assessment on groundwater resources is complex and complicated, though
some models could be used for predicting the depletion of groundwater. The
simplest approach to a groundwater impact assessment is the use of the
modified Darcy equation:
Q=2 K D (h2 h1)/ln (r2/ r1)

where
Q = flow rate from well, m3/s
K = hydraulic conductivity, m/s
D = depth of aquifer, m
h1, h2 = water table at points 1 and 2, m
r1, r2 = distance from the pumped well, m
The changes taking place in local hydrogeology due to the project-related

activities are required to be predicted especially for infrastructural projects
where the drainage pattern is expected to be altered. Such changes may
cause flooding in some areas because of excess surface water flows, and
low groundwater recharge in some other areas because of the reduction of
surface water flows. This situation is more pronounced when linear projects
like railways, highways, earth supported flyovers, and irrigation canals tend
to fragment an area by creating a barrier in between.
The impact assessment of groundwater abstraction near coastal areas is

crucial for ensuring that it does not cause salinity ingress, and for its
sustenance.
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It may be recognized that the impacts on soil, land use/land cover,

terrestrial and aquatic ecology, and social components of the environment
are very closely linked to the water environment impacts in general, and
those resulting from alterations in the drainage pattern in particular.
E. Marine water
It is necessary to predict impacts on coastal and marine waters and estuaries,

considering that estuaries serve as spawning and nursery grounds for marine
organisms, and have an extremely important role in the productivity of the
marine ecosystem. The project-related activities proposed near an estuary
and/or those involving the use of marine outfalls are identified and their
influence on the stratification or circulation in the estuary is estimated. The
residence time of a pollutant in an estuary, i.e. the flushing time of an
estuary, is determined from the baseline data on the type of estuary, the
capacity of the estuary and flows into and from it in a tidal cycle and mixing
pattern, and the flow rate of wastewater discharged into the estuary. The
concentration of a pollutant in an estuary can be predicted by using mass
transfer principles. The impact assessment of wastewater discharge into the
estuary can be done by using available models.
If marine water is to be sourced for the project-related activities, the impacts

of water intake on the marine ecosystem are also assessed.
F. Water resources and major infrastructural projects
Global experience has revealed that large water reservoirs, dams, and some
infrastructural projects encounter several major environmental issues (ADB
1993) which need to be assessed carefully. The typical issues include
resettlement of the population in the inundated area, the encroachment of
the watershed, encroachment on historical or cultural resources, erosion of
the watershed, siltation leading to stoppage of navigation, groundwater
hydrology, migration of valuable fish species, inundation of mineral
resources, and specific problems arising from flooding of the inundated
areas, etc.
i. study EIA report(s) of an existing project(s) for the impact

ii. check the veracity of the prediction models or software used,

estimations and assumptions made, and accuracy and
completeness of the water environmental impact assessment
conducted, and performance evaluation of the control and other
the baseline water environmental information collected for the
proposed project
iii. document observations on i and ii above, and consider these for iv
below
iv. conduct a water impact assessment for the proposed project,
while taking into consideration iii above
The significance of water environment impacts is established by comparing

the predicted concentration of a pollutant to be discharged from the project
facility with the
a. permissible concentration specified in the applicable

regulations
b. baseline concentration in the receiving stream
c. predicted concentration of the receiving stream
d. permissible concentration specified for the receiving
streams, if any
The illustrations given under air impact assessment could also be used for
establishing the significance of water impacts. In general, the intensity of
the predicted impacts, and the affected interests and consequences thereof,
determine the significance of the impacts. Moreover, the predicted impacts
on public health, rare and endangered species and habitats, wetlands,
aquatic and marine ecosystems, soil, and aesthetics are considered to be
significant. Considering firsthand experience of the local population, public
consultations can help to establish the significance of the impacts assessed
on the water resources to be exploited and the local hydrogeology.
Professional judgment may have to be exercised for assigning significance
to the assessed impacts on water resources as well as water quality.
The residual impacts on water resources, both surface and groundwater, can
be ranked on the basis of an incremental decrease in the streamflow, and the
replenishment time required for the restoration of the water table
respectively. The residual water quality impacts on surface waters can be
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ranked based on the incremental increase in the predicted concentration of

the concerned water quality-related parameter in the receiving water body,
and also on the predicted concentration of the concerned water quality
parameter in the discharge stream as a percentage of the permissible
concentration specified in the applicable regulations.
Depending upon the type and size of the project, the environmental settings
of the project location, and the significant impacts assessed or evaluated,
specific mitigation measures like the following may have to be suggested
for water environment impacts in the different lifecycle phases of the
project:
i. segregation of wastewater streams for effective treatment

ii. appropriate wastewater treatment schemes for the centralized
and/or decentralized treatment, ensuring compliance with the
standards specified in the applicable regulations (MOEF 1975,
1988)
iii. recovery or removal of certain pollutants from some wastewater
streams for an effective wastewater treatment
iv. recycle and reuse of the treated wastewater for specific uses,
considering designated best uses of water requiring different
water quality parameters (CPCB 2008), exhibited in Table
6.3.
v. instrumentation and process control in the wastewater
treatment facility for ensuring effective treatment and real-
time monitoring for taking timely corrective measures
vi. adequate size guard pond with a provision to recycle the
inadequately treated wastewater back to the desired unit of the
wastewater treatment facility
vii. specific measures for arresting sediment transport, especially
in the construction phase of the project lifecycle
viii. leachate control measures
ix. leachate collection from the hazardous waste secured landfill
facility, or storage and landfill of other wastes, and transport
to the wastewater treatment facility
x. disposal of the treated wastewater, e.g. discharge deep into the
sea through diffusers for ensuring adequate mixing for
avoiding high concentrations at the discharge point
xi. runoff water flow management
xii. providing culverts and Hume pipes for unhindered water

flows for maintaining the existing drainage pattern, especially
in the case of linear infrastructural projects
xiii. reduction of diffuse sources of pollution by using the best
management practices (BMPs)
xiv. ongoing water pollution prevention measures
xv. minimization of water usage as well as wastewater generation
xvi. developing alternate sustainable water resources
xvii. suitable specific mitigation measures for the environmental
issues brought out above for major water resources and
infrastructural projects
Table 6.3 Use-based Classification of Surface Waters in India

Designated Best Use Class Criteria
Drinking water source A 1. Total Coliforms Organism

without conventional (MPN/100ml) < 50
treatment but after 2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
disinfection 3. Dissolved Oxygen 6mg/L
4. BOD (5 days 20oC) <2mg/L
Outdoor bathing B 1. Total Coliforms Organism

(Organized) (MPN/100ml) <500
2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
3. Dissolved Oxygen 5mg/L
Drinking water source C 1. Total Coliforms Organism

after conventional (MPN/100ml) <5000
treatment and 2. pH between 6 to 9
disinfection 3. Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/L
Propagation of Wildlife D 1. pH between 6.5 to 8.5

and Fisheries 2. Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/L
3. Free Ammonia (as N) <1.2 mg/L
Irrigation, Industrial E 1. pH between 6.0 to 8.5

Cooling, Controlled 2. Electrical Conductivity (at 25oC)
Waste disposal 2250 mhos/cm (maximum)
3. Sodium absorption Ratio 26
(maximum)
4. Boron 2 mg/L (maximum)
(Source: Guidelines for Water Quality Management 2008)
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6.6.3.7 Output of the water environmental impact assessment
The output of the water impact assessment generally includes the following:
i. water balance diagram showing flow rates of all the streams,

i.e. the water users, evaporation, leakages, and other losses in
the water supply network, and wastewater generation from
different sources including processes and activities
ii. characteristics of the wastewater generated from different
sources if these are proposed to be treated separately, and/or
of the composite wastewater sent to the central treatment
facility
iii. mapping of the baseline values of the water quality parameters
at the monitored locations on the base maps along with the
corresponding predicted values at those locations
iv. suggested wastewater treatment scheme(s) for the reduction of
the concentrations of different constituents of wastewater to
the permissible levels specified in the applicable regulations
(to be mentioned)
v. identified diffuse sources of pollution, prediction of the spatial
distribution of water quality in the surface waters receiving
diffuse pollutants, and specific measures for the prevention
and reduction of pollution
vi. predicted spatial distribution of water quality in the surface
waters receiving the treated wastewater
vii. suggested measures for the prevention and reduction of
wastewater generation, specific to each sourceoperation and
activity
viii. suggested specific measures for recycling and reuse of the
treated wastewater for the identified uses
ix. water pollution load to be discharged into the environment
under normal operating conditions expressed as, say kg/d for
each of the water pollutants
6.6.4 Land (Land and soil, land use/land cover, landscape

and visual) impact assessment and mitigation measures
A project uses a piece of landmass for different purposes, which may
include the following:
a. construction of buildings for different purposes

b. structures and other physical infrastructural facilities
c. operational facilities
d. social infrastructural facilities
e. storage of raw materials and fuels
f. storage and treatment of water and wastewater
g. storage and treatment of hazardous and other solid wastes
h. open uses, pavement
i. plantations, lawns; etc.
These project-related activities have the potential to cause impacts on the

land environment, which may consist of changes in
a) land and soil characteristics

b) land use/land cover
c) landscape and features of the visual environment
d) drainage pattern
6.6.4.1 Identification of land impact-causing activities
The activities causing potential impacts on the land environment need to be

identified. Depending upon the size and type of the project, the activities
may include:
i. excavation, handling, storage, and transportation of construction

materials like sand, gravel, and clays from nearby or even far off
places to the project site
ii. excavation, leveling, handling, storage, and disposal of earth
iii. construction of project-related facilities
iv. construction of housing and other social infrastructural facilities
v. construction of canals, channels, or pipelines for sourcing water
from the water resources, and storage of water at the project site
vi. logistics-related infrastructure for sourcing feedstock, fuel, and
other inputs from distant locations, consisting of transportation and
storage
vii. logistics-related infrastructure for evacuating products to distant
places, consisting of transportation and storage
viii. transportation and disposal of the treated wastewater, and
hazardous and other solid wastes to the approved facilities
ix. handling, transportation, and storage of substances, which may
cause spillage and leaching, and accidental spills; etc.
Based on the above, potential changes and hence impacts can be estimated
on land, soil, and land use/land cover while documenting the assumptions
made.
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Induced impacts
For assessing the impacts of the induced development that may take place
in the vicinity of the project location in the foreseeable future, the following
information is thoroughly examined:
i. available resources
ii. past developmental pattern
iii. development plans
iv. development-related opportunities to be generated by the project
v. developments that took place or those taking place in the nearby
regions with a similar geopolitical situation and socio-economic
base, etc.
Considering that the impact assessment involves a lot of subjectivity, simple

logic and common sense is generally used, with a complete understanding
that
i. land is finite
ii. the land has several alternate and competing uses
iii. soil is productive
iv. soil and geological systems are developed over millions of years
and these can be adversely affected by project-related activities
6.6.4.2 Land and soil-related impacts
The project-related activities, mainly in the construction phase of a project,

invariably cause changes in the soil characteristics (Canter 1996)
concerning the following:
a. soil physics (soil structure) due to excavation, removal of perennial

vegetation, and compaction
b. soil chemistry (soil constituents) due to chemical imbalance,
toxicity, salinity, and over-removal of nutrients
c. soil organisms due to increased toxicity, and reduction of micro-
organisms
d. time (rate of change) due to accelerated erosion and overuse of
nutrients
Impact identification
The impacts on land and soil may include:
a. natural land being used for different purposes

b. contamination of topsoil with the excavated sub-soil and storage
of other materials
c. soil erosion and sediments being transported to watercourses
d. contamination of land
e. the decline in the productivity or fertility of soil or land due to soil
compaction, and soil contamination
f. loss of soil or topsoil due to excavation
g. changes in soil moisture levels
h. increase in soil acidity due to acid rain
i. land becoming waterlogged
j. land subsidence from activities like onshore oil and gas extraction,
underground mining, and excessive withdrawal of groundwater
Prediction of soil loss
The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), correlating soil erosion with
precipitation and the basic features of the landscape, is generally used for
calculating the loss of soil. Westman (1985) summarized the work of many
researchers in the presentation of the soil loss equation, which is useful in
computing sediment input into a water body like a lake, and/or the specific reach
of a flowing stream. The simplest representation of the USLE is given below:
A = R K (L/S) C P
where
A = annual average soil loss, g/m2/year
R = annual rainfall factor
K = soil erodibility, g/m2
L/S = length to steepness factor
C = land cover (vegetative and management) factor,
ranging from .001 for a well-managed woodland to
1.0 for no cover
P = erosion control or management practice factor,
ranging from .001 for effective contouring,
terracing, and other erosion control for tilled land to
1.0 for the absence of erosion control
The major impacts on soil are generally in the construction phase of a

project. The impacts on soil, quantities of the earth to be excavated, topsoil
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to be removed, asphalt containing waste to be excavated for up-gradation of

roads, construction debris to be generated, etc. need to be estimated based
on the construction requirements of the project and the construction
practices to be employed.
Impact significance
The significance of impacts on land may be established based on the

following factors:
i. the extent of the productive land proposed to be used for the project
and allied activities
ii. the extent of the induced development anticipated
iii. the extent of soil erosion or deposition predicted
iv. the extent of reduction in the productivity of landmass and/or
landmass predicted to be rendered useless
v. the anticipated soil contamination from spillages at the site and
during transportation
vi. the potential of salinity ingress
Public consultation and professional judgment could help further in

confirming the significance established.
6.6.4.3 Land use/land cover
The impacts on land use/land cover in the study area can be estimated or
predicted by overlaying the following thematic maps on each other:
i. Land use/land cover maps, prepared from the latest satellite

imageries of the core zone and buffer zone
ii. maps of the current land use prepared based on the updated revenue
records like survey maps and development plans, Google Earth
maps, and the latest records containing notified changes in the
local land cover
iii. layout maps of the project-related facilities proposed in the core
zone, and infrastructural facilities and induced growth anticipated
in the buffer zone
iv. maps of the current drainage pattern and those estimated to
undergo changes in the local topography due to the proposed
project site development, construction, and infrastructural
development
The changes in land use/land cover may lead to impacts as follows:

a. flooding from increased surface runoff due to soil compaction, and

decreased water percolation into the soil, and changes in land use
b. disruption of the natural drainage pattern causing changes in soil
moisture levels and recharging of aquifers
Impact significance will depend on the predicted changes in the drainage

pattern, etc.
6.6.4.4 Landscape and visual impacts
Considering that landscape is a resource, the impact on landscape needs to

be assessed. The impact on landscape generally depends upon how
effectively the proposed built environment is integrated with the attributes
of the study area like
i. land forms
ii. rock forms
iii. water forms such as lakes
iv. streams
v. riverfronts and the seashore
vi. vegetation, etc.
The criteria used for evaluating landscapes generally include:
a. the scenic quality based on pleasing patterns and important

aesthetic factors
b. an un-spoilt character
c. a sense of the place based on distinctive as well as common
characters
d. changes in viewpoints and the landscape
e. conservation interests based on historical, archaeological,
architectural, cultural, and religious features
The aesthetics and visual impacts assessments are done with a full
appreciation that there are no universally accepted definitions or criteria on
aesthetics and visual quality. Landscape and visual impact assessments are
essentially governed by:
a. potential impacts on the landscape character of the project location

and its local landscape
b. the ability of the landscape to accommodate the proposed
development and the changes likely to follow
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c. specific effects of development on the people and the properties in

and around the project location
Impact significance
In the absence of a standard set of criteria for measuring the significance

objectively, the degree of significance may be influenced by basic elements
like character, quality, or value of the affected landscape, and the changes
likely to arise as a result of the activities proposed in each lifecycle phase
of the project. For example,
a. industrial, infrastructural, and real estate projects involve excavation

and installation of new structures in the construction period, which
will have a permanent effect on the existing landscape
b. mining and solid waste disposal projects will affect the existing
landscape during their operation period, and thereafter a new
landscape could be developed
c. highways, cross-country pipelines, and water resources projects
will have a predominant effect on the existing landscape during the
construction period, and thereafter a new landscape would emerge
The prevailing landscape could be either a unique landscape, which is

essentially a non-renewable landscape resource having the potential to be
impacted adversely and irreversibly by the project-related activities, or a
common landscape, which will undergo change but can be developed again
with or without modifications. Consensus building on arriving at the
importance of a place and establishing its significance from aesthetics,
landscape, and visual viewpoints is usually attempted by involving the
public as well as professionals. The residual impacts, if any, can be ranked
based on, e.g. percentage of viewpoints changed, the extent of changes in
the landscape, etc.
a. study EIA report(s) of the operating project(s) for the land impact
b. check the veracity of the predictions models or software used,
the land EIA conducted, and the performance evaluation of the
the baseline land environmental information collected for the

proposed project
below
d. conduct a land impact assessment for the proposed project,
6.6.4.6 Waste management
The wastes generated from the project-related activities, principally in the

operation lifecycle phase of the project, whether hazardous or non-
hazardous in liquid, solid, or slurry form, need to be identified and
quantified for suitable treatment and disposal. Such wastes may typically
include the following:
i. liquid wastes like

a) process residues
b) used or contaminated industrial oils, lubricants, acids, and
solvents
c) off-specification and expired products
d) incinerable and non-incinerable substances, etc.
ii. solid wastes like
a) construction debris and demolition wastes including
excavated soil, rocks, concrete, asphalt, etc.
b) construction waste like metal scrap, welding rods, waste
from the workshop, etc.
c) combustible and non-combustible substances
d) packaging materials like bags, boxes, barrels, etc.
e) excess construction and building materials like sand,
aggregate, bricks, wood, steel, paints, etc.
f) domestic wastes
g) hazardous wastes
h) electric and electronics waste
i) used containers and equipment
j) off-specification and expired products from the food,
cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industry
k) overburden and fines from mining
l) slag from the metallurgical industry
m) fly ash and bottom ash from thermal power projects
n) spent catalysts and adsorbents from petroleum refining,
chemical, and petrochemical industries
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o) yarn, fabrics, dyes, and pigments from the textile industry

p) used crucibles, vitreous, and inert wastes from the
ceramic and glass industry
q) waste from miscellaneous sources, etc.
iii. sludges like
a) process residues
b) contaminated iron oxide and calcium salts from the
chemical industry
c) oil exploration waste
d) primary and secondary sludge from water treatment and
wastewater treatment; etc.
The inorganic wastes could be disposed of in identified low-lying areas but

organic and toxic wastes need to be pre-treated and disposed of in approved
secure landfill facilities, and/or incinerated.
6.6.4.7 Mitigation measures for the land environment
Depending upon the project location, type and size of the project, and
significant impacts envisaged, specific mitigation measures are proposed
for land and soil, land use/land cover, and landscape for each lifecycle phase
of the project. Some typical mitigation measures are illustrated as follows:
i. avoiding the conversion of land to more intensive uses

ii. compensating the inevitable losses
iii. adopting best engineering and environmental practices (BEEP)
for construction including storage of materials, isolation of
construction area, and suitable disposal of excavated or
demolition materials like soil, construction debris, and used
asphalt
iv. adopting best engineering practices and standard operating
procedures for handling and storage of raw materials, fuels,
and wastes to minimize spills
v. good housekeeping; etc.
Soil
vi. attentive removal, preservation, and subsequent use of the
removed topsoil
vi. specific control measures for soil erosion and sediment
transport, mainly in the construction phase of the project
lifecycle
vii. plantation of rapidly growing grasses and vegetation cover
viii. the pavement of open surfaces
ix. remediation of contaminated soil, etc.

Land use/land cover
x. selection of the project location in such a manner that
extensive conversion of agricultural land into other purposes
is avoided or minimized as far as possible
xi. considering alternate project designs at the selected site
xii. minimizing changes in the prevailing drainage pattern as far
as possible, and measures for preventing flash floods, and
sediment transport, and ensuring unhindered groundwater
recharge as it existed earlier; etc.
Landscape
xiii. identification of the landscape aspects, and treating landscape
as an integral part of the project design right from the early
stages of the project
xiv. providing isolation measures like fencing, barriers, and walls
during construction, selecting appropriate colors for large
structures, suitable plantations, etc. for moderating or
containing adverse impacts, whether temporary or permanent
xv. creation of new landscapes either on- or off-site, etc.
Waste management
xvi. segregation of wastes and exploring the use of waste as a
resource
xvii. reduction of the quantity of waste to be disposed into landfills
by considering suitable pre-treatment techniques like thermal
treatmentincineration, gasification or plasma-assisted
pyrolysis, and/or biological treatmentanaerobic with biogas
generation
xviii. secured landfill sites with appropriate liners, gas venting
systems, and top covers on closure, followed by landscaping
xix. specific waste minimization measures and adopting best
practices for waste management, etc.
It may be recognized that the impacts on soil, land use/land cover, and
landscape often have a strong correlation with the water, ecological, and
socio-economic environments. Thereafter, mitigation measures need to be
considered in the respective environmental components.
6.6.4.8 Output of the soil and land environmental impact assessment
The output of the soil and land EIA generally includes:

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i. mapping the soil quality monitoring locations on the base map

along with the soil characteristics
ii. topsoil removal, preservation, and use
iii. specific mitigation measures for minimizing soil erosion
iv. estimated impacts on the land and soil environment including
soil rendered unproductive, saline, degraded, etc.
v. proposed land use for different activities/purposes in the core
zone
vi. mapping the locations on the base maps where ground
verification was carried out to verify the information interpreted
from remote sensing
vii. land use/land cover maps, separately for the core zone and
buffer zone, showing predicted changes like drainage patterns
viii. impacts on LU/LC, and drainage patterns
ix. description of the unique and common landscape
x. irreversible and reversible impacts estimated on the landscape
xi. mitigation measures for reducing impacts on land and soil,
LU/LC, and the landscape, and the prevailing drainage pattern
xii. details of the sources of wastes including construction,
hazardous, industrial, and domestic wastes along with their
characterization and inventories
xiii. the suggested scheme for waste storage and treatment,
transportation, and mode of disposal for each type of waste
xiv. the suggested specific mitigation measures for the prevention
and reduction of waste generation and waste utilization
xv. waste load to be disposed of expressed as say kg/day of each
of the wastes
6.6.5 Ecological impact assessment and mitigation measures

An ecological impact assessment essentially involves identification of the
ecological resources that are at risk, prediction of impacts on terrestrial and
aquatic flora, and fauna, avifauna, and marine organisms, due to the project-
related activities, and proposing appropriate mitigation measures for
incorporation into the project design to avoid or minimize the potential
impacts, and the measures to compensate for the damage that is considered
unavoidable, and conservation of the ecological resources.
6.6.5.1 Identification of impact-causing attributes
The ecological impacts could result from the changes caused by any of the
project-related activities on several attributed including the following:
a. air quality: emissions

b. water quality: discharges
c. water resources: depletion or degradation
d. noise, and vibration levels
e. soil quality: soil degradation and erosion
f. land use/land cover: project infrastructure
g. drainage pattern: project infrastructure
h. species and habitats: removal, introduction, or disturbance
The changes in the physical-chemical components of the environment

resulting in the ecological impacts may be understood by the following
simple examples:
i. air quality impacts vegetation and the dependent fauna

ii. water quantity, streamflow as well as water quality impact aquatic
biota, and fauna including avifauna
iii. soil characteristics, water availability, water quality, drainage
pattern, etc. affect vegetation, and impact the flora and fauna,
including the avifauna
iv. land use affects vegetation and impacts the flora and fauna
v. noise and vibration disturb the fauna, resulting in their migration
For the individual ecosystems present in the study area, the influencing
biotic and/or abiotic factors need to be identified. The changes likely to take
place in these factors due to any of the project-related activities are
predicted, and their influence on the ecosystems is assessed. The
identification of the key components in the species and ecological
relationships and the extent to which these key components could be
affected by the project-related activities are very important in assessing the
ecological impacts. Models are used to predict the effects on valued
ecosystem components. For example, an impact assessment on grasslands
(Petts 1999) is done by predicting changes caused by the project and allied
activities in the key abiotic environmental variables, viz.:
a) soil pH
b) organic matter in the soil
c) nutrient levels in the soil, especially the nitrate content
d) the water table, etc.
Typical project-related activities that cause changes in the physical-

chemical components of the environment, leading to ecological impacts are
illustrated below:
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i. water impoundment involved in projects like dams, water

reservoirs, and check dams causes a reduction in stream flows in
the downstream of such projects, and hence reduces the
biodiversity of aquatic and marine organisms and fish catch
ii. construction activities for projects on the seafront like ports and
tourism cause an increase in turbidity in the coastal and marine
waters, which tends to reduce the primary productivity of marine
waters and fish catch, and destroy or degrade benthos and corals
iii. sediment transport from land-based activities increases turbidity in
waters near ports and harbors and settling of silt, requiring frequent
dredging, results in the destruction of benthos, and reduction of the
primary productivity of marine waters and fish catch
iv. wastewater discharges from land-based activities into coastal
waters cause an increase in temperature and concentration of
pollutants in coastal waters, resulting in the decolorization and
degradation of corals, destruction of breeding and spawning
habitats of marine biota in estuaries, and reduction of fish stock
v. leakages of petroleum products from shipping, offshore handling,
offshore hydrocarbon production, transportation, and storage at
port terminals, etc. cause marine pollution and result in the death
of fish and birds, and the destruction of benthos, etc.
vi. untreated or improperly treated municipal wastewater discharged
in coastal waters and/or other water bodies causes eutrophication
and algal bloom, reducing dissolved oxygen content in water,
which destroys marine and/or aquatic organisms
vii. emissions from thermal power plants, petroleum refineries,
chemical and petrochemical projects, etc. tend to coat plant leaf
surfaces and/or damage plant leaves, resulting in a reduction of the
growth rate of vegetation and/or destruction of certain vegetation
viii. construction activities and land use changes contribute to diffuse
pollution, which results in the deterioration of water quality,
adversely affecting aquatic and marine organisms
ix. utilization of land for the various activities of development projects
leads to the removal of terrestrial habitats and the destruction of
terrestrial species and habitats
x. noise and vibration level increases from projects like thermal
power plants, construction, manufacturing, railways, and highways
tend to disrupt the maturation and reproduction cycle of fauna, and
displacement of avifauna and other fauna
xi. linear projects like highways, railways, and canals tend to fragment
habitats, affecting the movement or migration of wildlife, prey, and
predators
6.6.5.2 Impact assessment
An impact assessment needs to be done for the following adverse impacts

which are generally encountered by the biological system (Canter 1996):
a. natural biological character loss

b. maturation and reproduction of fauna
c. aquatic biota diversity
d. population density of fish
e. wildlife breeding and nesting sites
f. tree canopy
g. grassland productivity
h. nutrient supply
i. plant productivity
j. habitat abandonment
k. species diversity
Some typical impact characteristics that are generally used for ecological
impact predictions are as follows:
i. food chain: the loss of certain grasses and vegetation affecting

herbivores and hence carnivores
ii. habitat: the destruction of faunal species, and abandonment of poor
habitats
iii. individual species: effect of changes in, e.g. air quality, water
availability and quality, temperatures and noise levels on
a) quantitative changes of speciesabundance and overall
distribution
b) qualitative effects on the genetic composition of the
species, leading to the potential threat on their long-term
survival and behavioral attributes
iv. aquatic and marine species: loss of primary productivity, i.e.
phytoplankton and zooplankton, reduction of fish catch, loss of
mangroves, destruction of corals, etc.
A focused assessment of impacts of the project-related activities, conducted

by the professionals who are knowledgeable in their respective disciplines,
experienced and committed to their profession, will also consider impacts
on:
320 Chapter 6
a. flowering of flora
b. breeding of fauna
c. nesting of birds
d. migrant routes of avifauna
e. migratory routes of wildlife
f. the productivity of the aquatic and marine ecosystem
g. biodiversity, etc.
The ecological impact assessment is often difficult because of the lack of

knowledge of the complexities of interactions between communities of
plants, communities of fauna, and abiotic factors. Some ecological impacts
may be apparent like most on-site direct impacts, especially those which are
generally associated with site development and construction-related
activities. These are readily identifiable, e.g. loss of vegetation and fauna
which is dependent on that vegetation, and migration of fauna. But these
impacts need not be major. Indirect off-site impacts may be much more
significant in the long-term and far more difficult to predict.
The major threats to biodiversity are loss of habitat and/or their alterations
or fragmentation. The ecological models for prediction of fragmentation
effects and biodiversity predictions in EIA studies, current practices,
potential prediction tools, and approaches to biodiversity assessment are
given by Gontier et al. (2006). The Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD 2004) has highlighted that a significant share of
species is threatened not only by habitat alterations or loss inside protected
areas but also by changes in land use categories like agriculture,
construction, and forestry, and intensity outside protected areas.
a. study the EIA report(s) of the operating project(s) for the impact
assessment and mitigation measures proposed for the ecological
environment
the ecological environmental impact assessment conducted, and
performance evaluation of the control and mitigation measures
employed, and conservation program undertaken for the operating
project(s), using the baseline ecological environmental information
collected for the proposed project

below
d. conduct an ecological impact assessment for the proposed project,
The ecological impacts described above may be considered significant if the

ecological impact assessment reveals, for example:
i. sightings of rare, threatened, or endangered species

ii. a reduction in the number of species that have a role in the food
chain
iii. degradation or destruction of habitats, especially those having
functional and resource value
iv. fragmentation of any of the habitats
v. a reduction in the diversity of species and habitats
vi. a disturbance in or reduction of ecological stability, i.e. ability of
the ecosystem to withstand environmental stresses
The significance of the assessed impacts could be more firmly established

by having public consultations and by using professional judgment.
The basic principle of no net biodiversity loss, or biodiversity

restoration needs to be followed for proposing mitigation measures for the
assessed ecological impacts. Based on the significant impacts assessed,
project alternatives including location, scale, layout, technology, and
scheduling need to be considered. The mitigation measures for the
ecological environment in each lifecycle phase of the project are suggested
in the order of priority of avoidance, minimization, restoration, and
compensation as illustrated below:
i. impact avoidance by the measures related to the project design and

construction practices, e.g.:
a) proper plant layout
b) appropriate on-site measures like scheduling of the
activities in pre-construction as well as construction
lifecycle phases of the project
322 Chapter 6
c) isolation of sensitive sites, species, and habitats from

construction and transportation-related activities by proper
fencing or placing adequate barriers for their protection
a) avoiding construction activities or taking special care
while carrying out such activities during flowering and
breeding seasons of flora and fauna respectively, and
nesting and migratory season of avifauna, especially for
the notified as well as local rare, threatened, or endangered
species
b) leaving wildlife migratory corridors undisturbed by
suitable transportation management in such migratory
corridors
c) maintaining adequate stream flows in the downstream of
projects like dams
ii. impact minimization by measures such as:
a) proper habitat management
b) providing inter-connections like underpasses, culverts, or
Hume pipes for linear projects, which generally cause
habitat fragmentation
c) transplantation of individual rare, threatened, or endangered
species
d) translocation of fauna
e) on-site habitat restoration through the reconstruction of
natural or semi-natural habitats
iii. impact compensation for the damages estimated by using
appropriate methodologies for evaluating the habitat and species
which are anticipated to be disrupted or lost, and developing time-
bound programs for:
a) on-site or off-site compensatory vegetation or forest,
preferably with native species
b) construction of artificial habitats
iv. the ecological restoration which could either be considered as a
part of impact compensation or separately, by:
a) ecological restoration measures, generally taken up after
completing the operation phase of projects like mining,
oil and gas exploration, and production. Solid waste
landfills may include the progressive development or
creation of
grasslands
landscaping
afforestation
water bodies
artificial habitats, etc.
b) the phase-wise reconstruction of natural or semi-natural
ecosystems on the progressive completion of activities
like mining in open-cast mining projects
Mitigation measures primarily need to ensure that the food chain in an

ecosystem remains unaltered so that higher animals grow and prosper. This
would be an indicator of the stability of the ecosystem in the study area.
6.6.5.6 Output of the ecological impact assessment
The output of a typical ecological impact assessment study includes the

following:
i. prediction or estimation of loss of species and habitats due to

project-related activities like site development and construction
in the core zone, and the proposed specific mitigation
measures for impact avoidance or impact minimization
ii. discussion on key components which are likely to undergo
significant changes, and result in adverse impacts on specific
ecosystems, and the proposed specific mitigation measures for
minimizing the impacts
iii. discussion on ecological impacts due to changes in air quality,
noise levels, water resources and water quality, soil quality,
and land use/land cover on the specific species and habitats,
prediction or estimation of impacts, and the proposed specific
mitigation measures for their protection
iv. proposed specific mitigation measures for the protection of
rare, endangered, and threatened species as well as habitats in
the study area, which were listed under the establishment of
the baseline scenario, and mapped on the base maps
v. suggested on-site or off-site compensatory vegetation and
afforestation measures, preferably with the native species
vi. suggested ecological restoration measures in different
lifecycle phases of the project, e.g. post-construction of
projects of the manufacturing, energy, and infrastructure
sectors, and post-operation of projects like open-cast mining,
and solid waste landfills
324 Chapter 6
6.6.6 Social impact assessment and mitigation measures

The social impacts of a project are the non-physical impacts experienced or
perceived directly or indirectly by people. It may be recognized that social
issues are potentially more contentious than other environmental issues. A
social impact assessment is considered to be a more process-oriented rather
than outcome-oriented approach, and it is primarily a process of managing
change. A social impact assessment essentially evaluates the following:
i. anything that changes the social, economic, and environmental

aspects affecting individuals, communities, or societies concerning:
a) changes to the norms, values, and beliefs
b) peoples perception of the changes likely to occur because
of the project
ii. psychological and health effects experienced by the individuals
iii. social and cultural effects experienced by the communities
iv. institutional and financial effects experienced by society
Considering that a large project generally has the potential to create as well
as induce several kinds of changes in the physical-chemical, biological, and
social components of the environment, the suggested mitigation measures
for the social impacts need to be elaborated:
a. the important aspect of the management of change, and

b. a mechanism for ensuring and facilitating effective community
participation, right from the planning stage of the project
6.6.6.1 Impacts identification
The following types of social impacts (UNEP 2002) need to be identified:
i. demographic impacts including

a) changes in population numbers and characteristics such
as sex ratio, age structure, in- and out-migration rates,
etc., and
b) the resultant demand for social services, hospital beds,
schools, housing, etc.
ii. cultural impacts including changes to
a) shared customs, traditions, and value systems such as
language, dress, religious beliefs, and rituals
b) archaeological, historical and cultural artifacts, and
c) structures and environmental features with religious or
ritual significance
iii. community impacts including

a) changes in social structures, organizations and relationships,
and
b) their accompanying effect on cohesion, stability, identity,
and provision of services
iv. socio-psychological impacts including
a) changes to individual quality of life and well-being, sense
of security or belonging, and
b) perceptions of amenities or hazards
6.6.6.2 Impact assessment
The OECD (2007, 2010) has published procedures for environmental and
social impact assessment. Frans Berkhout et al. (2002) have described
socio-economic futures in climate change impact assessments. The World
Bank (1995, 1996) advocates that the identification and assessment of social
impacts should be conducted in close collaboration with the people,
consisting of all stakeholders. A social impact assessment essentially
involves the evaluation of all impacts on human beings and on the ways in
which people and communities interact with their socio-economic, cultural,
and biophysical environment. Such types of social and economic impacts at
different levels need to be estimated and assessed in detail:
i. Individual and household level:

a. reduced level of health and fertility
b. reduced mental health, stress, anxiety
c. personal safety, hazard exposure
d. worsening of the economic situation
e. disruption of the way of life
f. disruption of social networks
g. density and crowding
h. reduction in environmental amenity value
ii. Community and institutional level:
a. crime, violence
b. violation of human rights
c. adequacy of physical and social infrastructure
d. cultural integrity
e. rights over, and access to resources
f. inequality
g. economic prosperity
h. community participation in the decision-making process
326 Chapter 6
The prediction of social impacts necessitates a complete understanding of

the social processes and variables, which may cause or lead to social and
economic impacts, in their sociological context. These may include the
following:
a. rehabilitation and resettlement of the people in case the project

involves land acquisition and hence displacement of the local
people, loss of private property and assets like farms, and
plantations, and loss of sources of livelihood, and other indirect
losses
b. increase in population at the project site because of migrants
employed and other developments
c. presence of seasonal workers at the project site for undertaking
different activities, resulting in occasional crowding and pressure
exerted on the local resources
d. culture of the migrant population and its influence on the local
population
e. change of occupation and sources of livelihood of the local people
i. study EIA report(s) of the operating project(s) for the social impact
ii. check the veracity of the predictions, estimations, and assumptions
made, and accuracy and completeness of the social-environmental
impact assessment conducted, and performance evaluation of the
mitigation measures employed, and rehabilitation and resettlement
program undertaken for the operating project(s), using the baseline
social-environmental information collected for the proposed
project
iii. document observations on i and ii above, and consider these for iv
below
iv. conduct a social impact assessment for the proposed project,
while taking into consideration iii above
The perceptions and viewpoints of the people on social impacts, which are
expected to vary widely, are documented properly. The broad range of
predictable impacts are ranked on the considerations of whether these

impacts:
i. are acceptable to the people

ii. require mitigation for their acceptance
iii. are unacceptable to them
The impacts found to be unacceptable would be considered significant, and

the reasons for this are described in the report. The impacts may not be
considered significant if there is the potential to mitigate them within the
agreed budget. However, the institutional capacity to address such impacts,
cost of mitigation, and implementation of the mitigation measures in an
agreed time frame would be important considerations. The World Bank
(1996) guidelines on social and economic impact assessments necessitate
ascertaining whether the project is:
a. acceptable to the community

b. generally equitable within the society
c. sustainable for the future
When any of the above conditions cannot be ascertained or there is some

uncertainty in ascertaining, the impacts would be considered significant and
the project would require reconsideration.
6.6.6.5 Impact mitigation
In a given population, different groups are likely to experience different

types of social impacts to a varying extent. It is to be ensured that negative
impacts on the key stakeholders are suitably mitigated. Special mitigation
measures are to be suggested for the protection of interests of the
disadvantaged and most vulnerable persons and groups in the society who
have the maximum potential of being adversely impacted.
The Inter-organizational Committee on Guidelines and Principles for Social

Impact Assessment (ICGPSIA 1994, 2003) suggested that mitigation
measures for social impacts need to:
i. consider alternatives such as modifying the project or even

dropping it to avoid significant impacts
ii. consider a suitable design or operation of the project for
minimizing, rectifying or reducing the impacts
iii. provide substitute facilities, resources, and opportunities for
compensating for the impacts
328 Chapter 6
It is necessary to prepare the rehabilitation and resettlement action program

(R&RAP) for the project-affected persons (PAP), ensuring that it complies
with the requirements of the applicable regulations (MORD 2014). For
externally funded projects, guidelines (ADB 1998, WCD 2000) of the
project financing agencies are followed for the R&RAP, which should be a
scheme-based or target-based program (ASI 2010), incorporating the
following components:
a. skill formation and training

b. employment in the project
c. income generation programs and social entrepreneurship
d. an effective institutional framework
e. transparency in the entitlement of the PAP
f. involvement of the PAP in the formulation as well as the
implementation of the action program
A comprehensive health component is required in environmental and social

impact assessments for large dam, irrigation, and infrastructural projects
(Lerer and Scudder 1999, Braun and Tilt 2009) to address public health
issues including vector-borne diseases, such as schistosomiasis, and those
caused by changes in water and food security, increases in communicable
diseases, and social disruption.
6.6.6.6 Cultural impacts
Cultural heritage is defined (World Bank 2014) as resources which people

identify, independently of ownership, as a reflection and expression of their
constantly evolving values, beliefs, knowledge, and traditions. The potential
impacts on cultural resources due to any of the project-related activities
need to be identified. The impacts will be considered direct and significant
in case there is a possibility of any historical, archaeological, religious,
geological, or environmental resources becoming physically affected,
damaged, or destroyed due to any of the causal factors illustrated below in
any lifecycle phase of the project:
a. excavation
b. vibrations
c. particulate matter, gaseous emissions, or diffuse sources of
pollution
d. vehicular movement and vehicular emissions
6.6.6.7 Mitigation of cultural impacts
The mitigation measures for cultural impacts generally include:
i. relocating or redesigning the project, modifying the plant layout

and/or infrastructural facilities for impact avoidance
ii. isolating cultural resources especially in the construction phase,
and providing preservation and protection measures like
rehabilitation, restoration, and maintenance for impact minimization
iii. relocating cultural resources to another location if that is
permissible under the applicable regulations, and is acceptable to
the local population
6.6.6.8 Social needs assessment
A social needs assessment, considered extremely important for projects,

especially in developing and under-developed economies, primarily
involves gathering opinions of the local population on their physical and
social needs, and information on the aspirations of the people, especially the
young. The objective behind it is that the local population should also
prosper and the quality of life of the people should improve while the project
uses local resources and the project proponent gains from the project. To
conduct a social needs assessment, appropriate methodologies must be
employed, and separate consultations are held with different groups of
stakeholders. After a thorough examination of the information gathered,
specific measures are proposed for fulfilling the social needs and aspirations
of the people. Among others, the suggested measures may include:
a. skills development for the individuals, and entrepreneurship

development and capacity building programs for the community with
the basic objective of increasing opportunities for the employment of
the local population
b. a means of providing opportunities for increasing the income levels
of the people
c. upgrading the existing physical and social infrastructural facilities
d. providing additional facilities, especially for education at different
levels, public health care, support for cultural activities, etc.
With the commitment of the project proponent to the fulfillment of the

assessed social needs, it is expected that acceptance of the proposed project
by the local population would be better, and it would contribute to
enhancing their quality of life in the long-term.
330 Chapter 6
6.6.6.9 Output of the socio-economic impact assessment
The output of the social impact assessment generally includes the following:
i. socio-economic impacts assessed and proposed specific

mitigation measures
ii. cultural impacts and specific mitigation measures for
containing the impacts
iii. records of public participation including focus group
discussions for obtaining feedback and suggestions from the
local population, and conflict resolution efforts
iv. details of project-affected persons and specific compensation
packages for land owners who have lost land, and a time-
bound program for their rehabilitation and resettlement
v. details of employment opportunities to be generated by the
projectdirect as well as indirectestimated for different
skill sets, especially for the local persons
vi. a social needs assessment and suggested programs for its
fulfillment
6.6.7 Risk assessment

The objective of risk assessment is to assess risks and suggest measures for
process safety, essentially the absence of risk from events associated with
hazards, hazardous substances, and activities, generally under extreme
conditions.
6.6.7.1 Identification of hazard potential
The primary hazard concerns of accidental releases from project-related

activities are toxicity and flammability. The hazard potential is generally
identified based on the following considerations:
a. properties and proposed inventory levels of the hazardous

substances, whether toxic, flammable, explosive, or reactive used
as feedstock and fuel, and/or those produced in manufacturing
processes
b. process operations and operating conditions of pressure,
temperature, and flow under normal as well as abnormal
operational, start-up and shutdown, and accidental scenarios
c. the condition of storage of hazardous substances when the project
is not operating
d. project activities and practices adopted in each lifecycle phase of

the project including transportation, loading, and unloading,
storage and processing
e. the control mechanism adopted in operations and for emissions,
leakages, and spills etc.
Some examples of the hazard potential of some typical projects and/or

activities are illustrated below:
i. hydrocarbons handling and processing like petroleum refining and

gas processing, petrochemicals manufacture, onshore and offshore
terminals, storage, solvents, and cross-country pipelines carrying
inflammable substances have inherent potential hazards of fire and
explosion
ii. pesticides and synthetic organic chemicals have inherent potential
hazards of toxic emissions or releases
iii. metallurgical processes, involving high temperatures and liquid
metals have potential hazards of burns and toxic emissions
iv. oil and gas production and underground coal mining have the
potential of explosion and fire hazards
v. projects involving operations under high-temperature flows, and
pressures have inherent potential hazards of emissions, explosions,
and fire
vi. construction and engineering projects have potential mechanical
and electrical-related hazards
6.6.7.2 Identification of typical sources of accidental releases
Some typical releases from different sources and the phenomena occurring
for each such release are highlighted below:
a. Leakage from a liquid storage vessel or pipeline through a

i. small hole, resulting in
a) liquid jet
b) vapor jet
c) flashing of liquid
d) aerosol formation from flashing liquid, etc.
ii. big hole or rupture of a vessel, resulting in
a) vapor cloud
b) boiling liquid evaporating vapor
332 Chapter 6
The possible phenomena occurring under different scenarios are

given below.
i. leakage:
a) jet fire
b) flash fire cloud
c) vapor cloud explosion (VCE)
e) toxic cloud
ii. storage vessel or pipeline being exposed to fire or destroyed:
a) the physical explosion of the vessel
b) flash fire cloud from catastrophic rupture
c) vapor cloud explosion from catastrophic rupture
d) toxic cloud from catastrophic rupture
e) boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE)
f) fireball
b. Liquid pools from leakages and overflows may result in

i. boiling liquid pools
ii. evaporation of volatile liquids
iii. evaporation of relatively non-volatile liquids
iv. multicomponent liquid mixtures
The possible phenomena occurring from liquid pools are

a) pool fire
b) flash fire cloud
c) vapor cloud explosion
d) toxic cloud
e) toxic fumes combustion
c. Buoyant and dense-gas jet releases from pressure vessels result in

dispersion, influenced by meteorological conditions, and with
possible inversion
d. Low-velocity dense-gas releases result in dispersion, influenced by

meteorological conditions, and with higher ground-level gas
concentrations near the source of release
The typical sequences of events occurring during different types of releases

are highlighted below:
i. Flammable release
a) emission
b) vaporization of liquids
c) air entrainment
d) gas dispersion
e) ignition
f) flash fire or vapor cloud explosion
ii. Toxic release
a) emission
b) vaporization of liquids
c) air entrainment
d) gas dispersion
The effects of a release on people or property will depend upon the intensity
of the outcome of an event. Typical outcome events are illustrated below:
i. thermal radiation
a) temperature-distance function
ii. explosion
a) overpressure
b) impulse
iii. toxic concentration
a) dosage
b) concentration-time function
6.6.7.3 Risk assessment
The dispersion of contaminants from accidental releases into the ambient air
and its zone of influence or impact zone depends upon the meteorological
conditions and the quantity, rate, and characteristics of the release.
Appropriate air dispersion modeling techniques, described in Chapter 4, are
used to predict impact zones for releases from hazard potential sources under
different operational scenarios and meteorological conditions.
Risk assessment essentially consists of risk identification, risk evaluation,

whether qualitatively or quantitatively, risk mitigation, and risk preparedness. A
typical risk assessment process (Mannan 2005) consists of the following tasks:
i. obtaining a detailed description of the process and plant

ii. identification of hazards
iii. identification of vulnerable targets (receptors)
iv. development of hazardous incidents and source terms
v. development of escalation scenarios
vi. estimation of consequences
vii. estimation of frequencies
viii. risk assessment
334 Chapter 6
ix. identification of mitigating measures

x. decision-making
Risk consists of two dimensions, viz. likelihood and consequence. Risk is

estimated by using the equation:
Risk = frequency (likelihood) of occurrence x severity

(consequence) of occurrence
For quantitative risk assessment, the values of likelihood or probability or

frequency of occurrence of hazards or accidental situations are generally
obtained from the literature. The severity of occurrence of accidents like
emission of toxic gases or vapors, fire or explosions is predicted for
different scenarios, viz. maximum credible accident scenario, and the worst-
case scenario under different meteorological conditions. The consequences
of such an occurrence could be
i. fatalities or injuries
ii. contamination of different components of the environment
iii. loss of property within the project boundaries and even beyond,
leading to the closure of operations and loss of man-hours
Table 6.4 Risk Matrix

Severity of Likelihood of occurrence
consequence Improbable Remote Rare Likely Very Frequent
likely
Negligible 1 2 3 4 5 6
Low 2 4 6 8 10 12
Moderate 3 6 9 12 15 18
Severe 4 8 12 16 20 24
Very Severe 5 10 15 20 25 30
Catastrophic 6 12 18 24 30 36
Ranking of Likelihood Ranking of Severity

Ranking Definition of the Ranking Definition of the
likelihood of severity of
occurrence consequence
1 Improbable 1 Negligible
2 Remote 2 Low
3 Rare 3 Moderate
4 Likely 4 Severe
5 Very likely 5 Very severe
6 Frequent 6 Catastrophic
The consequence mapping is done on the base maps for accidental scenarios
by plotting predicted emissions, toxicity levels, or temperatures at different
distances from the source, and iso-concentrations or iso-temperature
contours are prepared. The vulnerable zones are accordingly delineated
under different scenarios.
For a qualitative risk assessment safety matrix, or safety indicators which

primarily indicate risk perceptions from the proposed project, are expressed
in the form of the Dow Fire and Explosion Index. The risk matrix in Table
6.4 illustrates risk as the multiplication of the likelihood or frequency of
occurrence on a scale of 1- 6 and the severity of consequences on a scale of
1- 6. The higher values in the risk matrix reveal a high risk.
i. study the EIA report and risk management report of the

operating project(s) for risks predicted or estimated, and the
suggested risk mitigation measures and risk management
program
ii. check the veracity of the prediction models or software used
for risk prediction, estimations and assumptions made, and the
accuracy and completeness of the risk assessment conducted
for the operating project(s)
iii. conduct performance evaluation for the operating project(s),
using the baseline information collected for the proposed
project, of
(a) the control and risk mitigation measures employed
(b) the risk preparedness including mock drills conducted
(c) the action taken on the findings of internal as well as
external safety audit reports
(d) the implementation of the risk management program
iv. document the observations on i, ii, and iii above, and consider
these for v below
v. conduct a risk assessment for the proposed project, following
the methodology described above for greenfield projects while
taking into consideration iv above
336 Chapter 6
6.6.7.5 Risk mitigation measures
The risk mitigation measures for each lifecycle phase of the project need to
be suggested in the order of priority, viz. risk prevention, risk reduction, risk
containment, risk cover, and emergency preparedness as illustrated below.
i. risk prevention or risk avoidance by adopting measures in the

project design such as
a) appropriate technology
b) mild operating parameters
c) inherently safe design
d) safer processes and substances
ii. risk reduction by adopting measures in the detailed design of
the project such as
a) adopting suitable and reliable automation, interlocks,
process control, and instrumentation in processes and
operations
b) providing appropriate relief devices
c) adopting the philosophy of as low as reasonably
practical (ALARP)
d) reducing the inventory of hazard potential substances
iii. risk containment by adopting measures like
a) modifications in plant layout
b) isolations and enclosures for hazard potential
substances and operations
c) on-site and off-site emergency preparedness plans
iv. adequate risk cover measures like insurance policies
For large-scale projects and projects involving hydrocarbons, generally, a

separate detailed study under additional studies is mandated on the risk
assessment and emergency preparedness plan. The on-site emergency
preparedness plan for risk containment within the project boundaries is an
integral part of risk management. Large projects are required to be part of
an off-site emergency preparedness plan, essentially a disaster management
plan, which is prepared and implemented by the local administration for risk
management in a larger region in which several different kinds of activities
and other projects are existing and more are proposed. The disaster
management plan is intended to minimize losses by containing and
managing risks that may arise from any sources whose consequences are
felt under accidental or worst-case scenarios beyond the respective project
boundaries in the pre-delineated region. Typical off-site emergency
preparedness takes into consideration common facilities like fire tenders,
communication, and transportation networks in the region, and emphasizes

close coordination among project authorities, local administration, police,
and health care agencies. The plan should follow the framework of the
Disaster Management Act (NDMA 2005).
6.6.7.6 Output of risk assessment
The output of risk assessment generally includes:
i. identification and due diligence of hazards, and hazardous

substances along with their inventories, including in-process
as well as storage
ii. identification of hazard potential conditions including
operating conditions, exothermic reactions, material handling
practices, malfunctioning of process control and/or equipment,
bypass loops provided in instrumentation, etc.
iii. mapping of concentration or temperature contours under
different leakage or spillage scenarios, and meteorological
conditions on the base maps, and delineation of impact
distances
iv. a risk matrix
v. a risk assessment under maximum credible accident as well as
worst-case scenarios
vi. specific risk prevention measures
vii. specific risk reduction measures
viii. an on-site emergency preparedness program
ix. the role envisaged in the prevailing off-site emergency plan of
the region
6.7 Environmental impact evaluations using the Leopold

matrix: an illustration
The following steps are illustrated for evaluating the environmental impacts
of a hypothetical large port and harbor project at a given location, using the
Leopold matrix (Leopold et al. 1971), described in Chapter 4:
1. Each activity and its potential to create an impact is expressed in

terms of its magnitude and importance
2. The magnitude of interaction is its extensity or scale
a. the scale of magnitude ranges from 1 to 5; with 5
representing the largest magnitude, and 1 the smallest,
338 Chapter 6
and a value near 3 representing impacts of the intermediate

extensity
b. assignment of a numerical value for the magnitude of
interaction is based on an objective evaluation of the facts
related to the anticipated impacts
3. The importance of interaction is related to its significance, or an
assessment of probable consequences of the anticipated impact
a. the scale of importance ranges from 1 to 10; with 10
representing a very important interaction, and 1 relatively
low
b. the assignment of a numerical importance value for
importance is based on subjective judgment
c. the summation of the number of rows and columns
multiplied by the importance factor offers an insight into
impact assessment
4. Impact scales are used to describe the probability of the occurrence
of an impact, ranging from low to intermediate to high probability
a. higher values of impact scale are associated with
irreversible impacts while lower values refer to potential
reversibility associated with beneficial (+) or detrimental
(-) impacts
5. Impact score or magnitude ranges from 0 to 5 with positive and
negative values, depending upon impacts arising out of the project
activity
a. the score of each of the components is to be multiplied by
the importance factor and the total score is obtained by
the summation of the products
6. Severity criteria of the magnitude of impact are given in Table 6.5
7. Score ranges of impact evaluation based on the matrix score are
given in Table 6.6
8. Impact Evaluation Matrix for a hypothetical large Ports and
Harbor project proposed at some location is illustrated in Table
6.7
9. The total score calculated from the Impact Evaluation Matrix is -
423
Table 6.5 Severity Criteria for Magnitude of Impacts
S Description of
No. Category Category Impacts
Adverse Beneficial
1 No impact 0 0
No appreciable
2 impact Short-term, reversible -1 1
3 Significant impact Long-term, reversible -2 2
Irreversible but of a
4 Major impact lesser extent -3 3
Irreversible but of a
5 High impact medium extent -4 4
Severe irreversible
6 Permanent impact impact -5 5
Table 6.6 Score Ranges for Beneficial and Adverse Impacts
S Total
No Score Outcome
1 +ve/-ve Beneficial impact/adverse impact

2 0-300 No appreciable beneficial impact/adverse impact
Appreciable but reversible adverse impact: mitigation
3 300-600 measures are needed
Significant adverse impacts: most of the impacts are
4 600-900 reversible. Mitigation measures are crucial
Major adverse impacts: most of the impacts are
5 900-1200 reversible. Alternative site selection to be considered
Permanent irreversible adverse impact: alternatives to
6 >1200 the project need to be explored
The impact evaluation in Table 6.7 reveals that there will be appreciable
but reversible adverse impacts on the environment due to the proposed
project, and suitable mitigation measures are needed to make the project
acceptable from the environmental considerations.
It may be observed that the Leopold matrix is the synopsis of the text of the
environmental impact assessment.
340 Chapter 6
6.8 Additional studies

Depending upon the type and size of the project and environmental setting
of the proposed project site, in addition to conducting a typical EIA study,
some specific and detailed studies may have to be undertaken as spelled out
in the TOR or considered necessary by the project financing agencies. Some
typical studies that may be required are highlighted below:
1. seismic studies for specific major projects, e.g. dams, water

reservoirs, power generation, manufacturing, and infrastructural
studies, proposed in or near the notified seismic zones
2. detailed risk assessment studies for some specific projects like
petroleum refineries, petrochemicals, hydrocarbons and solvents
handling, storage, and transport through cross-country pipelines,
oil and gas exploration, production, and transportation, underground
coal mining, industrial areas or estates for chemical and petrochemical
industries, etc.
3. marine environmental assessment studies for specific projects like
ports, harbors, and allied infrastructural facilities, port-based
terminals, shipyards, ship breaking, offshore oil and gas exploration,
production and transportation, subsea pipelines for the transportation
of hydrocarbons, offshore mining, offshore or barge-mounted
power generation, and recreational facilities, shore-based
manufacturing and power generation involving marine water intake
and/or wastewater disposal into the sea, etc.
4. hydrogeological studies for specific projects like dams, irrigation,
mining, large manufacturing, and power generation proposing to
use groundwater resources, infrastructure, etc.
5. any other specific studies
Even though such studies are generally assigned to specialized agencies or

institutions, depending upon their criticality, the EIA team leader may
additionally engage an independent third party having relevant expertise for
ensuring that:
a) the study is carried out as specified in the TOR

b) quality assurance is built into gathering data for establishing
specific environmental baseline conditions, and the methodologies
used for impact assessment
c) the report distinctly highlights environmental issues and suggests
appropriate specific mitigation measures and recommendations for
the environmental management program
342 Chapter 6
d. relevant information is extracted from the detailed report in a

condensed form for incorporation in the EIA report and integrating
it with the environmental management program, while the detailed
report is annexed
Some typical features of a few of these studies are briefly described below:
A. Risk assessment
Risk assessment is an integral part of an EIA report as described in Chapter

5 and this chapter. However, for the projects involving processing,
production, handling, transportation, storage, and/or usage of the substances,
which have a high-risk potential, the TOR generally specifies conducting a
separate elaborate risk assessment study. Such substances may include:
i. hydrocarbons
ii. explosives
iii. inflammable substances
iv. toxic substances
These substances are generally associated with projects like mining, oil and
gas exploration, and production, petroleum refineries, gas processing,
petrochemicals, storage terminals for petroleum products, cross-country
pipelines for transporting oil, gas, and petroleum products, organic
chemicals including pesticides, explosives, solvents, and toxic products,
chlor-alkali, fertilizers, distilleries, etc. Risk assessment studies may also be
specified for high-risk potential activities like extensive blasting involved
in some infrastructural projects, handling of liquid metals, large tonnage
material handling, etc.
An agency or institution having expertise and resources in conducting

quantitative risk assessment studies, complete familiarity with the
applicable regulations, available guidelines, relevant codes, techniques, and
tools including software for risk prediction, and best engineering and
environmental practices (BEEP) is engaged to take up such a study. The
assessment of short-term as well as long-term risks on human beings, flora,
fauna, and different components of the environment including abiotic
components like monuments, landscape, buildings, and structures in each
lifecycle phase of the project is required to be undertaken while following
the philosophy of risk prevention at the top of the risk management
hierarchy. The study needs to encompass the following:
i. identification of all the project-related activities including

transportation, handling, transfer of fluids, storage, and processing
along with operating conditions, and maintenance
ii. identification of hazards based on the detailed flow sheets of
processes, piping and instrument diagrams, and line diagrams
using techniques like hazard and operability studies (HAZOP),
fault tree analysis, or event tree analysis for normal and abnormal
operations, accidental scenarios, and plant start-up, shutdown, and
non-operating conditions
iii. compilation of data on probability or frequency of occurrence of
accidental situations and failures in similar operations from
relevant authentic sources
iv. prediction of the severity of consequences of the occurrence of
such events or failures under different conditions described in ii
above, using relevant and validated models or software, and
meteorological information collected under the establishment of
baseline environmental conditions
v. quantitative risk assessment using appropriate models
vi. recommendations on the incorporation of the specific measures in
the project design including extensive process control and
instrumentation for risk prevention, risk reduction, and consequence
mitigation to an acceptable level
vii. recommendations on the incorporation of the risk preparedness
program in the form of process safety management including an
on-site emergency response program, close coordination with the
concerned authorities with clarity on the role in the off-site
emergency plan of the larger region, also referred to as a disaster
management plan, the mutual aid mechanism in the region, etc.
viii. recommendations on the best engineering practices consistent with
the relevant codes like ASME and ASTM, and compliance with
the requirements of the applicable regulations like the Petroleum
Act, guidelines of the concerned agencies, viz. the American
Petroleum Institute, the Petroleum Conservation and Research
Agency, and the Oil Industries Safety Directorate, and insurance
companies
ix. ongoing mechanisms of training the project, operation, and
associated personnel, and contractors and sub-contractors, periodic
inspections, regular safety audits, and mock drills, etc. as integral
components of the risk management; etc.
344 Chapter 6
For brownfield projects involving expansion or diversification of the

existing activities, risk assessment for the proposed project is preceded by
due diligence of the following for the operating project(s):
a. the prevailing process safety management system

b. the consequence analysis carried out earlier
c. the impact or vulnerable zones predicted earlier
d. the emergency response plan
e. internal as well as external safety audit reports, and action taken on
the findings
f. records of near misses
g. records of investigations undertaken on accidents
h. observations of the statutory authorities during their periodic
inspections, and action taken
i. records of training programs organized, and mock drills
j. the prevailing mechanism of communication and coordination
with the off-site emergency response management authority in the
region; etc.
After carrying out due diligence,
a. observations are documented on a-j above

b. a risk assessment for the proposed activities is carried out,
following the guidelines for greenfield projects described above
while taking into consideration a. above and the baseline
information gathered on risk assessment and meteorological
information
c. risk mitigation measures are proposed in a manner that these are
integrated with the existing risk mitigation and on-site emergency
preparedness plan
Based on the above, it is expected that a comprehensive document on risk

management for the project complex as a whole, covering the existing as
well as the proposed activities, will emerge.
B. Marine environmental assessment
The coastal and offshore projects may involve a host of activities including
construction of onshore, coastal and offshore structures, jetties, pipelines on
the seabed, breakwaters, dredging (capital as well as maintenance), offshore
handling of petroleum products, onshore handling and storage of fluids,
shipping, bunkering of the vessels, bilge and ballast disposal, fish landing
and processing facilities, wastewater treatment facilities, etc. Such activities

have the potential to cause innumerable changes in the coastal and marine
environment. The impact of such activities is assessed by carrying out
extensive marine environment-related studies, generally for projects like
a. ports and harbors

b. major fishing harbors
c. onshore terminals for storage and handling of petroleum products,
solvents, and chemicals
d. shore-based manufacturing and power projects
e. tourism and entertainment
f. offshore exploration and production of oil and gas
g. barge-mounted offshore projects like power generation,
residential, commercial, and leisure/entertainment
h. single point moorings for offshore handling of petroleum products
i. sub-marine pipelines for transportation, cables for communication,
etc.
j. marine outfalls for disposal of treated industrial wastewater, and
treated sewage
k. seawater intake
l. extraction or mining of minerals from the seabed
m. bridges on seas or creeks
n. tunnels on the seabed
It may be appreciated that the marine environmental impact assessment, like

EIAs, involves establishing baseline conditions, identification of impacts,
prediction, and assessment of impacts, proposing specific mitigation
measures, and an environmental management program including an
environmental monitoring program for the coastal and marine ecosystem.
Such specialized studies are assigned to an agency or institution which has
the requisite resources and expertise in oceanography, marine chemistry,
and marine biology, and understanding of the applicable national
regulations like coastal regulation zones, and international conventions, viz.
the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
(1983), referred to as MARPOL, and international conventions on the
conservation of specific marine organisms like whales and dugongs, and
guidelines issued by the International Maritime Organization.
346 Chapter 6
Depending upon the TOR, the detailed marine-related studies may

encompass the following aspects:
i. geology and geomorphology of the seafront

ii. oceanography and hydrodynamic aspects of tides, waves, and
currents, and bathymetry
iii. sediment transport
iv. shoreline changes
v. marine water quality
vi. modeling of marine pollution, and oil spills
vii. impacts on ecological resources like mangroves, corals, seagrasses,
fish, mollusks, etc.
viii. socio-economic impacts on fishing communities; etc.
The contamination of marine waters due to oil spills and discharges into the
sea through marine outfalls are predicted under different oceanographic
conditions. The impacts, including those of accidental contamination of the
coastal and marine environment, viz. beaches, corals, mangroves and other
vegetation, and primary productivity, i.e. phytoplankton and zooplankton,
benthos, fish, and other marine organisms, etc. is carried out by adopting
appropriate techniques including modeling. An impact assessment for
estuarine ecology is specifically considered since estuaries provide breeding
and spawning grounds for marine organisms, and contribute to marine
productivity. The suggested mitigation measures need to be incorporated in
the design and operational features of the project to avoid, minimize, and
control leakages, spills, and discharge of waste and untreated wastewater
into marine waters.
The socio-economic impacts of coastal and marine projects or activities,

especially on fishing communities, which are most vulnerable, are to be
assessed in consultation with the community, and suitable mitigation
measures proposed to ensure that their livelihood is not adversely impacted.
Additional measures like the provision of improved fish landing facilities,
storage of fish and other marine products, water supply and sanitation
facilities, and other social welfare measures may also be proposed in the
environmental management program to help such communities improve
their quality of life.
An environmental management program for coastal and marine waters and

other marine resources is to be proposed to include mechanisms of:
i. adherence to standard operating procedures and practices for

loading, unloading, transfer, storage, and transport of different
types of cargo for the control of spills and leakages
ii. treatment of ballast, and disposal of bilge and dredged material
iii. emergency response for oil spills, grounding of cargo vessels, fires,
etc.
iv. protection of endangered and rare species like corals, sea turtles,
saltwater crocodiles and dugong, and mangroves
v. the periodic environmental monitoring program for marine
resources and marine parameters; etc.
C. Hydrogeological studies
Hydrogeology, an integral part of the water environment, is generally

considered in a typical EIA. However, extensive studies on hydrogeology
may be required for the projects or activities illustrated below, considering
their potential impacts on the surface as well as groundwater regime:
i. dams, water reservoirs, irrigation, and hydroelectric power

ii. water-intensive projects
iii. underground mining
iv. underground tunnels and infrastructure for transportation
v. the exploitation of groundwater, especially in coastal areas
vi. treatment, storage, and disposal facilities for hazardous waste, and
municipal waste landfills, etc.
vii. inter-linking and diversion of rivers; etc.
Such studies generally cover identification and characterization of the

surface as well as groundwater resources, watersheds, aquifer
transmissivity, prediction of changes in water balance due to water
extraction for the project, impacts on wells and the groundwater table,
modeling of groundwater pollution due to percolation of wastewaters and
leachates, and impacts thereof, saltwater intrusion near coastal areas,
waterlogging and the associated impacts, etc.
348 Chapter 6
6.9 Summary of the environmental impacts

It needs to be realized that there are interrelationships and a strong
correlation between the impacts on different components of the
environment. Therefore, it is necessary to integrate impacts while
conducting an impact assessment on each of the components of the
environment described in this chapter. For example,
a. air impacts and water impacts

b. water impacts and soil, landscape, ecological, and social
impacts
c. soil, land use/landscape impacts, and ecological and
social impacts
d. ecological impacts and social impacts
The environmental impacts of the project on different components of the

environment in each lifecycle phase, conducted as described above, are
summarized separately in a tabular form, illustrated in Table 6.8, to
facilitate a quick review of the EIA study.
Table 6.8 Summary of Impact Assessment

Environmental component/ Air Noise Water Soil, land, Ecology Socio- Any
Impact type and economic, other
landscape cultural
Construction phase
Nature
Magnitude/Severity/Extent
Location
Timing
Duration
Likelihood
Reversibility
Spread
Significance
Operation phase
Post-operation phase
350 Chapter 6
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CHAPTER 7
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
The earlier chapters described the process of environmental impact

assessments (EIAs) considering the potential environmental consequences
of a proposed project in its entire lifecycle, consisting of the planning,
design, construction, operation, and post-operation stages of that project.
An EIA follow-up, seeking to understand EIA outcomes (Morrison-
Saunders and Arts 2004a, 2004b) also needs to be integrated with this
process of impact assessment. The value and importance of integrating EIA
(Perdicoulis et al. 2012, Hollands and Palframan 2014) with a wider
environmental management system through monitoring and review of the
environmental management plan are illustrated using the project lifecycle
model (DEAT 2004b). The term EIA follow-up is used as an umbrella term
for various EIA activities, viz. monitoring, evaluation, management, and
communication of the environmental performance of a project or plan (Arts
and Nooteboom 2001, Arts et al. 2001, Morrison-Saunders and Arts 2004b,
Morrison-Saunders et al. 2007). The EIA follow-up is considered necessary
to
i. ensure that the terms and conditions of environmental

approval are met
ii. ensure that the suggested feasible, practical, affordable, and
likely to be successful (Kiss 2013) mitigation measures are
implemented
iii. monitor the environmental impacts of developmental projects
and the effectiveness of mitigation measures
iv. monitor sustainable environmental management based on an
environmental audit
v. enhance the control, management, knowledge, and legitimize
the acceptance of the project
vi. strengthen future EIA applications and mitigation measures
(IAIA 1999)
Even though EIA follow-ups appear to essentially consist of a set of post-

decision (Arts and Nooteboom 1999) activities, i.e. after the grant of
Environmental Management Program 355
environmental approval activities, the EIA follow-up process also includes

a range of activities designed when seeking environmental approval for a
project (Jha-Thakur et al. 2009). The terminology environmental management
plan (EMP), akin to the design of an EIA follow-up used in the literature,
is used in the Indian EIA process (MOEF 2006), and in a wide range of
guidelines for EIAs (World Bank 1999a, UNEP 2002, ADB 2003,
Commonwealth of Australia 2014) and also in the literature (Brew and Lee
1996, George 2000, Tinker et al. 2005).
An environmental management plan, an integral component of the project

operation manual (IEMA 2008, 2015, 2016), is essential
a. to achieve an environmentally sound design by incorporating

prevention and control, and compensatory and remedial
measures (USAID 2005)
b. to form the basis for consultation and negotiation on the EIA
outcomes
c. as a tool to promote accountability (Shah 2009)
It should be prepared in such a manner that it acts as a live document

allowing it to be updated, with new information and details available as the
project progresses. The monitoring indicators for each category at each
stage of the project, and the resettlement action plan (AfDB 2001), are
included in the Environment Management Program (EMPg) for verifying
the implementation of mitigation measures and outcomes, i.e. the
effectiveness. An EMPg also includes complaint and notifiable incident
procedures, communication and liaison with residents, and environmental
restoration between pre- and post-approval stages (BMG 2015).
A plan, consisting of a set of objectives to be achieved in a longer time frame

and setting the context for programs could be conceptual, philosophical,
and/or abstract to some extent whereas a program, describing the action
points and mechanism of implementation is expected to facilitate a project
proponent during the implementation of the project. Thus, the terminology
environmental management program (Rathi 2017) is used in place of
EMP generally adopted in EIA reports. In the text, the environmental
management program (EMPg) terminology is used except when referring to
the literature. The concept of an EMPg and its importance are described in
Chapter 5.
356 Chapter 7
7.1 Objectives of an EMPg

The prime objective of an EMPg is to suggest a road map that will ensure
managing the environmental impacts within acceptable limits and
enhancing the environment. A typical road map generally includes
mechanisms for the following:
i. establishment of an administrative framework in the form of an

environmental management cell, and instituting systems and
procedures for its functioning
ii. implementation of the suggested mitigation measures for the
different environmental components and those suggested in the
additional studies simultaneously with the project implementation
iii. regular environmental monitoring, using the monitoring
information for determining deviations between the actual and the
predicted impacts, and performance evaluation of the mitigation
measures provided
iv. ensuring operationalization of the implemented mitigation measures
as integral to the project operation
v. management of residual impacts and additional impacts that may
be encountered during non-steady-state operations, especially
during start-ups, shutdowns, and process upsets in case of
manufacturing and energy generation projects, and during non-
operational conditions
vi. identification and implementation of the environmental enhancement
measures
vii. periodic audits of the EMPg
viii. periodic reviews of the EMPg by the management to ensure that it
remains effective and updated
ix. reporting to both internal and external stakeholders
7.2 The scope of an EMPg

The scope of an EMPg, a tailor-made document which is very specific to an
EIA report being prepared for a given project at a given location, generally
includes programs for:
a. environmental impact including residual impact management

b. environmental monitoring
c. environmental compliance management
d. natural resource conservation
e. the welfare of the local population
f. environmental enhancement
The extent and elaboration of EMPg in an EIA report, however, depends

upon the
i. project sector, type, and size of the project

ii. environmental settings of the project location and its
surroundings
iii. phases involved in the project lifecycle
iv. construction methodology proposed to be adopted
v. construction period and schedule
vi. TOR, etc.
It may be recognized that a given project having the same size and
employing the same technology but set up at different locations cannot have
the same EMPg. For example, an EMPg for a coal-based thermal power
project of a given size and employing the same technology but proposed in
say, a coastal location, an arid zone, in the vicinity of orchards, or an urban
agglomerate will be different. Further, an EMPg for a large greenfield
project like a dam, irrigation, integrated steel, petroleum refinery and
petrochemical complex, and coal-based large thermal power plant would be
very exhaustive compared to that for a small dam, secondary steel, or a
brownfield project proposed in an industrial estate/park. Nevertheless, the
basic features highlighted above need to be reflected in every EMPg.
After preparing the draft reports on environmental impacts and suggesting

mitigation measures for the assigned environmental components, each
functional professional prepares details on the proposed EMPg for the
respective environmental component(s). The EIA team leader compiles
such details, collates them, and drafts the EIA report and an integrated
EMPg. The EMPg is then finalized in consultation with the functional
professionals in the draft EIA report. The aspects which would facilitate the
project proponent in internalizing the externalities arising out of the
proposed developmental activities are specifically incorporated in the
EMPg in addition to the general scope highlighted above. The specific
rather than generic description in the EMPg chapter is kept as
comprehensive and concise as possible, and other details are appended.
7.3 The structure of an EMPg

There is no standard format for the preparation of an EMPg (Floroiu 2012).
However, an EMPg checklist and institutional arrangement and responsibilities
358 Chapter 7
are described by ADB (2011, 2017), and a template of the monitoring

program is suggested by Baby (2011). The format needs to be devised
considering the circumstances in which the EMPg is being developed and
to meet the specific requirements for which it is designed. The EMPg needs
to be formulated in such a way that it is easy to use, and references within
the plan are clearly and readily identifiable (World Bank 1999b, CSIR 2002,
DEAT 2004a).
As per the World Bank (1999c), the following aspects should typically be
addressed within an EMPg:
a. summary of impacts
b. description of mitigation measures
c. description of the monitoring program
d. institutional arrangements
e. implementation schedule and reporting procedures
f. cost estimates
An EMPg suggested by UNEP (2002) has the following contents:
i. a summary of the significant impacts of the project-related

activities predicted for different phases of the project lifecycle
ii. a description of the corresponding mitigation measures
suggested
iii. a statement on compliance with relevant statutory requirements
applicable to the project
iv. the administrative structure of the cell that will implement the
EMPg
v. the allocation of responsibilities for ensuring the implementation
of the suggested mitigation measures
vi. a management program for residual impacts
vii. a schedule of implementation of the suggested measures and
other actions
viii. the requirement of capital and recurring expenditure
ix. a contingency plan when impacts are more than those
predicted
x. a program for surveillance, monitoring, auditing, and revising
the EMPg
ADB (2003) suggested the following contents for a complete EMPg:
a. a summary of potential impacts

b. a description of planned mitigation measures
c. a description of planned environmental monitoring

d. a description of the planned public consultation process
e. a description of the responsibilities and authorities for the
implementation of mitigation measures and monitoring requirements
f. a description of the responsibilities for reporting and review
g. a work plan including staffing chart, proposed schedules of
participation by various members of the project team, and activities
and inputs of various government agencies
h. an environmental responsible procurement plan
i. a detailed cost estimates
j. mechanisms for feedback and adjustment
7.4 The coverage of an EMPg

It may be recognized that an action plan (Floroiu 2012), or
environmental mitigation or environmental management plan (World
Bank 1999a) for a project consists of a set of measures to be taken during
implementation and operations to eliminate, offset, or reduce adverse
environmental impacts to acceptable levels. A typical EMPg should,
therefore, clearly bring out the following:
i. a summary of
(a) all the significant adverse environmental impacts established
(b) corresponding specific, realistic, and implementable
mitigation measures with a description and technical
details like design, equipment description, and operating
procedures
(c) the condition under which each of the mitigation
measures will be applicable or required, i.e. whether
continuously, periodically, or in the event of contingencies
ii. institutional arrangements including
(a) the administrative framework of the environmental
management cell that will be entrusted with the overall
responsibility of ensuring the implementation and
operationalization of the suggested mitigation measures
(b) the assignment of responsibilities for carrying out the
mitigatory measures, viz.:
monitoring of implementation
operation, supervision, enforcement, and remedial
action
training of different personnel, etc.
360 Chapter 7
iii. implementation of the measures that must be carried out as a part

of the project, showing phasing and coordination with the overall
project implementation schedule, and operationalization of these
measures using standard operating procedures as integral to the
project operation manual
iv. a specific program to address uncertainty in environmental impact
predictions, especially those with medium and high uncertainty
ratings (Nicolaisen and Fischer 2016) to ensure that uncertainty is
minimized
v. a program for the management of residual impacts
vi. procedures for monitoring and internal and external reporting on
the activities related to EMPg to
a) ensure early detection of conditions which necessitate a
particular mitigation measure
b) provide information on the progress and performance of
each mitigation measure
vii. details of the estimated cost, both the capital requirement and the
recurring expenses for implementing and maintaining the EMPg,
to be considered integral to the project cost
viii. a program for periodic environmental audits, an audit of the EMPg,
regular reviews (DEAT 2004c) and updating of the EMPg to
identify the existing and potential environmental issues, and
determine the action needed to comply with the applicable
regulatory requirements, and for achieving quantitative and
auditable performance targets and outcomes (EPA 1995, 2013).
7.5 Components of an EMPg for greenfield projects

Depending upon the type and size of the project, and the environmental
settings of the project location and its surroundings, a typical EMPg may
consist of the following basic components in different phases of a project:
1. Administrative framework
2. Environmental impact management program
3. Environmental monitoring program
4. Environmental compliance management program
5. Environmental enhancement program
Further, depending on the type and size of the project, among others, the
following components may also have to be incorporated:
1. Transport and traffic management program

2. Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R&R) program

3. Disaster management program
4. Environmental remediation program
5. Social development program
6. Audit, review, and updating of EMPg
7. Resource conservation program
8. Proficiency improvement program
9. Public relations, public awareness, mechanism of redress of
grievances; etc.
7.5.1 Administrative framework

For the implementation of any program, a well-defined administrative
framework is required with clarity on the roles and responsibilities at each
hierarchical level. Such an administrative framework is known as an
environmental management cell (EMC) (Rathi 2016). The terminologies
used for such a framework by the Asian Development Bank and the World
Bank are environmental management office (ADB 2003), and institutional
arrangement (World Bank 1999a), respectively. An EMC needs to consist
of environmental professionals, laboratory technicians, and non-technical
personnel including administrative and public relations professionals. The
size of an EMC in an organization would vary in each lifecycle phase of the
project because of the changing work profile. An EMC is entrusted with the
overall responsibility of an EIA follow-up, right from the project conceptual
stage through detailed design, pre-construction, construction, operation, and
post-operation phases of the project lifecycle. The major tasks of an EMC
encompass the following:
i. ensuring that EMPg components are recognized and incorporated

in the design, detailed engineering, and construction of the
project, implemented simultaneously with the project and
made operational like any other components of the project
ii. getting standard operating procedures prepared
iii. preparing guidelines for the contractors and sub-contractors
on matters related to the EMPg, keeping in view that
contractors, assigned with the project implementation work
like site development, construction, and installation of the
facilities, generally employ sub-contractors for undertaking
certain specific activities, may not have an adequate
understanding of the environmental management-related
aspects, more so in developing and under-developed
economies
362 Chapter 7
iv. developing a supervision framework to ensure that the above

guidelines are followed
v. evaluating the efficacy of the mitigation measures provided
and suggesting improvements in the existing systems, and
supplementary or additional control measures, as necessitated
from time to time
vi. developing an environmental monitoring mechanism for a
periodic audit and management review of the EMPg for its
effectiveness and relevance
vii. facilitating top management of the project organization in
framing an appropriate environmental policy
viii. developing an environmental management process for the
project organization, leading to the adoption of an environmental
management system (EPA 2013) in due course
ix. developing environmental monitoring indicators (Lochner
2005)
x. developing environmental performance indicators (Lochner
2005)
xi. monitoring the resource use and waste load generated, i.e.
waste generation per unit of production or service
xii. monitoring and scrutinizing pollutants, and the pollution load
generated from different processes and activities
xiii. advising the operation cell on the environmental implications
of operational variations in products and/or processes
xiv. preparing periodic reports for internal as well as external
stakeholders
xv. preparing periodic reports on the environmental performance
of the organization, and developing a sustainability reporting
system following the GRI standards
The following aspects are described for the administrative framework of the
EMPg:
a. the composition of the EMC or whatever terminology is to be used

by the project proponent, along with responsibilities at different
levels in the hierarchy in each phase of the project lifecycle (for
this purpose, the EIA team leader may refer to the organization
chart and human resource development policies of the project
organization)
b. the establishment of the EMC for discharging the assigned
responsibilities
c. a mechanism for carrying out or overseeing environmental

monitoring-related work
d. a mechanism of revising the EMPg prepared earlier for seeking
environmental approval to incorporate the action points needed to
comply with the conditions attached to the environmental approval
and ensuring compliance
e. a mechanism of evaluation and a performance audit of the EMC;
incorporation of modifications in its structure and/or scope of work
as and when required, to make it more effective and efficient
f. estimates of the capital cost involved in setting up infrastructural
facilities for the EMC, and annual recurring expenses for its
functioning
g. a mechanism of internal as well as external reporting on
compliance with the conditions of environmental approval and the
applicable environmental regulations, and environmental
performance of the project
As part of good management practice, the EMC may be recommended to be

functionally independent of the operation cell in the organizational
hierarchy, and directly responsible to the top management (Rathi 2016).
7.5.2 Environmental impact management

An environmental impact management program needs to be proposed with
a clear understanding that the bottom line of carrying out any activity is
ensuring compliance with the applicable regulatory regime. A typical
environmental impact management program (EIMPg) consists of the
following elements:
i. a summary of the significant impacts established and the

mitigation measures (Floroiu 2012) proposed for each such impact,
separately for each lifecycle phase of the project
ii. a mechanism of implementation and operationalization of each of
the above mitigation measures along with
a) a time frame for implementation
b) an estimation of the requirement of funds
c) assigning primary responsibility for implementation and
operationalization, and also for supervision at every stage
364 Chapter 7
Residual impact management
A detailed program including close monitoring needs to be prepared to deal

with the residual impacts, i.e. the impacts that remain even after
incorporating the suggested mitigation measures in the detailed design as
well as standard operating procedures and adopting best engineering
practices and best environmental practices. The residual impact
management may involve compensation, either on a one-time basis or over
a long duration of time.
It needs to be recognized that EIA is prepared at an early lifecycle phase of

the proposed project when the detailed information on the project is not
likely to be available. Thus, the environmental impacts assessed, significant
impacts established, and residual impacts need to be reviewed and updated
by the EMC at the detailed engineering and pre-operation stages of the
project. Further, the EMC ensures that mitigation control measures are
considered integral to the project design at that stage.
The implementation and operationalization of EIMPg consist of

mechanisms for the following:
a. overseeing the incorporation of the suggested mitigation measures

including control measures like specific air pollution control
devices, wastewater treatment facilities, segregation, storage,
treatment, transport, and disposal facilities for different types of
waste, etc., and risk mitigation measures in the detailed design of
the project
b. overseeing the integration of such control measures with the
overall project for the procurement, installation as well as
subsequent operation to ensure that these are not distinguished
from other operating facilities and that these become and remain
operational along with the other facilities
c. preparing standard operating procedures for the control measures
and overseeing their incorporation in the operating manual
(Lochner 2005, Magnox North 2009) for the project in each
lifecycle phase for normal, abnormal, and emergency scenarios,
and also under the plant start-up, shutdown, and closed conditions
d. training of the operating personnel on the operational aspects of
the control measures
e. measuring deviations in the actual impacts and the predicted
impacts
f. conducting a performance evaluation of such control measures

regularly, i.e. measuring effectiveness and efficiency of dust
control equipment like cyclones, bag filters and ESPs, gaseous
emissions control measures like scrubbers, noise attenuation and
control devices at source like silencers and mufflers, stage-wise
wastewater treatment processes like primary, secondary and
tertiary treatment, etc.
g. identification of the need for supplementary or additional control
measures, and design, procurement, and incorporation of the same
where necessary
h. formulating a residual impact management program and
overseeing its implementation
i. formulating compensation programs for any adverse effects on
human or animal health, damage caused to, e.g. crops, plantations,
or structures from accidental emissions, leakages, or spills
j. overseeing regular predictive or preventive maintenance of these
control measures like any other equipment and machinery
The capital cost and recurring cost of each control measure are to be
estimated and shown. However, as described in Chapter 5, the widely
accepted best engineering and environmental practices considered for
preventive mitigation measures, and standard pollution control measures are
integral to the project design for the improved performance of the process
and for complying with the regulatory requirements, which is the bottom
line for carrying out any activity. Thus, these costs need not be estimated
separately and shown under a separate heading of pollution control cost,
considering that good environmental management practices treat
environmental management as an integral part and parcel of the project cost.
However, the cost for the additional control measures to supplement these
mitigation measures and those for residual impact management may be
estimated and classified separately for accounting purposes.
EIMPg, consisting of a set of programs, needs to be prepared separately for

each phase of the project lifecycle including pre-construction and
construction when several contractors and sub-contractors start work at the
site, and operation and post-operation phases. It consists of several
programs described below for the different lifecycle phases of a
development project.
366 Chapter 7
7.5.2.1 Pre-construction phase
The assessed impacts and the specific and appropriate protective measures
suggested for the resources like ecological, historical, archaeological, and
cultural heritage are summarized for the following typical activities
generally encountered in the pre-construction phase of projects along with
land use changes:
i. survey of land
ii. seismic surveys
iii. prospecting of mineral resources, oil, and gas,
groundwater, etc.
iv. project site development
v. mobilization of resources at the project site
vi. relocation of common resources, amenities, and utilities
to facilitate the project-related activities; etc.
The environmental impact management program, consisting of mechanisms

for the suggested protective measures for the localized impacts from the pre-
construction phase activities, are described.
7.5.2.2 Construction phase
The environmental impact management program for the construction phase

of a project, consisting of the management programs related to labor camps,
training the personnel of contractors and sub-contractors, ecology,
sediment, air quality, noise, wastewater, solid waste, construction materials,
transport, and traffic, etc. are described below. It may be recognized that
there is some overlap in some of these programs for the obvious reasons that
the impacting factors affect more than one environmental component, and
the impacts are interrelated.
A1. Labor camps management program
Depending upon the size of the project and the availability of physical and
social infrastructural facilities in the proximity of the project site, the labor
camps management program may contain mechanisms for:
a. an estimation of the labor force to be accommodated over the

construction phase
b. the identification of the location(s) for the camp(s)
c. the creation and management of basic facilities including water
supply, fuel for cooking, provisions, sanitation, sewage and solid
waste management, recreation, safety and security, health care,

transportation, etc.
A2. Training program for the personnel of contractors and sub-contractors
The topics for training programs for the personnel of contractors and sub-
contractors at different levels may include ones related to environment and
safety, viz. applicable regulations, good environmental practices,
environmental effects, mitigation actions, environmental monitoring,
environmental management and occupational safety and health, relevant for
the construction and allied activities. The training program may contain
mechanisms for:
i. identifying training needs

ii. grouping trainees
iii. identifying trainers
iv. design and delivery of training courses to different groups
at different levels
v. preparing the calendar for training and re-training
vi. supervision of the above activities
vii. monitoring the effectiveness of such courses
viii. documentation of the above activities
A3. Ecological management program
The ecological impact management program may include the implementation

and operationalization mechanisms for the summarized mitigation measures
suggested for the assessed significant impacts in the construction phase of
the project, viz.:
a. overseeing measures like the preparation of a suitable plant layout,

isolation and protection of critical habitats falling in and/or near
the activity area, relocation of habitats, and replantation of critical
species for minimizing the loss of vegetation and the dependent
fauna, which was quantified for the activities in the core zone
b. preparing a compensatory program for the losses
c. taking into consideration the breeding period of the sensitive and
rare fauna, the flowering season of flora and cropping pattern while
scheduling construction activities
d. the protection measures for aquatic and/or marine productivity,
corals, etc. from the increased turbidity in receiving waters due to
wastewater discharged from construction-related activities
368 Chapter 7
A4. Sediment management program
The sediment management program may contain the implementation and

operationalization mechanisms for the eroded soil, and carry over and
transport of loosened soil generated from site development activities and
removal of vegetation, grasses, and earth which tend to reduce capacity,
cause choking drains, and increase the turbidity of the receiving water
bodies, viz.:
a. erosion control measures like suitable handling, storage, and

disposal of excavated earth, development of vegetation cover on
unpaved surfaces, and landscaping
b. protection of natural drainage systems, riverbanks, and shorelines
from the activities proposed on the riverfront or seafront
c. control of the diffuse pollution of water bodies by measures like
proper storage of materials in the open, keeping the existing
drainage pattern unaltered, good housekeeping, etc.
A5. Air quality and noise management programs
Air quality and noise management programs may contain implementation

and operationalization mechanisms for containing air emissions, noise, and
nuisance of dust and odor affecting the human habitation, flora, and fauna
in the neighborhood due to construction-related activities by measures, viz.
a. cordoning of construction activities

b. spraying of water for dust suppression if there is no scarcity of
water in the region
c. control of vehicular movement
d. making asphalt roads for vehicular movement
a. proper scheduling of activities
A6. Wastewater program
The wastewater management program may contain mechanisms for
a. collection of wastewater from construction activities into a settling

tank, and discharge of clear supernatant into natural watercourses
b. ensuring proper treatment of wastewater from canteens, offices,
and other sources, and disposal into natural watercourses
A7. Solid waste management
The solid waste management program may contain mechanisms for:

a. proper stacking and storage of solid wastes from different sources

b. good housekeeping
c. disposal of the inert solid waste in the low-lying areas identified
by land use/land cover professionals, and in consultation with the
local authorities and local population
d. disposal of hazardous wastes like used lubricating oils to the
identified authorized vendors as prescribed in the applicable
regulations
A8. Construction materials management program
Construction and building materials, water, and power are used in the
construction of a developmental project. The acquisition of these may
involve the extraction of materials like sand, clay, rubble, stone, and water,
either on-site or off-site. The activities involved in getting these materials
to the project site may include the following:
i. removal or extraction of sand and clay

ii. mining or quarrying of rubble
iii. crushing of rubble or stones
iv. handling and stockpiling of these materials at the respective sites
v. transportation of these materials to the construction site
vi. handling and stockpiling of these materials at the construction site
vii. withdrawal or extraction of water from the identified sources,
whether surface or underground, and transportation to the site
viii. constructing a facility for storage and handling of construction
water at the site
ix. arranging construction power either from the nearby power grid or
generating at source using diesel generating sets; etc.
An elaborate program for construction materials management is required,

especially for major projects like townships, area development, thermal
power, and infrastructural projects like highways, dams, airports, and ports,
which use large quantities of construction materials, and building materials
like bricks and cement in the construction phase. Such a program needs to
describe how
i. and from where these will be sourced even if contractors and/or

sub-contractors are asked to arrange these from the places falling
within or beyond the study area
370 Chapter 7
ii. mitigation measures will be implemented and operationalized for

the impacts arising from the following major changes likely to take
place because of the removal of such materials:
a) local land use/land cover and landscape
b) soil quality due to excavation and erosion
c) water quality of the water bodies due to sediment
transport and diffuse sources of pollution, closely linked
to soil erosion and sediment transport
d) drainage pattern
e) habitat types and associated vegetation, closely correlated
with soil characteristics and drainage
iii. it will be ensured that the sources used for construction water will
not affect the water resources adversely, in terms of existing uses
as well as users of water, etc.
A holistic view of the project-related activities is required to be taken from

the environmental viewpoint, irrespective of whether the sources of
construction materials and water are located beyond the study area or
whether the contractors are asked to procure these items. Accordingly, an
environmental impact management program is proposed. The program also
needs to contain mechanisms to ensure that transportation and construction
activities are taken up in such a manner that
a. sensitive habitats are suitably isolated and protected from activities

like extraction, handling, and storage of the extracted material at
source, and transportation to the site
b. landscaping is done progressively after extraction
c. flowering seasons of plants and crops, breeding periods of fauna,
nesting periods of avifauna, migration of wildlife, etc. are taken
into consideration
A9. Transport and traffic management program
A large quantity of material is required to be moved to the site in the

construction phase, and a fleet of trucks, trailers, road tankers, earthmoving
equipment, passenger vehicles, etc. is generally employed for activities like
excavation, transportation of construction, building materials and water,
manpower, equipment and machinery, and construction-related activities.
For large greenfield projects proposed at a location which does not have a
well-developed physical infrastructure in the form of adequate asphalt or
concrete roads, housing facilities, and other amenities in the proximity of
the project site, mechanisms need to be proposed for the following aspects:
a. identification of transportation routes

b. preparation and implementation of guidelines for contractors on
the transportation of materials and manpower regarding timings,
speed, honking, material transportation in closed or covered
vehicles, handling, and storage at the site, etc. to ensure that the
population in the transport corridor and near the project site is not
inconvenienced due to vehicular movement, dust from unpaved
roads, traffic congestion, vehicular emissions, noise, changes in
drainage patterns, etc.
c. identification of stretches requiring laying of roads, strengthening
or upgrading existing roads, bypass roads, paving the surfaces, etc.
d. monitoring of the practices employed by contractors
e. monitoring of ambient air quality, noise levels, dust nuisance, etc.
f. parking, fueling, and maintenance of vehicles
g. the mechanism to redress public grievances; etc.
7.5.2.3 Post-construction phase
The post-construction phase, which may overlap with the initial part of the
operation phase to some extent, needs an environmental impact management
program containing mechanisms, mainly for the following:
a. ecological restoration and rehabilitation of the project site

b. demolishing of labor camps and other temporary structures
c. restoration of borrow areas (sand, earth, clay, metal, etc. extracted
for construction)
d. reuse of topsoil; etc.
The EIMPg for the above is similar to some extent to the EIMPg for the
post-operation phase of the project lifecycle of certain projects, described in
7.5.2.5 below.
7.5.2.4 Operation phase
The EIMPg for the operation phase of a project consists of management

programs for air quality, solid waste, wastewater, noise and vibration,
transport and traffic, occupational health, etc. As described earlier, the EMC
ensures that the mitigation measures are treated as integral to the project.
However, to ensure compliance with the applicable environmental
regulations, the EMC needs to coordinate with the operation cell on the
operational aspects of such control measures.
372 Chapter 7
B1. Air quality management
Depending upon the suggested mitigation measures for the significant air
environmental impacts, a typical air quality management program may
contain mechanisms for:
i. overseeing the overall air quality management program

ii. overseeing the operation of control measures for ensuring air
emissions within the desired levels
iii. a periodic performance evaluation of each control measure
employed
iv. identifying the need for any additional or supplementary control
measures, designing, procuring and incorporating the same where
required
v. taking measures for the prevention and minimization of air
emissions; etc.
B2. Solid waste management
Depending upon the suggested mitigation measures for the significant solid
waste-related land environmental impacts, a typical solid waste
management program may contain mechanisms for:
i. overseeing the overall waste (hazardous as well as non-hazardous)

management program
ii. overseeing segregation or mixing of certain compatible wastes,
and characterization of the wastes
iii. identifying the need for any additional or supplementary measures,
and improved treatment options, designing, procuring and
incorporating the same for recovering certain valuables from some
wastes
iv. identifying authorized vendors for certain types of wastes, and
waste disposal sites
v. taking measures for solid waste minimization; etc.
B3. Water and wastewater treatment, and disposal program
Depending upon the suggested mitigation measures for the significant

wastewater, and water resources-related water environmental impacts, a
typical management program may contain mechanisms for:
i. overseeing the overall water and wastewater management program

ii. overseeing the efficiency of water withdrawal, water distribution,

and usage
iii. overseeing the wastewater network, wastewater treatment facility,
and disposal of the treated wastewater
iv. periodic performance evaluation of each control measure
employed
v. identifying the need for any additional or supplementary control
measures, designing, procuring and incorporating such measures,
and improved treatment options for the segregated streams or a
central wastewater facility
vi. ensuring the provision of recycling inadequately treated
wastewater or treated wastewater not meeting the regulatory
standards from the guard pond back to the respective treatment unit
vii. taking measures for water conservation as well as wastewater
minimization; etc.
B4. Noise and vibration management program
Depending upon the suggested mitigation measures for the significant noise
and vibration-related impacts, a typical management program may contain
mechanisms for:
i. overseeing the overall noise and vibration management program

ii. periodic performance evaluations of each noise attenuation
measure employed
iii. overseeing other noise and vibration attenuation measures
provided like landscaping around the project, trenches between the
source and receptors to create a discontinuity in the media or path
of propagation of vibration, etc.
Considering noise barriers, i.e. physical barriers placed on either side of

highways or railways, between sources of noise and the receptors, to act as
an obstruction to the path of propagation of noise are installed in the open,
outside the project premises, or in the right of use corridor of rail or road
projects, the program needs to describe how the properly designed noise
barriers will be installed at the identified locations, protected and
maintained, and their effectiveness monitored periodically.
B5. Transport and traffic management programs
Some projects like petroleum refineries, petrochemicals, fertilizers, cement,

metallurgical, sugar and chlor-alkalis, and ports involve transportation of
374 Chapter 7
large quantities of feedstock, fuel, products, and/or waste, cargo, etc. For
example, a typical cement project having a capacity of 1 million metric
tons/annum (mmtpa) of clinker production for producing pozzolana cement
requires transportation of more than 3.6 mmtpa material annually, i.e.
11,000 mtpd (approximately), as illustrated in Table 7.1. At times, a
significant quantum of these materials may have to be transported on roads.
Thus, the program needs to ascertain suitable transportation routes and the
required physical infrastructure outside the project premises as well.
Table 7.1 Transportation of Materials in a Typical Cement Plant,

1 mmtpa capacity
Material Quantity (approximately), mtpd
Limestone 4,200
Bauxite, Clays, Sand, Gypsum 300
Coal 600
Fly ash, Slag 900
Cement 3,700
*Other materials bulk
Packaging material, bags 740,00 no.
Coal for captive 50 MW power plant 1,000
Total 10,700 +
* including oils and lubricants, machinery parts and stores, kiln refractories, and
grinding media
Further, for the smooth movement of trucks and road tankers within the
project premises, the program needs to contain mechanisms for providing
and maintaining, e.g.:
a. an allocated paved parking place

b. paved internal roads
c. dust collection and/or suppression
d. fueling facilities
e. maintenance facilities
f. basic amenities like water, sanitation, food, and shelter for drivers
and helpers
B6. Occupational health management program
Even though an EIA is generally expected to consider the environmental

impacts on the ambient environment, i.e. external (or outdoor) to the
proposed project, it may also be good practice to consider occupational
health-related aspects in the EIMPg, especially for projects involving
handling, processing, or storage of bulk solids, hazardous materials, and

harmful substances, and/or facilities or operations having the potential for
formation of dust and/or fumes. Such substances and operations have the
potential to create occupational health-related issues or cause diseases to the
personnel in the work environment or even to the neighboring population in
some cases. Depending upon the identified potential issues related to
occupational health, a typical occupational and health management program
may contain mechanisms for:
a. reviewing the sources of hazardous substances, dust, fumes or

smoke, and levels of concentrations, noise, or temperature in the
work environment
b. the identification of potential occupational health hazards based on
the threshold levels of exposure of the substances from the
literature (OSHA 2011) and the applicable regulations (MOLE
1987)
c. periodic check-ups of the health of the working personnel and
others who may potentially be exposed, either by setting up in-
house facilities or by having suitable arrangements with other
hospitals
d. taking corrective and preventive action on the above, and keeping
records
e. coordinating with the operation cell to provide measures like
automation in the operations so that the physical presence of
personnel at hazardous work stations all the time could be avoided
as far as and wherever possible, or minimized to ensure that no
person is continuously exposed to fumes, heat, noise, or vibration
for a long duration
f. ensuring good work environment conditions
g. ensuring good housekeeping
B7. Risk management program
Depending upon the suggested risk mitigation measures for the risks
assessed, a typical risk management program may contain mechanisms for:
a. ensuring that a suitable process safety management system is in

place which will be strictly adhered to
b. conducting periodic internal as well as third-party safety audits,
and management reviews
c. putting in place an on-site emergency preparedness program
376 Chapter 7
d. putting in place a contingency program for any shortcomings in

impact or risk assessment, unexpected events, and unforeseen
situations, having consequences beyond the project boundaries
e. ensuring coordination with the authority managing off-site
emergency preparedness
f. conducting periodic mock drills
g. ensuring adequate insurance cover
h. ensuring that the recommendations of the risk assessment study are
integrated with the project operation and maintenance manual and
followed religiously
B8. Emergency and consequences reduction program
Project facilities and operational procedures need to be designed

particularly to minimize the occurrence of emergency events and to reduce
the consequences of such events in case these do crop up. The program
needs to incorporate explicit information on the measures for the:
a. prevention of emergencies
b. minimization of the purview of emergencies
c. mitigation of the consequences of emergencies to an acceptable
risk level, with specific additional engineering as well as
managerial measures to improve the efficiency of the centralized
control mechanism
B9. Ongoing training program for project personnel
The training program may contain mechanisms for:
i. identifying the training needs of the personnel at different

levels
ii. identifying the trainers
iii. designing and delivery of the training courses
iv. preparing a calendar for the training and re-training of
personnel
v. supervision of the above activities
vi. monitoring the effectiveness of such courses, and redesigning
the courses
vii. documentation of the above activities
7.5.2.5 Post-operation phase
Depending upon the
i. activities involved in the post-operation lifecycle phase of the

project, viz. closure, ecological restoration, decommissioning,
or demolition
ii. extent and duration of the post-operation phase
iii. environmental impacts assessed, and
iv. suggested mitigation measures,
many of the mechanisms described above for the environmental impact

management programs for the construction and operation lifecycle phases
may also be applicable, possibly with some modifications, for the post-
operation lifecycle phase of the project. For example,
a. closure: requiring an EIMPg for air quality, noise, construction

materials, and transport and traffic management
b. ecological restoration and rehabilitation: requiring an EIMPg for
construction materials, transport and traffic, and air quality
management
c. decommissioning: requiring an EIMPg for noise, transport and
traffic, solid waste, and site restoration management
d. demolition: requiring an EIMPg for air quality, noise, solid waste,
transport and traffic, and site restoration management; etc.
7.5.3 Environmental monitoring

Each functional professional suggests the environmental monitoring program
in each phase of the project lifecycle for the assigned environmental
component and the EIA team leader integrates these into a consolidated
program for all the components of the environment in consultation with the
functional professionals. The environmental monitoring program encompasses
monitoring in each phase of the project lifecycle including pre-construction
activities like prospecting of minerals and seismic surveys for oil and gas
projects, construction, operation, and post-operation, viz. decommissioning
of projects like oil and gas exploration and production, manufacturing and
energy generation, closure of the projects like secured landfill facilities for
hazardous waste and municipal waste management facilities, restoration for
mining projects, and demolition of infrastructural projects like townships,
bridges, and roads. The program for each lifecycle phase of the project
needs to be described separately since the activities involved and the
378 Chapter 7
applicable environmental regulations are likely to be different, requiring a

different kind and extent of environmental monitoring.
7.5.3.1 Who carries out environmental monitoring?
When the project organization decides to have the environmental

monitoring done in-house, a well-defined and dedicated group within the
environmental management cell known as the environmental monitoring
group is entrusted with the responsibility of planning and carrying out the
monitoring of different environmental components following the
documented environmental monitoring protocols. When it is decided to
outsource the environmental monitoring work, the environmental monitoring
group plans and oversees the work being done by the outsourced agency. It
is also likely that part of the environmental monitoring for certain
environmental components is done in-house and the remainder is outsourced.
The requirement of capital for the procurement of equipment and
instruments, and the development of the required infrastructural facilities as
well as the recurring expenses for the operation and maintenance of the
environmental monitoring facility is estimated and the details are described
in the program.
7.5.3.2 Scope of environmental monitoring
The scope of environmental monitoring varies in each lifecycle phase of a

project. Based on the objective of the monitoring, viz. compliance
monitoring for the emissions, discharges, and disposal as per the applicable
regulations, or performance evaluation of the processes as well as control
measures employed, a mechanism is described for the following aspects for
each attribute of the environment:
i. parameters to be monitored
ii. sampling or monitoring locations
iii. frequency or periodicity of sampling or monitoring
iv. sampling methodology
v. methodology for sample preservation
vi. methodology for sample transportation to a distantly
located laboratory
vii. analytical methods to be adopted
Based on the above, the following are estimated and described:

a. the requirement of equipment, instruments, and other

infrastructural facilities for monitoring and measurement
b. the requirement of consumables
c. manpower requirement
d. space required for housing the facilities
e. funds requirement towards capital as well as recurring
expenses
7.5.3.3 Compliance-related environmental monitoring
Based upon the monitoring conditions prescribed by the competent

authority while according environmental approval, and those imposed by
the pollution control board in the letter of consent to operate, the
compliance monitoring may involve specific parameters of each of the
environmental components as follows:
1. The physical-chemical aspects of the environment, comprising the

following:
Construction phase
a) ambient air quality
b) ambient noise levels
c) the health of the water resources used
d) the quantity and characteristics of wastewater discharged
e) the quantity and characteristics of the solid waste disposed
f) soil characteristics
g) soil erosion and the resultant sediment transportation
h) any specific parameters to be monitored like those for
coastal and/or marine water quality
Operation phase
i. air emissions from each stack and source of fugitive
emission
ii. ambient air quality and work environment
iii. ambient noise levels
iv. the health of the water resource(s) exploited, whether
surface or underground concerning characteristics of
water and water resources, water availability, water table,
etc.
v. quantity and characteristics of the treated wastewater
discharged from the guard pond
380 Chapter 7
vi. characteristics of water bodies receiving the treated

wastewater from the project
vii. diffused pollution of surface waters and quality of surface
and groundwater resources
viii. quantity and characteristics of hazardous and other wastes
generated, compatibility, storage conditions, transport,
and disposal
ix. groundwater quality for detecting leakages and estimation of
percolation of pollutants to soil and groundwater from the
potential sources like wastewater treatment facilities,
storage tanks, reservoirs, and leachates from open
storage, solid and hazardous waste management facilities,
overburden dumps, etc.
x. any specific parameters to be monitored like soil, coastal
and/or marine water quality, etc.
xi. the environmental audit, safety audit, and energy audit
Post-operation for projects like secured landfill facilities

a. groundwater monitoring by establishing sampling bore
wells around the facility
b. leachate quantity and characteristics
c. ambient air quality around the facility
2. land use/land cover changes using satellite imageries and ground-

truthing
3. drainage and runoff patterns based on the above
4. ecological monitoring: terrestrial, aquatic, and marine, and specific
ecological indicators
5. social monitoring, including specific social indicators, and
fulfillment of commitments made by the project proponent on
R&R, employment generation, physical and social infrastructural
development, etc. identified in the social needs assessment, etc.
7.5.3.4 Performance evaluation-related environmental monitoring
Based upon the type and size of the project, environmental monitoring may
include the following attributes or specific parameters for facilitating the
evaluation of performance, i.e. the effectiveness and efficiency of the
control measures adopted and the treatment processes employed:
i. local meteorology, consisting of temperature, humidity, wind

velocity, rainfall, cloud cover, etc. on a continual basis
ii. characterization of air emissions or gaseous streams before

and after each air pollution control device, consisting of efflux
velocity, temperature, PM2.5, PM10, NOx, SO2, CO, CO2, and
any other parameters
iii. noise levels at each source and after the control measure
adopted
iv. water uses for each purpose
v. quantity and characteristics of the wastewater generated from
each source or activity, stage-wise wastewater treatment
processes, and wastewater leaving the guard pond for their
inorganics, organics, and biological content
vi. quantity and characteristics of wastes generated from each
source, storage conditions, treatment, transport and disposal
of hazardous and other wastes
vii. the environmental audit, safety audit, energy audit, water
audit, wastewater audit, resource use audit, waste audit, etc.
7.5.3.5 Requirements for environmental monitoring
Special consideration needs to be given to the following mechanisms for

meeting the basic requirements of a typical environmental monitoring
program as follows:
a. real-time (online) monitoring of the duly identified critical

physical-chemical parameters in addition to the regular and
periodic conventional monitoring, depending upon the size and
type of the project, and the sensitivity of the project location and
its surroundings
b. employing standard methodologies for monitoring the ecological
and social indicators developed by the EMC and other aspects
related to ecological and social components specified in the
environmental approval conditions
c. ascertaining incremental changes in the concentrations of the
concerned parameters at the locations where the environmental
baseline monitoring was conducted
d. employing standard sampling and analytical methods as per APHA
or as specified in the applicable regulations for different
parameters by the environmental monitoring group and/or the
outsourced agency
e. adopting good laboratory practices, consisting of the preparation
of a laboratory manual by an in-house and/or outsourced
laboratory and compliance with the requirements of a laboratory
382 Chapter 7
accreditation agency, e.g. the National Accreditation Board for

Laboratories for calibration of equipment and instruments,
consumables, analytical methods, sample preservation, and
destruction, laboratory safety, skilled technicians, etc.
f. documentation of the monitoring information including sampling
details, analytical reports, data representation, and preparation of
reports for the internal as well as external stakeholders
g. close coordination between the environmental monitoring group,
the EMC, and process control laboratory of the project
organization for ensuring proper communication on the changes
taking place in the inputs, product-mix, processes, etc. from time
to time, and implications of such variations on emissions and
discharges
h. providing timely feedback to the operation cell on any deviations
observed in certain parameters during monitoring in order to take
immediate corrective action
i. the EMC issuing an advisory to the operation cell and the
management on weather forecasts made by the concerned agencies
on events like storms, cyclones, heat waves, cold waves, heavy
rainfall, etc.
The output of an environmental monitoring program is generally presented

in a tabular form, as illustrated in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 Output of Environmental Monitoring Program
Environmental Project lifecycle Parameter Location Frequency and Responsibility
component phase duration
Air quality- Pre-construction (Specify Quality (Specify (Specify) (Specify)

ambient Construction parameters like Locations/Recepto
Operation PM10, PM2.5 as per rs)
Post-operation applicable
regulations,
Specific project-
related parameters,
if any)
Air quality- stack Operation (Specify Quality (Specify Different (Specify) (Specify)
parameters as per stacks)
applicable
regulations,
Specific project-
related parameters,
if any)
Noise level Pre-construction Noise level, (Major noise (Specify) (Specify)
Vibration level Construction Noise barriers, sources, Specify
Operation Trenches Receptors),
Post-operation Rail/road right of
way corridor
384 Chapter 7
Water quantity and Construction (Flow rate, (Specify Intake (Specify) (Specify)
quality- Operation Specify Quality source)
consumption Post-operation parameters like
TDS, Hardness,
Silica)
Water quantity and Operation (Flow rate, (Specify (Specify) (Specify)
quality-wastewater Specify Quality Different
parameters like wastewater
pH, SS, BOD as streams,
per applicable Discharge stream,
regulations, Receiving water
Specific project- body)
related parameters,
if any)
Groundwater Operation (Water table, (Specify well (Specify) (Specify)
Post-operation Specify Quality locations,
parameters, including around
Specific project- wastewater
related parameters, treatment facility,
if any) Waste
management
facilities)
Soil/Land Construction (Specify Quality (Specify based on (Specify) (Specify)
Operation parameters like impacted zones)
Post-operation salinity, porosity),
Quantity of
hazardous,
industrial,
domestic,
biomedical, e-,
construction
wastes, (specify)
generated and
mode of disposal
Land use Construction Land use, (Specify based on (Specify) (Specify)
Operation Drainage pattern impacted zones)
Post-operation
Ecology Pre-construction (Specify) Core zone, Buffer (Specify) (Specify)
Construction Species diversity, zone
Operation Critical habitats
Post-operation
Socio-economic Construction (Specify Core zone, Buffer (Specify) (Specify)

Operational indicators) zone
Environmental Construction (Specify Plant premises Ongoing (Specify)
performance Operation indicators)
Post-operation Resource use
reduction,
Carbon footprint,
Water neutrality
386 Chapter 7
7.5.3.6 Importance of environmental monitoring
It may be recognized that administering regular and diligent environmental

monitoring is extremely valuable in examining several aspects like the
following, and evaluating the environmental performance of the project
operations:
i. ascertaining the status of compliance with the applicable regulations,

and requirements of the accreditation agencies
ii. assessing residual environmental impacts
iii. assessing cumulative environmental impacts
iv. evaluating the efficacy and adequacy of the mitigation measures
employed for the significant impact on the different environmental
components in different phases of the project lifecycle
v. improving the performance of the implemented mitigation measures
by additional or supplementary mitigation actions, where required
vi. evaluating the difference in the measured values and the predicted
values of different parameters in emissions as well as discharges
under a given set of conditions
vii. incorporating suitable modifications in the environmental monitoring
program and EMPg
viii. evaluating the accuracy of source emissions considered for air
impact predictions
ix. evaluating the validity of the assumptions made
x. confirming the applicability and suitability of the prediction tool(s)
employed for environmental impact predictions
xi. assessing the pollution inventory being released into the
environment
xii. assessing carbon emissions
xiii. reporting to the concerned agenciesinternal as well as external
in the prescribed formats
xiv. designing and implementing resource conservation and other
proactive measures
xv. preparing reports on sustainability under GRI
xvi. enabling audits and scrutiny in the future
xvii. enhancing the overall environmental performance of the project
and project organization
For a project organization, environmental monitoring thus serves a dual

purpose, viz.
a. compliance monitoring, considering that the bottom line for

carrying out any activity is to ensure compliance with all the
provisions of every applicable environmental regulation all the
time
b. measuring the environmental performance of the project organization,
which is a prerequisite for improving its environmental performance,
by evaluating the operating facilities, systems or mechanisms and
practices
7.5.3.7 Importance of environmental monitoring information
The documented environmental monitoring information collected over a

period could be useful to different stakeholders in several ways highlighted
below:
i. information at ii, iii, iv, vi, viii, ix, and x above could immensely
benefit the EIA consulting organization in their future EIA studies
by way of
a) developing a better understanding based on the validation
of the predicted data
b) employing appropriate prediction tools to improve the
environmental impact predictions
c) suggesting effective mitigation measures for the close to
realistic impact predictions
ii. data collected periodically and made available in the public
domain would help in improving transparency and establishing the
credibility of the project organization with the public at large, and
enhancing the image of the project organization and its proponent
iii. the information collected over time could serve as a data bank, a
source of secondary data that could be used in establishing
environmental baseline conditions for the projects proposed in the
study area in future
iv. researching the different aspects of the environment
v. conducting studies like regional environmental assessments,
carrying capacity studies, strategic environmental assessments,
etc.
The environmental monitoring program encompassing periodic environmental

monitoring and documentation of the data is, therefore, an essential,
important, and integral component of the EMPg in an EIA report.
388 Chapter 7
7.5.4 Environmental compliance management

The compliance management program describes systems that assure
compliance with the applicable environmental regulations including
federal, state, and local. In addition to obtaining a written commitment from
the project proponent that the project organization will not violate any
applicable environmental regulations, the program includes systems for the
following:
a. ascertaining the permissions and approvals required for

compliance with the applicable environmental regulations, rules,
standards, and other requirements like international conventions,
procurement of the updated copies of the applicable regulations
and relevant orders of the courts, amendments in the existing
regulations and new regulations notified from time to time, etc.
b. monitoring the validity of permissions and approvals received, and
timely applications for renewals
c. identifying the need for employing additional or new tools for
measurement and control, like high precision instruments for
detecting pollutant levels, and online systems for monitoring
critical parameters
d. ensuring a close watch on the emissions and discharges, and
issuing alerts to the operation cell before permissible threshold
limits are approached
e. making a project organizations environmental policy,
incorporating resource conservation, and waste management
hierarchy of prevention, reduction at source, reuse, recycle,
recovery, end of the pipe treatment and disposal, etc., with a
provision to review it periodically
f. benchmarking of best environmental practices and adopting them
diligently
g. continual up-gradation of skills of the personnel
h. ensuring adherence to the standard operating procedures
i. communication with the regulatory agencies and the neighboring
public to assure them that a robust mechanism of environmental
compliance assurance to the applicable environmental regulations
is in place and that the organization operates within its compliant
framework
j. periodic environmental compliance monitoring, third-party audits,
and management reviews
k. internal as well as external reporting on the environmental
compliance-related aspects like findings of environmental
compliance monitoring, and situations of non-compliance along

with corrective action and preventive action to avoid recurrence;
etc.
7.5.5 Environmental enhancement programs

Depending upon the type and size of the project, and the environmental
settings of the project site and its surroundings, several environmental
enhancement programs may be proposed as described below.
7.5.5.1 Topsoil management
The program for topsoil management contains mechanisms or methodologies

for the following:
a. estimation of the topsoil to be scrapped or excavated from different

locations
b. removal of topsoil
c. its transport to the identified external recipients
d. its preservation and storage at or near the project site
e. how and where it will be used by the time the construction phase
of the project nears completion
f. assigning responsibility for the above activities
g. estimating the requirement of funds, etc.
7.5.5.2 Green belt development
The development of the green belt is mandatory under certain regulatory

regimes. While granting environmental approval to a project in India
(MOEF 2006), a standard condition on developing a green belt in an area
equal to 33% of the project area with native tree species is imposed. Further,
the green belt inter alia needs to cover the entire periphery of the project. To
comply with this condition, a suitable program on the development of the
green belt containing mechanisms for the following is proposed:
a. determining the width of the proposed green belt all around the
inner periphery of the project boundaries for manufacturing and
energy generation projects, following the source-oriented
approach
b. determining the width of the proposed green belt around industrial
and urban complexes where there are multiple sources of air
emissions, typically in a mixed zone land use, following a receptor-
oriented approach
390 Chapter 7
c. selection of the species to be planted

d. assessment of the number of trees and shrubs to be planted
e. mapping of the plantation layout showing spacing and number of
rows on the base map
f. preparation of the plantation schedule
g. protection of the plantations
h. monitoring the growth of plantations and ascertaining the survival
rate
i. replantation
j. estimation of water requirements in different seasons and making
provision
k. estimation of funds requirement, both capital and recurring for the
development and maintenance of the green belt
The considerations that generally go into the selection of type and species
of plantations include the following:
i. type of the existing indigenous species and varieties in the study

area
ii. prevailing agro-climatic conditions
iii. type of soil
iv. type of the predicted air emissions and concentration levels from
the project and the other developments in the vicinity
v. evergreen species but avoiding monoculture species
vi. avoiding plantations that lower groundwater tables like eucalyptus
vii. prediction of the inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from the
project and carbon sequestration that could be achieved from the
plantations
viii. availability and characteristics of the treated wastewater for
utilization in these plantations during the non-monsoon period; etc.
It may be cautioned that the landscape plantation, and roadside and median
plantation within the project boundaries do not fit into the basic concept of
green belt development even though these add to the greening of the project
site. Further, even though plantations along the boundary of the project
premises serve as a buffer between the project and its neighborhood and
have their environmental benefits, it will not be appropriate to project the
plantations as environmental impact mitigation measures for, e.g.:
i. environmental impacts on air quality arising from emissions and

noise from manufacturing and energy generation projects
ii. serving as a sink for the treated wastewater generated
iii. impacts on soil being impacted due to construction-related

activities
iv. impacts on ecology and biodiversity due to site development and
other activities, change in land use, degradation of soil, diffuse
sources of pollution, air emissions, etc.
The reasons for the above could be explained as follows:
a. air emissions from the manufacturing and energy generation

projects start on the commencement of the operation phase
whereas the growth of the planted species takes time
b. density and height of plantations may not be able to arrest point
source emissions from stacks that get dispersed
c. the predicted impact zone may fall beyond the project premises,
i.e. ground-level concentrations of pollutants released from the
operational stacks may be found at locations which are beyond the
project boundaries whereas the green belt is developed within the
project boundaries
d. local agro-climatic conditions may not be conducive for the growth
of the desired air pollutants resistant plant species
e. water requirement for the plantations varies with seasons, maybe
much less than the treated wastewater generated from the project
f. the ecological systems are developed over a long period
However, vegetation on either side of the road in the case of road projects
helps to retain particulate matter and helps with noise attenuation to some
extent. Further, proposing greening of the land on which the project
proponent does not have any control appears hypothetical unless the project
size is very large and the project proponent is given the responsibility for
greening, e.g. mangrove plantations to be done in the inter-tidal areas, which
are beyond the project boundaries, by the project proponent of a port and
harbor project. Guidelines for green belt development (CPCB 2000) may be
followed.
7.5.5.3 Rainwater harvesting and creating a new source of water
It is being realized that water availability is becoming scarce in many places

and it is projected to be getting worse. Several studies have revealed that the
gap between water demand and supply is widening and that the groundwater
table is going down in many places. Thus, a rainwater harvesting program
based on the estimated catchment area is proposed. The available guidelines
(CGWB 2007) may be used for implementing such a program. Depending
392 Chapter 7
upon the project site conditions, the collected rainwater may be proposed
for storage either in surface reservoirs or underground storage tanks for
direct use or recharged into the groundwater regime through deep bore
wells.
The rooftop water needs to be distinguished from the surface waters, and
rooftop water collection should be proposed only when the possibility of
project-specific and other contaminants settling on the roof is ruled out. For
example, rooftop water collection from projects manufacturing cement,
ceramics, chemicals, etc. is not advisable.
The mechanisms for adopting water conservation measures in project

operation and other uses, and control measures for minimizing losses due to
seepage, leakage, and evaporation are also included. An enlightened project
proponent would like to aim to be water neutral in a targeted timeframe.
7.5.5.4 Resource conservation
The mechanisms to be adopted for resource conservation, an ongoing

objective of a project organization, are incorporated so that the relevant
ongoing programs are devised to step gradually toward sustainable
development for manufacturing and energy projects by focusing on several
aspects like the following:
a. cleaner production (Rathi 2003)

b. reduction in the use of natural resources
c. reduction in the consumption of feedstock, utilities, and other
inputs per unit of production/generation
d. waste minimization (Rathi 2009)
e. reduction of carbon footprint
f. inherent safety
g. good housekeeping
The EMC is assigned the overall responsibility of overseeing these

programs, which will be designed and implemented by the operation cell,
documenting efforts and achievements.
7.5.5.5 Proficiency improvement program
A program is proposed for making sure that the operating, as well as EMC
personnel, keep themselves abreast of the new developments taking place
in resource conservation, cleaner technologies, environmental technologies,
best practices, etc. Continued skills enhancement of the personnel could be
made an inherent feature of the management policy of the project

organization, and a training needs assessment could form an integral
element of the annual appraisal of the personnel at different levels. The
EMC is assigned the overall responsibility of preparing an annual calendar
of the identified training programs and organizing and/or overseeing them.
The training programs on recognized topics, viz. environmental protection,
resource conservation, environmental technologies, best practices, good
housekeeping, safety, etc. may be conducted either in-house and/or with the
help of external agencies. The proficiency improvement program is required
to be supplemented with the procurement of the relevant literature in the
form of books, periodicals, software, etc.
7.5.5.6 Ecological enhancement program
The project site is generally left in a very disturbed condition with regard to
drainage patterns, diffuse sources of pollution, and the ecosystem in the core
zone during and after the completion of
a) the construction phase of a project

b) the post-operation phase of projects like mining, and oil and gas
exploration and production
c) decommissioning and demolition phases of projects
The ecological restoration and rehabilitation of the site are required by the
applicable regulations (MOC 2013) and best practices, taking into
consideration the landscape features of the surroundings.
Further, a mechanism for ecological enhancement through afforestation,

landscaping, development, and maintenance of artificial habitats, the
greening of the project site and other areas, etc. is also included in the
program.
7.5.5.7 Rehabilitation and resettlement program
For projects like dams, highways, railways, and large manufacturing and
energy, involving land acquisition and the displacement of people, an
exhaustive program is prepared for the implementation of the rehabilitation
and resettlement (R&R) plan, prepared following the applicable regulations
or the requirements of the funding agencies like the World Bank, and in
consultation with the project-affected persons. It needs to be appreciated
that this program is complex and sensitive because of its consequences on
displaced human beings as regards their social, cultural, and economic
needs.
394 Chapter 7
7.5.5.8 Social development
Based upon a social needs assessment included in the social impact

assessment, a program is formulated that aims to meet the social needs of
the local population. Among others, the program may include mechanisms
for the development of physical and social infrastructural facilities for
education, skills enhancement, health care, water supply, sanitation, solid
waste management, roads, transportation, recreation, cultural activities,
sports, etc. The program also includes a mechanism that will ensure the
fulfillment of the commitments made by the project proponent in the public
hearing. In addition to the above, programs to make some contributions to
achieving some of the UNs Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 2015),
relevant for the people living in the study area, may also be included. In
essence, the program targets the improvement of the social well-being of
the wider community.
7.5.5.9 Public relations program
Depending upon the size of the project and its neighborhood, a public
relations team may be associated with the EMC for formulating and
operationalizing a suitable public relations program for establishing a good
communication network for interaction and liaison with the external
stakeholders to give them confidence in the following aspects of the project
organization:
a. environmental compliance
b. transparency in the impact management practices
c. implementation of R&R as per the agreed program
d. implementation of projects or activities identified in the social
needs assessment report
e. compensation-related matters
f. implementation of activities under corporate social responsibility
once the project organization starts earning profits; etc.
In addition to the above, the program may include the following aspects
specifically for the local population:
a. periodic environmental awareness on the project-related activities

b. periodic visits to the project premises
c. mock drills as part of the disaster management plan
d. mechanism to address their apprehensions and grievances related
to the project
e. mechanism to obtain feedback on the fulfillment of social needs-

related commitments
The public relations program is expected to enhance the image of the project
organization in the long run and help to assure the continued support of the
local population.
7.6 EMPg for brownfield projects

For a brownfield project, the following documents are reviewed:
a. EIA report(s) containing a chapter on environmental management

programs including environmental monitoring programs for the
physical-chemical, biological, and social components for the
existing project(s)
b. the project operation manual
c. the prevailing EMPg including the environmental monitoring
program
d. audit and review reports for the EMPg
e. environmental audit, energy audit, and safety audit reports
Based on the above documents, discussion with the EMC and the personnel
of operating project(s), and a visit to the project facilities, due diligence of
the prevailing EMPg is carried out and observations are made on the
following:
i. the functioning of the EMC especially concerning its roles and

responsibilities, standard operating procedures, training,
capacity building, etc.
ii. the status of compliance with the applicable environmental,
health, and safety-related regulations
iii. the effectiveness of the prevailing systems for various
programs, viz. environmental impact management, environmental
compliance management, environmental monitoring, and risk
management, and their adequacy
iv. the residual impact management program
v. the periodic audit, management review, and updating of the
EMPg
vi. the contingency program for any unexpected events and
unforeseen situations
396 Chapter 7
vii. the status of the existing green belt including the growth of
different species, survival rate, replantation efforts, and
monitoring systems
viii. the status of different programs for environmental enhancement,
and social development
ix. the effectiveness of the public relations program
x. the annual expenditure incurred on each program under the
EMPg, and the overall budget
xi. shortcomings in the EMPg, based on the elements of the
EMPg for the greenfield projects described above
xii. the environmental policy, and certification status of the
existing operational facility under QMS 9001, EMS 14001,
OH&S ISO 45001, EnMS ISO 50001, etc.
xiii. recognitions received by the project organization; etc.
Based on the above observations, and the guidelines on the preparation of

the environmental management program for the greenfield project described
above, a comprehensive and integrated environmental management
program is proposed for the project complex as a whole, encompassing the
existing project(s) as well as the proposed ones, while ensuring that the
existing facilities and manpower are optimally utilized.
7.7 Maintaining flexibility in the EMPg

The EMPg proposed in an EIA report need not be considered sacrosanct. To
ensure that the EMPg remains adaptive to new and changing circumstances
and is flexible and dynamic, it needs to have an in-built mechanism of being
subjected to periodic review and revisions. A suitable mechanism for a
periodic audit and management review of the EMPg can ensure that it is
suitably modified to remain relevant and effective, and meets emerging
needs. Flexibility in the EMPg is crucial considering the following:
a. the EMPg in the EIA report was prepared at an early stage of the
project lifecycle when the project design and other details might
not have been finalized
b. the actual environmental impacts observed may be at variance with
the predicted environmental impacts and hence the implemented
mitigation measures might not be effective or adequate
c. climatic changes affect the local meteorology and hence the
predicted air environmental impactsspatial as well as
temporaland require a periodic re-examination
d. operating features of the project change due to variations in

capacity, product-mix, quality of inputs, etc. necessitated by
business cycles from time to time
e. developments continue to take place in the vicinity of the project
site and the study area, and the neighborhood population keeps
growing
f. regulatory requirements change over a period and hence the
applicable regulations might become more stringent and/or new
regulations might come into effect
g. the need for continual improvement; etc.
The frequency and extent to which the EMPg should be reviewed and
updated will depend upon the type and size of the project, the changing
environmental settings of the project site, and the lifecycle phase of the
project. The EMPg of some project sectors may need more frequent reviews
in the construction phase and for some other project sectors in the operation
phase. For example, the EMPg of
i. an infrastructural project like a highway or area development needs

to be reviewed more frequently during its construction phase when
major environmental impacts are felt
ii. a large greenfield project belonging to the mining, manufacturing,
or thermal power sector needs to be reviewed more frequently
during its operation phase when major environmental impacts are
felt
An exhaustive, comprehensive, and updated EMPg facilitates a project

organization in establishing internal environmental performance standards
and adopting suitable management systems for quality, environment,
occupational health and safety, energy systems, etc. over a period.
7.8 The commitment of the project proponent

It needs to be reiterated that an EMPg is specific to a given planned project
at a given location, not a generic one which could be proposed for any type
of project in any location. It may be appreciated that the programs forming
part of the EMPg in the different lifecycle phases of the project, which are
directly linked to project implementation and operation as discussed above,
tend to be implemented by a project proponent on a priority basis. However,
to achieve the objective of sustainable development, the environmental
performance of the project needs to be improved by emphasizing that
398 Chapter 7
project proponents, especially of large projects, give adequate consideration

to the following aspects:
a. how the social needs assessment, carried out under the social
impact assessment, will be taken forward
b. proactive programs like resource conservation measures including
water conservation and reduction of the carbon footprint with the
ultimate objective of making the project water as well as carbon
neutral, i.e. having zero (net) water consumption and zero (net)
carbon emissions
c. preparedness for emergency or disaster management as brought
out in the risk assessment by keeping the project personnel well
trained and re-trained, and making the surrounding public well
informed about the project-related activities from time to time
Considering the above, a formal commitment of the project proponent needs

to be obtained on the proposed EMPg forming part of the draft EIA report
to make it more meaningful, specifically in respect of the following aspects:
i. revising the EMPg on receiving environmental approval from the

competent authority by incorporating the required measures to
ensure compliance with each of the conditions of the environmental
approval
ii. putting in place an administrative structure in the form of an EMC
at an early lifecycle phase of the project so that mitigation
measures are imbibed into the project design and all through its
lifecycle
iii. putting in place rigorous systems in each phase of the project
lifecycle for:
a) environmental impact management
b) environmental compliance management
c) environmental monitoring
d) disaster management
e) periodic audits of the EMPg and management reviews for
keeping the EMPg relevant and live
iv. implementing environmental enhancement and social development
programs
v. committing allocation of the required funds for the implementation
of the EMPg in an agreed timeframe, and keeping it operational;
etc.
For the above purpose, the EIA team leader sends the draft EIA report to
the project proponent to seek concurrence and obtain the commitment of the
top management on the EMPg chapter, i.e. for its
i. contents
ii. proposed budget, and
iii. implementation mechanism and schedule
The project proponent is advised to give a formal declaration on the

implementation and operationalization of the EMPg proposed. The
declaration commitment is included in the draft EIA report so that it is
accessible to the public for scrutiny even before the public hearing. While
such a written declaration would help in obtaining public acceptance of the
proposed project, it would also establish accountability of the project
proponent for the implementation of different components of the
environmental management program incorporated in the draft EIA report
in the committed timeframe. This would also help to increase the confidence
level of the competent authority while considering the grant of
environmental approval to the proposed project.
7.9 EIA and the implementation of the EMPg

Considering several facets encompassed by an EMPg, it may be
acknowledged that the shelf-life of an EMPg document is as long as that of
the project lifecycle, unlike an EIA report which may be required for
reference purpose only once the environmental approval is obtained for the
proposed project. The EMPg, though initially prepared as a part of an EIA
report, needs to have an in-built ongoing review mechanism whereby it is
subject to periodic audit so that it acts as a live document allowing it to
be updated with the availability of new information or details and also at
every subsequent development phase. Given this, the EMPg could be
prepared as a separate document which is available to the environmental
management cell for use as a manual (Rathi 2016).
The responsibility and accountability of an EIA consulting organization

(Rathi 2019) can be increased several-fold if the implementation of the
EMPg over a certain period is also included in its scope of work in addition
to conducting the EIA and preparing the EIA report. This is similar to
awarding a contract for building an infrastructural project along with its
operation and maintenance for a certain number of years. Such an
arrangement would ensure that the EIA consulting organization carries out
an EIA of the proposed development project more diligently, and proposes
400 Chapter 7
adequate and practical mitigation measures in the EIA report. Moreover, it

will get an opportunity to obtain feedback on the:
i. completeness of the work carried out

ii. appropriateness of the assumptions made in the EIA
iii. appropriateness of the prediction techniques and tools used
iv. validation of the techniques and tools employed and the
assumptions made
v. adequacy of the suggested mitigation measures with the
consideration that these are feasible, practical, affordable, and
likely to be successful (Kiss 2013)
vi. propriety of the EMPg
Such iterative learning will make EIA consulting organizations develop

expertise, and help to sharpen their skills in conducting EIAs. Such a
mechanism will improve the knowledge of decision-making support
(Nicolaisen and Fischer 2016) in relation to environmental management
including environmental planning, reduce environmental impact prediction
uncertainty, and will go a long way to enabling continual improvement in
the quality of EIAs (Rathi 2019) and getting better quality EIA reports over
a period. Further, it is in line with the philosophy that environmental
assessment should not be a one-time prediction of impacts but an ongoing
investigation, necessitating continuous EIA and adaptive ecosystem
management (Walters and Holling 1990).
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Manual%20-%20OP%204.pdf.
CHAPTER 8
DRAFTING AN ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT ASSESSMENT REPORT
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) team leader compiles the

reports received from each functional professional on the assigned
environmental component(s) and the specialized agencies on additional/special
studies, collates these reports, and prepares a draft EIA report. It is essential
that the draft EIA report is complete in all respects and meets the
requirements of a good-quality EIA report. This chapter would be useful to
EIA team leaders in preparing a complete, comprehensive, and good-quality
EIA report that meets the objectives of the EIA.
8.1 Steps involved in drafting an EIA report

The flowchart of the preparation of a typical EIA report is illustrated in Fig.
8.1, and the procedure is briefly described as follows:
i. As discussed in Chapter 6, all the functional professionals submit

their respective draft reports related to the assigned specific
environmental component(s) to the EIA team leader, containing
the following information:
a) baseline environmental settings of the study area
b) environmental impacts assessed for each lifecycle phase
of the project
c) significant impacts determined
d) specific mitigation measures proposed for each of the
significant impacts
e) the environmental monitoring program
f) inputs for the environmental management program
(EMPg)
ii. The EIA team leader obtains reports on additional/special studies,
assigned as per the TOR to specialized institutions or agencies
406 Chapter 8
iii. The EIA team leader compiles, collates, and integrates the above
reports received on different components or sub-components of the
environment in the form of a draft report. The draft EIA report is
prepared in such a manner that it reflects a holistic, seamless, and
comprehensive approach toward EIAs, and incorporates the salient
features of each of the additional/special studies in the relevant
chapter(s). While drafting the report, the EIA team leader ensures
that each chapter of the draft EIA report has the following
characteristics:
a) uniformity
b) consistency
c) completeness
d) smooth flow of language, and
e) logical sequencing and continuity
iv. The structure of the draft EIA report meets the requirements of the
agency for which it is being prepared
v. Compliance with each of the TOR is prepared in a tabular form,
providing references to the corresponding sections of the draft EIA
report
vi. The functional professionals are asked to review the compiled draft
EIA report and compliance with the TOR, focusing on their
respective contributions to ascertain that their viewpoints are
clearly and truly reflected
vii. After considering the feedback received from the functional
professionals, the EIA team leader finalizes the draft EIA report
viii. The EIA team leader prepares an executive summary of the draft
EIA report, which is generally placed before the first chapter of the
report. The executive summary is strictly based on the detailed
contents of the draft EIA report, and it gives a brief summary that
truly reflects the following aspects which are considered at length
in the draft EIA report:
a. settings of the project site
b. the project brief, highlighting specific project-related
activities which have the potential to cause major/significant
environmental impacts
c. baseline environmental settings
d. significant impacts determined
e. suggested mitigation measures
f. environmental management programs for environmental
monitoring, residual impact, environmental compliance,
environmental enhancement, and compensation-related aspects
Drafting an Environmental Impact Assessment Report 407
ix. The executive summary is written in such a manner that it can serve
as a stand-alone document, i.e. it highlights the salient aspects of the
draft EIA report concisely without making reference to any of the
contents, whether text, maps, figures, or tables of the draft EIA report
408 Chapter 8
8.2 Steps involved from the draft EIA report

to the review/appraisal
The draft EIA report is sent to the project proponent to obtain feedback and
comments especially on the introduction, project description, consideration
of alternatives, and environmental management program chapters. The
objective of sending the draft report to the project proponent is to
a) ascertain that the factual information about the project is

captured in the draft EIA report
b) obtain a formal commitment from the project proponent
that adequate provision for the required funds will be
made and the environmental management program will
be implemented along with the project
c) affirm ownership of the draft EIA report by the project
proponent though it is prepared by the EIA consulting
organization
Thus, endorsement of the project proponent is contemplated for the draft

EIA report in general and the proposed environmental management
program in particular. Further,
a. while considering comments received from the project proponent,

it is expected that the EIA team leader does not succumb to any
pressure from the project proponent in downplaying any of the
significant environmental impacts brought out and environmental
issues highlighted. As a true professional, the EIA team leader is
neither influenced nor dictated to by the interests of the project
proponent or any other stakeholder. He should be clear that the
project proponent is the client who assigns the EIA study and the
EIA report preparation in the prescribed structure to seek
environmental approval for going ahead with the proposed project,
and commits to a payment of a professional fee. The prime
customer of the EIA report is the competent authority which has
mandated the preparation of such a report and is empowered to
review the EIA report and take the decision to grant environmental
approval based on the EIA report
b. after giving due consideration to the observations and comments
of the project proponent, the EIA team leader finalizes the draft
EIA report and sends the final draft to the project proponent.
Depending upon the procedural requirements mandated for public
consultation (MOEF 2006, 2020), the project proponent sends the
final draft EIA report to the authorized agency to conduct a public

hearing
c. the EIA team leader arranges translation of the executive summary
of the draft final EIA report into the local language to help the local
people understand the proposed project and its implications. On
behalf of the project proponent, the EIA team leader may be asked
to make a presentation on the draft final EIA report to the public
hearing committee and the public, and provide necessary
information and clarifications on the queries raised
d. after the public hearing is held, the EIA team leader
a) obtains proceedings of the public hearing from the agency
which conducted the public hearing, and prepares a
summary of the issues brought out in the public hearing,
and response or commitments that were given by the
project proponent to/on each of the issues in a tabular
form, highlighting the actions required
b) summarizes the viewpoints or comments communicated
by other stakeholders in a tabular form
e. based upon the above, the EIA team leader updates the final draft
EIA report by incorporating the required changes and additional
information and prepares the final EIA report. The difference
between the final draft EIA report and the final EIA report needs
to be distinctly visible from the contents pages of these reports
f. the final EIA report is sent to the project proponent who, as an
owner of the EIA report, submits it to the competent authority with
the required number of copies to seek environmental approval for
the proposed project
g. the EIA team leader extends the required support to the project
proponent, making a presentation to the EIA reviewing authority
and/or the competent authority, and giving the requisite
information and/or clarifications on the EIA report for its appraisal
8.3 The need for documentation

The EIA report, which forms the basis of the granting of environmental
approval to the proposed project, needs to demonstrate its usefulness and
credibility even after it has served its basic objective of facilitating decision-
makers in taking a well-informed decision. It is, therefore, essential that the
information used and the methodologies employed in the EIA study are
documented appropriately for:
410 Chapter 8
a. ascertaining the applicability of regulatory requirements for the

project-related activities, and ensuring environmental compliance
while proposing mitigation measures and the environmental
management program, including environmental monitoring
b. collecting secondary data from different sources and collating the
same and/or generating primary data for establishing environmental
baseline conditions
c. the identification of potential environmental impacts
d. the prediction and assessment of environmental impacts on
different components of the environment
e. establishing the significance of the environmental impacts
f. conducting a risk assessment
g. proposing mitigation measures for the significant environmental
impacts and risks
h. the identification, selection, and consideration of alternatives
i. the preparation of the environmental management program for
each lifecycle phase of the project, consisting of impact management,
residual impact management, environmental compliance
management, risk management, environmental monitoring, and
reduction of prediction uncertainty; etc.
Such records, prepared and maintained as per the established procedures

documented in the quality management system followed by the EIA
consulting organization, may be required for future reference, audit, or
investigations. The importance of proper documentation may also be
understood and emphasized, considering the following:
i. newer and more stringent environmental regulations framed and

enforced from time to time, necessitating an upgrading of the
mitigation measures provided
ii. the obligation of the EIA consulting organization, the competent
authority, as well as the project proponent, to be answerable to
Green Tribunals and the Courts
iii. the obligation of the competent authority to provide information
to the public under the Right to Information Act
iv. ever-increasing public concerns regarding health, and the
commitment of the government to the well-being of its citizens
v. periodic audits for environmental, energy, process safety,
occupational health, standard operating procedures, work
practices, etc.
vi. investigations undertaken after a major mishap; etc.
8.4 Salient contents of a good-quality EIA report

8.4.1 The need for a good-quality EIA report
While conducting an EIA study, it is necessary to acknowledge the fact that
the EIA report is prepared by the EIA consulting organization for the
decision-makers who are not involved in any way and at any stage of the
EIA study. Further, several resources including finances, time, and human
efforts are deployed in doing a lot of exhaustive leg work and work in the
office, library, field, and laboratory for the EIA study and for preparing the
EIA report. However, those reviewing or appraising the EIA report are not
likely to be familiar with the details of the project and/or the site, and may
not have enough time at their disposal to review the EIA report thoroughly
to form an opinion on the proposed project. In those developing countries
which have a democratic governance structure, the development departments
of governments generally have a very heavy agenda for faster economic
growth and employment generation for the masses. This results in the
formulation of numerous development projects by the public as well as
private sectors that are proposed for seeking environmental approval. The
aspirations of the people put pressure on their elected representatives to get
the development projects approved and implemented in their regions
without any loss of time. This puts heavy pressure on the environmental
approval mechanism in the country and the competent authority is required
to take quick decisions on the grant of environmental approval.
It would, therefore, be desirable that the EIA consulting organization

prepares a good-quality EIA report which is comprehensive and self-
explanatory but brief and crisp. The EIA team leader needs to be judicious
when deciding what would form part of the main text of the EIA report and
what would go in the annexes. Further, the relevant and significant
environmental issues and implementable measures proposed for addressing
these issues need to be clearly brought out and represented in the main text
in a manner that readily catches the attention of the reviewing authority.
8.4.2 A good-quality EIA report

Guidelines for good-quality EIA reports are suggested by Al-Mebaye
(2015), and the qualities of a good EIA are listed (EC 2001). Once an EIA
regulation is notified, the effectiveness of the EIA system essentially
depends upon the efficacy of:
412 Chapter 8
a. EIA consulting organizations preparing EIA reports on behalf

of project proponents
b. competent authorities reviewing and taking a decision on
granting environmental approval
c. project proponents implementing and operationalizing
environmental management programs in each lifecycle phase
of the project
d. agencies engaged in EIA follow-up
The quality of EIA reports plays a crucial role in making the EIA system
effective (Kamijo and Huang 2016) and in making good decisions. This
book primarily aims at the capacity building of EIA consulting organizations to
enable them to prepare good-quality EIA reports, which is essential to
strengthening the EIA system. The author reviewed more than two hundred
EIA reports prepared by different EIA consulting organizations in India for
the projects belonging to a multifarious range of sectors including mining,
oil and gas exploration, thermal power, metallurgical, cement, petroleum
refineries, petrochemicals, organic chemicals, fertilizers, textile processing,
distilleries, cross-country pipelines transporting hydrocarbons, petroleum
terminals, airports, ports, highways, industrial estates, waste management
facilities, common wastewater treatment facilities, and townships. It was
observed that many of the EIA reports were incomplete and deficient in
addressing several aspects, and had inadequate coverage of several facets,
which are considered imperative for an EIA report (Rathi 2017, 2019).
8.4.3 Greenfield projects

The general structure and contents of a typical EIA report are described in
Chapter 5. A good-quality EIA report needs to encompass a wide range of
salient contents and features, considered essential for enhancing the quality
of an EIA report (Rathi 2016). These are highlighted in conformity with the
basic principles and operating principles (IAIA 1999) as follows:
1. The top cover page of the EIA report reveals the:

i. type of report: whether it is a draft EIA report or a final
EIA report
ii. dates of commencement of the EIA study and completion
of the EIA report
iii. unique identification number of the EIA report, assigned
in conformance with the EIA consulting organizations
quality management system to control the documents and
records
iv. title of the proposed project along with its capacity or size
and location
v. names of the project proponent and the EIA consulting
organization
2. The names of the EIA team leader, functional professionals, and

mentors or advisers engaged in the EIA study along with their
contribution to the specific aspect(s) of particular environmental
component(s) and signatures, duly certified by the EIA team leader
and endorsed by the chief executive officer of the EIA consulting
organization
3. A certificate from the EIA team leader to show that the EIA study
has been conducted and the EIA report has been prepared
following the robust quality management system adopted by the
EIA consulting organization for the EIA process, and relevant
methodologies are adopted to ensure the relevance, authenticity,
and consistency of the data used and predictions, and the
completeness of the EIA report
4. A commitment letter from the project proponent on the

implementation, operationalization, and maintenance of the proposed
environmental management program including environmental
monitoring simultaneously with the project, and making provision
for the funds required
5. Standard terminologies are used throughout
6. A smooth flow of language in the entire report, without

grammatical and spelling mistakes, maintaining consistency in the
tenses used, and written in an unbiased and professional manner
7. Proper referencing to avoid any repetitions within the EIA report
8. Consistency is maintained in the data used at different places in the

EIA report
9. The contents page of the final EIA report clearly brings out the
editing done in the final draft EIA report
414 Chapter 8
10. Due diligence is carried out on the data and information provided
by the project proponent
11. The structure of the EIA report meets the requirements specified
by the authority or agency for which the EIA report is prepared
12. The brief and crisp EIA report, while being complete and
comprehensive, has supportive details appended or compiled in a
separate volume
13. Each chapter has an appropriate extent and depth of coverage, with
a full understanding that the environmental impact assessment
and mitigation measures chapter is at the heart of an EIA report,
and the environmental management program chapter is an
operative manual for environmental management, and the other
chapters contain relevant and adequate supportive information
required for the preparation of these two chapters
14. The presentation of data, information, observations, findings, etc.

is made in each chapter in such a manner that there are more
graphical, pictorial, and tabular representations (in this order),
and maps and flow charts to avoid long texts as far as possible
15. The executive summary is placed before the first chapter in the
EIA report. Since an executive summary is also expected to serve
as a stand-alone document and is to be distributed to stakeholders,
it does not include any references to the contents of the EIA report
(Rathi 2018). Further, it is prepared in simple, non-technical
language without using any jargon in such a manner that it is easily
understood even by those who do not possess any expertise in EIA
studies. It is translated into the local language for the majority of
stakeholders. The executive summary describes the complex
contents of the EIA report concisely, simply, and accurately
(Sadler and McCabe 2002) for a wider section of stakeholders,
with the help of tables, graphs, maps, and diagrams, highlighting
the key findings of the EIA study and brief information on the
following:
i. essential features of the project, and critical and unique
environmental features of the site and the study area
ii. alternatives considered (Rathi 2017)
iii. terms of reference
iv. key environmental issues and how these issues are

proposed to be resolved (Lohani et al. 1997), and how
compliance with the applicable regulations is proposed to
be achieved
v. controversial issues and outcome of the public
consultation (Rathi 2016)
vi. the environmental impact statement in a clear and
condensed form containing:
a) the existing scenario of different components of
the environment in the study area
b) the significant environmental impacts assessed,
corresponding mitigation measures suggested,
and management of residual impacts
c) the gist of the findings of additional/special
studies
d) the environmental management program
consisting of an environmental management
mechanism, environmental impact management,
environmental monitoring, and environmental
compliance management in different lifecycle
phases of the project, environmental and social
enhancement, and periodic audit of the EMPg
and management review
vii. any other critical matters (Sadler and McCabe 2002) that
may have a bearing on the decision to grant environmental
approval
viii. the overall conclusion of the EIA study: impact on the
environment, residual impacts even after implementing
the proposed mitigation measures, loss of natural
resources, long-term enhancement of natural resources,
etc.
16. The introduction chapter covers the following details:

i. why the EIA study was undertaken
ii. background information on the project proponents and the
project
iii. the need for the proposed project, and its importance for the
region as well as the country
iv. broad coverage of the EIA report
v. a country map highlighting the region, map of the region
highlighting the sub-region, map of the sub-region
416 Chapter 8
highlighting the project location, and key plan of the project

location
v. a comprehensive synoptic view with an adequate description
of the site including the historical background, and
geological, biophysical, and social features, considering that
these aspects set the basis of the EIA study, and
a) salient general and unique features of the study area
captured while conducting a reconnaissance survey
and the environmental baseline study, along with
photographs taken from a GPS-enabled camera
b) existing activities in the study area, and land use/land
cover details supported with updated maps like
survey maps (having dates of revisions), Google
Earth Pro, or the latest satellite imageries with dates,
taken in different time-frames to include at least pre-
and post-monsoon seasons
vi. definition and delineation of the study area on an authentic
and updated base map showing the core zone and buffer zone
with latitudes and longitudes, and the areas
vii. existing status of the available infrastructurephysical as
well socialsupported with photographs taken from GPS-
enabled cameras
viii. point-wise compliance with the TOR in a tabular form giving
references to the concerned sections, paragraphs, or pages of
the final EIA report where it is addressed for compliance.
Such a table may be placed before the introduction for easy
access by the competent authority
ix. names of the professionals and the organizations engaged in
conducting additional studies as prescribed in the TOR and
any other specific work contributing to the EIA study
x. the period of conducting the EIA study, with a clear mention
of the commencement and completion of environmental
baseline data collection and generation for each environmental
component
xi. methodologies used for the identification of the environmental
issues, impact prediction, the establishment of the significance
of the impacts, and mitigation measures proposed to ensure
compliance with the applicable regulations (duly mentioned)
xii. selection and comparison of feasible project alternatives, and
method of arriving at the final decision
xiii. the environmental management program
17. The project description chapter covers the following details:

i. The capacity or size of the project
ii. the technology proposed to be used, mentioning whether
commercially proven
iii. major project-related and allied activities having potential
changes in each lifecycle phase of the proposed project,
represented in the form of flow diagrams or flow charts
iv. the construction schedule of the project
v. the requirement for construction materials, water, power, and
manpower
vi. the requirement for water, energy, other utilities for different
project-related activities and manpower, and their sources in
the project operation lifecycle phase
vii. the material balance for the manufacturing process and other
processes, whether continuous or batch, showing all the
inputs, intermediates and products, and wastes generated at
every stage, and proposed inventories and sourcing/evacuation
of these substances
viii. the material handling, storage, and transportation involved in
each lifecycle phase
ix. quantities and characteristics of wastewater and waste
(hazardous, e-waste, and other wastes) to be generated,
treatment methodologies and mode of disposal
x. pollutants load (tonnage) of each of the pollutants to be
emitted and discharged from the project in each lifecycle
phase as air emissions, wastewater, and solid and semi-solid
wastes, on a daily or annual basis
xi. a review of the environmental impacts of similar projects; etc.
18. The description of the existing environment chapter covers the

following details:
i. historical meteorological data collected from authentic
sources like the governments meteorological department,
relevant for the project site, trend analysis, and interpretation
of the data obtained, and the data generated
ii. existing activities, major resources, and sources of pollution
in the study area
iii. the period during which the primary data generation was
carried out for each of the environmental components
418 Chapter 8
iv. methodologies adopted for the collection of data on the

physical-chemical components and environmental trend
analysis of the data obtained
v. methodologies (with references) adopted for monitoring the
physical-chemical parameters specified in the TOR and
project-specific parameters whose environmental impacts
will be assessed
vi. justification for the selection of the monitoring locations for
each parameter
vii. minimum detection limit specified wherever concentration of
any parameter is reported as below detection limit (BDL)
viii. procedures followed for the verification and validation of the
data collected and generated
ix. methodologies (with references) adopted for the collection of
information on ecological, socio-economic, cultural, and
visual components, relevant for the study area and which will
be used for impact assessment, proposing an environmental
management program, and trend analysis of the data obtained
x. methodologies adopted for field investigations for ecological
and socio-economic information
xi. mapping of the baseline monitoring locations for each of the
environmental components on the base maps
xii. representation of the secondary data in tabular and/or
graphical form, mentioning the sources of information
xiii. representation of the monitored baseline values of each of the
parameters along with the corresponding permissible values
as per the respective applicable regulations (duly mentioned)
in tabular or graphical form
xiv. representation of the relevant ecological and social data in
tabular and/or graphical form, duly validated for the study
area, not for the district, state, or a larger region, mentioning
the sources of information
xv. interpretation of the secondary data collected from different
sources and collated, and primary data generated by
monitoring or field investigations; etc.
19. The consideration of alternatives chapter covers the following:

i. methodologies used for generating reasonable alternatives for
project design, site, technology, implementation, operation,
and/or no project alternatives
ii. methodologies used for a comparative assessment of

alternatives
iii. justification for the selected alternative
20. The impact assessment and mitigation measures chapter covers the
following details:
i. methodologies adopted for impact identification, giving
references rather than describing theories in detail
ii. methodologies adopted for impact prediction or estimation
and assessment or evaluation, giving references rather than
describing theories in detail
iii. description of resources that are susceptible to change or have
the potential to be affected
iv. estimation of the loss of flora and dependent fauna, other
fauna, and their habitats in the core zone due to the clearing,
leveling, excavation, storage, transport-related activities,
construction-related activities, etc.
v. estimation of:
a) quantities of natural materials required for construction,
viz. stones, aggregates, clays and sand, and identification
of their sources
b) impacts of extraction, storage, and transportation of these
materials from the identified sources to the project site
c) impacts of transportation of project-related materials
including bricks, cement, steel, and equipment to the
project site in the construction phase
vi. a water balance diagram showing all the inlet and outlet
streams to/from all the users and equipment, evaporation
losses, and leakages
vii. ensuring the guard pond as integral to the wastewater
treatment facility
viii. use of treated wastewater for plantations and lawns, and other
applications, based upon its quantity and characteristics, and
disposal mechanism in monsoons
ix. identification of different types of solid waste generated from
townships and construction projects including domestic
waste (dry and wet), hazardous waste including used engine
oils and lubricating oils, e-waste, and construction debris and
surplus construction materials, estimation of the quantities,
and identification of suitable storage places within project
premises, and disposal sites
420 Chapter 8
x. consideration of the proximate as well as ultimate analysis of

fossil fuels proposed to be used for estimating the fuel
inventory, emissions, and ash generation
xi. prediction of changes in land use/land cover in the core zone,
and impact assessment
xii. prediction of land use/land cover in the buffer zone
considering the development of the physical infrastructure,
and induced as well as associated growth in the region, and
impact assessment
xiii. prediction of changes in the landscape
xiv. estimation of impacts due to changes in the drainage pattern
xv. prediction or estimation of impacts arising from the
transportation, handling, and storage of feedstock, products,
utilities, and wastes in the operation phase
xvi. identification of fugitive sources of emission including
handling, transportation or conveyance, storage, leakages,
and impact assessment from fugitive emissions
xvii. consideration of handling, storage, and type of fuels, whether
agro-waste, fossil fuels (coal, liquid or gaseous), or any others
for risk assessment
xviii. impact assessment on the physical-chemical components of
the environment including air, water, and land at the locations
where the environmental baseline monitoring was carried out
xix. impact assessment on ecology and biodiversity including
flora, fauna and avifauna, social and abiotic components of the
environment from the project-related activities, and the
changes predicted in the physical-chemical parameters at the
locations where field investigations were carried out
xx. impact assessment of the demolition, decommissioning, or
dismantling-related activities and transportation in the post-
project phase
xxi. determination of significant impacts along with methodologies
used for assigning significance to the assessed impacts on each
of the environmental components
xxii. mapping of the predicted concentration levels of air pollutants
on the respective base maps of adequate size, say A3 size to
clearly depict the details like baseline concentration values of
the corresponding parameters and the receptors
xxiii. mapping of the assessed impacts in vulnerable zones on the
base maps and assessment of the impact on the receptors
xxiv. impacts brought out in the additional/special studies, and

specific mitigation measures suggested
xxv. social and cultural impact assessment, consisting of an
evaluation of all the impacts on human beings and the forms
in which people and communities interact with their
biophysical, cultural, and socio-economic surroundings
xxvi. specific mitigation measures suggested, not generic,
corresponding to each of the significant impacts established
while ensuring that the words like adequate, necessary, proper,
or suitable mitigation measures are not used in the hierarchy of
impact avoidance, minimization, control, and compensation
xxvii. estimation of employment potential, direct as well as indirect,
taking into consideration skills mapping of the local
population, i.e. available local skills, level of proficiency, and
skills required for different project-related activities
xxviii. a social needs assessment of the local population
xxix. justification(s) of concluding that there will be no impacts
or the impacts will be insignificant
xxx. integration of the environmental impacts on different
components of the environment illustrated in Fig. 2.3,
considering strong linkages between different impacts, e.g.
impact of water quality and water resources on soil, landscape,
ecology, and local people, the impact of the loss of
biodiversity resources on the sustainable livelihood of the
local population (National Environment Commission, 2011),
etc.
21. The environmental monitoring program chapter, either as a separate

chapter or part of the environmental management program chapter,
covers the following:
i. details on monitoring for environmental compliance with the
applicable regulations during project implementation,
operation, and post-operation, viz.
a) selection of locations for monitoring and measuring
the pre-specified physical-chemical, biological, and
social parameters, preferably the same where
baseline monitoring or field investigations were
carried out
b) frequency of monitoring of each of the parameters
c) methodologies for sampling, sample preservation
and transportation, and analysis
422 Chapter 8
ii. the administrative structure of the monitoring cell entrusted

with the responsibility for implementing and operationalizing
the environmental monitoring program in each lifecycle
phase of the project, and estimation of the requirement of
funds for capital as well as recurring expenditure
iii. the mechanism of data representation, reporting, etc.
iv. the mechanism regarding how environmental monitoring will
be integrated with the quality control and central laboratory
for manufacturing and energy projects for operational
controls
v. details on monitoring for performance evaluation, preferably
represented in the form of indicators; etc.
22. The environmental management program chapter covers the following

information:
i. the administrative structure of the cell having the responsibility
for implementing, operationalizing, and maintaining the
environmental management program (EMPg) including the
programs for environmental impacts management, residual
impact management, reduction of environmental impact
prediction uncertainty (Nicolaisen and Fischer 2016),
environmental monitoring, environmental compliance
management, and environmental and social enhancement with
the time frame and estimated funds required for capital and
recurring expenditure for each of these programs
ii. integration of the actions arising from additional/special
studies including seismic, hydrogeological, risk assessment,
and/or marine environmental assessment
iii. the R&R program for the project-affected persons
iv. specific environmental management programs like
a) topsoil management
b) soil erosion and soil degradation management
c) transportation and traffic management
d) construction waste management
e) management of large-volume non-hazardous
industrial wastes, ash, etc.
f) occupational health and safety management
g) oil spills management
h) green belt development with a map showing the
width along the inner periphery of the project
boundary, proposed species, plantation spacing,
plantation schedule, and funds requirement for

capital as well as recurring expenditure, etc.
v. social upliftment programs including an action program on the
social needs assessment report like enhancing employment
opportunities through skill improvement and development
through vocational training and entrepreneurship development
programs, and contributions to achieving the UNs
sustainable development goals (SDG 2015) for the local
population
vi. resource conservation measures including cleaner production,
utilization of waste in some other facilities, water harvesting,
etc.
vii. measures for the reduction of carbon footprint, the creation of
artificial habitats, greening, and landscaping, etc.
viii. the mechanism for measuring, analyzing, and assessing the
environmental performance of the project organization
against a set of criteria in terms of comparison with a similar
organization, i.e. benchmarking
ix. the mechanism of a periodic audit of EMPg, management
review, and revision from time to time
x. periodic training programs for the upgrading of knowledge of
the personnel at different levels
xi. the mechanism of engagement with the public and external
authorities; etc.
8.4.4 Brownfield projects
For brownfield projects, a comprehensive environmental management

program for the project complex as a whole (Rathi 2016), incorporating the
salient contents and features described above for greenfield projects, and
the following information on the operating facility needs to be prepared:
i. Description of the existing environment chapter with the

(a) environmental monitoring data generated
(b) comparison of (a) above with the monitoring
information obtained from the operating project
424 Chapter 8
ii. Environmental impact assessment and mitigation chapter

with the following information:
(a) due diligence of the environmental impacts assessed,
and the models or software used for
prediction/estimation
(b) the credibility of the assumptions made in predictions
(c) accuracy and completeness of the EIA conducted
(based on the currently measured values of
parameters and those predicted earlier)
(d) performance evaluation of the control and other
mitigation measures employed
iii. Environmental management program chapter with the
a) compliance with the applicable environmental
regulations
b) efficacy and performance of the environmental
monitoring program
c) efficacy and performance of the EMPg and the other
programs
d) status of the fulfillment of the commitments made by
the project proponent, and environmental and social
enhancement programs
e) observations on the audit reports of the EMPg
(environmental, safety, energy, water, etc.), and the
management review; etc.
The features of a good-quality EIA report highlighted above also serve as a

checklist for EIA team leaders in ensuring that the final EIA report is
complete, comprehensive, and self-explanatory before it is forwarded by the
EIA consulting organization to the project proponent who submits it to the
reviewing authority for its appraisal and grant of environmental approval. It
could also form a checklist in the EIA review process. A good-quality EIA
report also gives the confidence to the designated authority that it can be
relied upon for well-informed decision-making.
8.5 Annexes and appendices

As discussed earlier, it is desirable to have a comprehensive and crisp EIA
report which could be handled with ease and reviewed thoroughly. The
proceedings of the public hearing, permissions and approvals obtained from
different agencies, and compliance-related records in case of brownfield
projects, may be appended to the EIA report or compiled in a separate

volume. The relevant supporting documents and records of e.g. secondary
information obtained along with references of the sources, primary data
generated, manufacturing process along with the detailed material balance,
additional/special studies, etc. may be appended to the text of the EIA
report. Other documentary evidence like field monitoring log sheets,
analytical reports, permissions obtained by the project proponent from the
concerned authorities like the groundwater board on the use of groundwater,
the maritime authority for the use of port facilities, the forest department for
activities on forest land, a consent to operate from the state pollution control
board in the case of brownfield projects, etc. are compiled in a separate
volume, as discussed below.
8.5.1 Public consultations-related documents

These include:
i. minutes or proceedings of the public hearing, and a video graph of

the public hearing obtained from the authorized agency, viz. the
state pollution control board (MOEF 2006)
ii. compilation of the comments received from other stakeholders on
the proposed project and its EIA
8.5.2 Other documentary evidence

Other records and evidence may include the following:
1. The details and reference records obtained from the project

proponent, viz.:
i. information about the project proponent and the project, like
a) background and other businesses of the project proponent
b) corporate policies and recognitions received
c) project pre-feasibility report and detailed project report
d) project locational maps
e) layout plan of the proposed project-related facilities
f) project implementation schedule
g) detailed material and process flow sheets, flow charts,
and material balance
h) requirement and sourcing of utilities
i) material safety data sheets for the hazard potential
feedstock, intermediates and products, and proposed
inventory of each of these
426 Chapter 8
ii. approval and consent letters received from the concerned

authorities or agencies, viz. the irrigation department, the
groundwater board, the industrial estate, the common
hazardous waste management facility, the common wastewater
treatment facility, the co-incineration of hazardous waste to
be generated from the project along with the conventional
fuel in cement plants, hazardous waste recyclers for used oils,
etc.
iii. additional details and reference records for brownfield
projects, like:
a) consent to operate and authorization received from
the state pollution control board
b) the environmental compliance status of the operating
facilities
c) the environmental monitoring information for the
operational facility
d) the status of standard operating procedures
e) findings from the audit reports, viz. safety audit
reports, environmental audit reports, environmental
approval conditions, the environmental management
program audit, and the management review
f) certification details of the operating facility, viz.
QMS as per ISO 9001, Environmental Management
Systems as per ISO 14001, Occupational Health and
Safety as per 45001, etc.
2. The information gathered for the study area during reconnaissance
surveys, field visits and public interactions, secondary data
collected and collated, and the environmental baseline data
generated, viz.:
i. meteorological data from sources like the Indian
Meteorological department
ii. monitored ambient air quality data
iii. monitored meteorological data
iv. monitored ambient noise data
v. hydrogeological data on water availability and water quality-
related aspects from sources like groundwater board, irrigation,
and water resources department, research institutions,
university departments, and relevant literature
vi. monitored data on water resources, and water quality
vii. soil and crops-related data from sources like agriculture

department, research institutions, university departments, and
relevant literature
viii. monitored data on soil characteristics and crops
ix. floral-related information including trees, shrubs, climbers,
and grasses from sources like the Botanical Survey of India,
forest department, research institutions, university departments,
and relevant literature
x. faunal-related information including terrestrial animals, fish,
and other marine life, and avifaunaindigenous and
migratoryand habitats from sources like the Zoological
Survey of India, the Wildlife Institute of India, institutes
working on marine and aquatic fisheries, research institutions,
university departments, and relevant literature
xi. field investigation data on the different aspects of flora and
fauna including avifauna for terrestrial, aquatic, and marine
ecosystems including wetlands, and habitats
xii. geological data from sources like the Geological Survey of
India, mining department, research institutions, university
departments, and relevant literature
xiii. socio-economic secondary data on the number of villages and
towns along with population, demographic pattern,
employment, and occupation from sources like latest census
records, district gazetteers, research institutions, university
departments, and relevant literature
xiv. socio-economic-related information gathered from field
investigations like household and village-level physical and
social infrastructure, public interactions, group discussions,
etc.
xv. land use/land cover data for the study area based on the latest
satellite imageries with location and date, the latest survey
maps and coastal maps with dates of revisions, site
photographs taken from a GPS-enabled camera with the date
and time of taking pictures, etc., and ground-truthing carried
out
xvi. critical environmental issues: past, existing, and those
envisaged and apprehended by the local population
xvii. traffic-related information based on field studies carried out;
etc.
428 Chapter 8
3. Other reference records like

i. applicable environmental regulations
ii. the literature on similar projects and environmental issues
involved
iii. survey maps, standards, guidelines, criteria, models, software,
standard references, census reports, etc. used for the EIA
iv. reports on additional/special studies prepared by the
specialized agencies, R&R plans, etc.
v. the literature referred
Depending upon the volume of information, the compilation of annexes

may be presented in a separate volume, which should be readily available
for reference or verification, whenever required.
8.6 Ongoing improvements in EIA quality

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are computer-based databases
(Sahzabi 2004) or software that encapsulate and present all kinds of
physical-chemical, biological, ecological, environmental, and geological
information. GIS contribute to a holistic environmental system approach,
improve the overall EIA process, and provide mapping strategies
(Gharehbaghi and Scott-Young 2018). EIA reports, especially for large
projects, prepared in the GIS environment facilitate the presentation and
analysis of spatial, non-spatial, and other information, impact identification,
analysis of the spatial distribution of potential impacts (Jordaan, n.d.), and
revisions with ease.
A robust internal mechanism of quality assurance for EIA studies within

the EIA consulting organization and the system of peer review of EIA
reports would help to improve the quality of EIA reports continually. This
would give more confidence to the public as well as to the reviewers of EIA
reports.
References
Al-Mebayedh, H., R. Al-Othman, M. Al-Shammari, and M. Al-Khareji. 2015.
Guideline to Review the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report. In
Proceedings of the World Congress on New Technologies (NewTech 2015) held
at Barcelona July 15-17, 2015. Paper no. 204.
EC, European Communities. 2001. Guidance on EIA: EIS Review. Luxembourg:
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
IAIA, International Association for Impact Assessment. 1999. Principles of

Environmental Impact Assessment Best Practices. IAIA International
Headquarters, Fargo, USA in Cooperation with Institute of Environmental
Assessment (IEA), Lincoln.
Kamijo, Tetsuya, and G. Huang. 2016. Improving the Quality of Environmental
Impact Assessment Reports: Effectiveness of Alternatives Analysis and Public
Involvement in JICA Supported Projects. Impact Assessment and Project
Appraisal 34(2): 143151.
Lohani, B., J. W. Evans, H. Ludwig, R. R. Everitt, R. A. Carpenter, and S. L. Tu.
1997. Environmental Impact Assessment for Developing Countries in Asia-
Overview. Manila: Office of the Environment, Asian Development Bank.
MOEF, Ministry of Environment and Forests. 2020. Draft Environmental Impact
National Environment Commission. 2011. Environment Management Tools and
Techniques- A Learning Experience. Thimpu: National Environment Commission
Secretariat (Bhutan).
Nicolaisen, M., and T. B. Fischer. 2016. Editorial. Special Issue on Ex-Post
Evaluation of Environmental Assessment. Journal of Environmental
Assessment Policy and Management 18(1): 16010014.
Rathi, A. K. A. 2016. Environmental Impact Assessment: A Practical Guide for
Professional Practice. Ahmedabad: Akar Unlimited.
Rathi, A. K. A. 2017. Evaluation of Project-Level Environmental Impact
Assessment and SWOT Analysis of EIA Process in India. Environmental
Impact Assessment Review 67: 3139.
Rathi, A. K. A. 2018. How Robust is Executive Summary in an Environmental Impact
Assessment Report for Decision-making: An Indian Case Study. Current
World Environment 13 (Special issue): 410.
Rathi, A. K. A. 2019. Development of Environmental Management Program in
Environmental Impact Assessment Reports and Evaluation of its Robustness:
An Indian Case Study. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal 37(5): 421
436.
Sadler, B., and M. McCabe. 2002. Environmental Impact Assessment Training
Resource Manual. Geneva: Division of Technology, Industry and Economics,
United Nations Environment Program.
SDG, UN Sustainable Development Goals. 2015. 17 Goals to Transform Our
World. Accessed Oct 3, 2018.
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/.

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CHAPTER 6

Conducting an environmental impact assessment (EIA) and suggesting

Before commencing an EIA, it is necessary to recognize that the

a. the terms of reference (TOR) prescribed for the preparation of an

6.1 The EIA team leader

i. detailed project description

a. a basic understanding of the fundamentals of the concerned

a. the biological environment may need different professionals for

i. seismologists to evaluate the degree of neo-tectonic activity,

large tonnage of materials through road, rail, or water transport,

Further, depending upon the complexities of the project, the environmental

6.2 Functional professionals

i. being thoroughly familiarized with the study area

iii. understanding the intricacies involved and meticulous

and abnormal operation, start-up and shutdown of operations,

It may be emphasized that none of the functional professionals can work in

6.3 Kick-off meeting

The requirement for information may include the following:

a. the applicable regulatory regime and the regulations applicable to

d. additional details and clarifications on the project-related activities

The project proponent needs to be made aware of the environmental

In the kick-off meeting, several matters are to be discussed to arrive at a

Adopting a formal system of documenting the deliberations of the kick-off

a. assuring the timely completion of a good-quality EIA report

When the project proponent expresses an inability to provide certain

6.4 Description of the project

It may be prudent to get the endorsement of the project proponent, on the

6.5 Establishing environmental baseline conditions

a. secondary data, i.e. the historical data that is required to be

To establish realistic baseline environmental conditions in the study area, it

6.5.1 Baseline data

i. a selection of sampling locations

The primary data, while it is being generated, is analyzed and interpreted

While developing the environmental baseline scenario, it needs to be

a. standard equipment, instruments, and materials are used

The above should be demonstrable, and the documentary evidence needs to

i. Methodologies followed for primary baseline data generation on

ii. Methodologies followed for secondary baseline data collection or

It needs to be recognized that biodiversity is not limited to the

iv. Protocols and methodologies followed for establishing baseline

c. extrapolation of dated data, if required for attempting to establish

Collecting and presenting all kinds of socio-economic statistics from

For brownfield projects, i.e. expansion or diversification of the existing

6.5.2 Baseline monitoring of the environmental components

6.5.2.1 Air environment

i. major sources of air emissions including point sources, area

The air environmental baseline studies for greenfield projects broadly

i. surveying the existing major sources of air emissions, their relative

vii. measuring ambient air quality especially at sensitive locations for

a. the location of major sources of air pollution and the pre-identified

The background information is used as a basis for planning ambient air

a. the availability of a secure and suitable location

Considerations for establishing air environmental baseline conditions

The following aspects need to be considered when establishing the baseline

the ambient air quality over a predetermined duration and meteorological

i. monitoring network design considering the background information

(d) frequency of interpretation of data by the concerned

For brownfield projects, the concerned functional area professionals:

Based on the above, due diligence is done on the information at a and b

Output of the establishment of baseline conditions for the air environment

The output of the establishment of the air environment baseline conditions,

i. justification of the monitoring locations selected

6.5.2.2 Noise environment

i. peoples way of life, how they: