The Influence of Electronic Loads Switching in the
Reactive Flow of a Bus bar
G. N. LOPES, Std.; A. P. FINAZZI, Dr.; A. B. VASCONSELLOS, Dr.; F. P. SANTÍLIO, Dr.; R. P. B. SILVA, Msc.
UFMT –Federal University of Mato Grosso, Faculty of Architecture, Engineering and Technology, Cuiabá/MT, Brazil
T. I. R. CARVALHO, PhD.
Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Mato Grosso – IFMT, Cuiabá/MT, Brazil.
Abstract ⎯ The objective of this article is to analyze how the
switching of an electronic charge, present in consumer units
from groups A and B, influences the reactive power flow rec-
orded by the meter in a given bus. Technological advances in-
creased electronic loads in all sectors, mainly in residential,
commercial and industrial. In laboratory measurements, vari-
ous electronic loads were used, with different types of switching,
for instance, in the first case, a dimmer is used for temperature
control in an electric shower and for the brightness variation of
an incandescent lamp. In the second case, a compact fluorescent
lamp and an air conditioner inverter was used. It was observed
that the reactive power flow on the bus presented inductive
behavior for the first case, and capacitive reactive power flow
for the second case. Therefore it was found, from the records of
the electricity meters, that depending on the type of switching
used reactive flow presented distinct behavior, that is, some-
times with inductive features and sometimes with capacitive
features. This paper presents measurements in switching power
electronic loads, common in Consumer Units facilities and ana-
lyzes its influence on the charging system and power quality.
Key-words ⎯ Quality of Electrical Energy, Reactive Power
Flow, electronic loads.
I. INTRODUCTION
The quality of electrical energy delivered by distribution
companies to consumers has always been an object of inter-
est. However, until some time ago, the quality of electrical
energy concerned mainly the continuity of distribution ser-
vices, based on system availability and network parameters.
For this, system state reviews were needed, to identify ways
to keep the system running with quality.
However, the evolution in electronics led to the increase of
the use of electronic equipment, introducing to the electrical
system a large number of electronic loads, in a manner that
the reviews to be carried out in an electrical system can no
longer ignore the influence of such charges and their conse-
quences. For example, when performing the studies of power
flow in a system, they always led to the use of linear ele-
ments, capacitor and inductors bank, for the reactive compen-
sation and control of the voltage level. However, analyzing
the behavior of certain electronic loads, there is an inductive
or capacitive reactive flow that may behave as an injection or
absorption of reactive power on bus, indicated by the meter.
This behavior of switching power electronic load has a
different characteristic from conventional theory in which the
concept of reactive power was born in direct connection with
inductive and capacitive elements, as for instance, the name
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"reactive" is related to the term "reactance". For the loads of
the time this theory was developed the idea that reactive
power was related with the energy stored in the reactive ele-
ments was perfectly correct. But taking as examples the elec-
tronic loads analyzed in this work, that is, dimmers activating
showers resistances and incandescent lamps, compact fluo-
rescent lamps and an air conditioner inverter, inductive and
capacitive behavior is observed even without the physical
presence of inductors and capacitors for power factor correc-
tion.
The reactive compensations through electronic charges,
demonstrated by the meters present in the system would
influence their performance and also the billing of surplus
reactive power, especially in predominantly inductive sys-
tems. As is already known, large consumers are penalized by
excess reactive energy charging, if, for example, industries
that operate with a significant number of induction engines
with a power factor lower than that established by standard.
In this sense, the reactive flow behavior of electronic loads
can help or damage in reactive compensation.
Thus, this article aims to analyze the reactive power flow
of switching power electronic loads and its influence on the
charging system.
II. CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING SURPLUS REACTIVE
POWER IN THE ELECTRIC SYSTEM
The Normative Resolution No. 414 [1] of 9 September
2010, that determines the general conditions for supplying
Electricity in a updated and consolidated manner, says that
for consumers of group A, the reference power factor "fr"
inductive or capacitive, has as a minimum allowed limit, the
value of 0.92.
"For the electric power amount and reactive power de-
mands that exceed the allowed level, apply the charges set
out in articles 96 and 97, to be added to regular sales of con-
sumer units in group A, including those who choose to reve-
nue from application of Group B tariff in the terms of article
100. "(Normative Resolution No. 414, 2010, p. 84)
"Art. 96. - For consumer unit that has appropriate measur-
ing equipment, including one whose owner has signed the
Contract for Use of Distribution System - CUSD, the values
of electric power and surplus reactive power demand are
calculated according to the following equations: " (Normative
Resolution No.414, 2010, p. 84-87)

1 1
MAX
With:
ERE: value of the reactive power over the amount allowed
by the reference power factor "fr" in the billing period in
Reais (R$);
EEAMT: amount of active power measured at each "T" in-
terval of 1(one) hour, during the billing period in Megawatt-
hour (MWh);
fr: reference power factor of 0.92;
ft: power factor of the consumer unit, calculated at each
"T" interval of 1 (one) hour for the billing period;
VRERE: reference value equivalent to the energy tariff
"TE" applicable to subgroup B1, in Reais (R$) per megawatt-
hour (R$ / MWh);
DRE(p): value, for each "p" tariff position, corresponding
to the demand for reactive power over the amount allowed by
the reference power factor "fr" in the billing period in Reais
(R$);
PAMT: active power demand measured in the payment in-
terval of 1(one) hour "T" during the billing period, in kilowatt
(kW);
PAF(p): demand for billable active power, in each tariff
position "p" in the billing period in kilowatt (kW);
VRDRE: reference value, in Reais per kilowatt (R$ / kW),
equivalent to the power demand charges - for the off-peak
tariff position - of supply tariffs applicable to subgroups of
the group A to the blue hourly tariff mode and the TUSD-
free-consumers, as is in force the Supply Agreement or the
CUSD, respectively;
MAX: function that identifies the maximum value of the
equation, within the brackets corresponding in each tariff
position "p";
T: indicates the range of 1 (one) hour in the billing period;
p: indicates peak or off-peak tariff position for the hourly
tariff arrangements or billing period for conventional tariff
mode binomial;
n1: number of intervals of payment "T" of the billing peri-
od for peak and off-peak tariff posts;
n2: number of intervals of payment "T" for tariff position
"p" in the billing period.
Thus, though the amount to be paid is related to Reactive
surplus, it is proportional to the amount of active power
measured in the time interval related to the measurement and
the relationship of the reference power factor to unity power
factor consumer.
For the calculation of these quantities, there is also a peri-
od of 6 (six) consecutive hours (the discretion of the distribu-
tor) between 23h 30min and 6h and 30min, during which
only power factors "ft" lower than 0.92 capacitive are consid-
ered, checked at each interval of one hour "T". Complement-
ing daily period, it is considered only the power factors below
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0.92 inductive, recorded in the same time.
As the loads studied in this work are all of electronic na-
ture, there is a direct influence in their use with the measure-
ment of excess reactive values described in the resolution
2 rules as these, in theory, by injecting or absorbing reactive on
the bus, according to the meters, contribute to the change in
value of the power factor recorded every hour. This situation
raises further discussions in academic circles about how and
how relevant is this influence, due to the considerable in-
crease of electronic loads in the residential, commercial and
industrial buses.
III. LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
For this study, various types of electronic loads available
on the market were analyzed, which are used instead of con-
ventional loads, in order to promote electrical efficiency.
Some examples of laboratory measurements are shown in
Fig. 1. The experiment was divided into two parts, in the first
an electronic shower which performs the switching of the
resistance through a dimmer was used, and a commercial
dimmer was used to control the intensity of the brightness of
a light bulb, and the characteristic of the reactive power flow
recorded by meters was analyzed. In the second stage, the
behavior of compact fluorescent lamps and an air conditioner
inverter was observed and also examined whether it reactive
power flow seen by meters. In both steps, measurements were
made through the use of electrical meters and energy analyz-
ers, to evaluate the reactive power flow behavior of electronic
charges. Studies were conducted of reactive compensation, as
well as the quality of bus power.
Energy
Comercial Incandescent Analyser
Lamp
Meter
Dimmer
Fig. 1 Laboratory Measurements.
The equipments used to record the electrical parameters of
electronic charges in the laboratory were the MARH-21 pow-
er analyzer, manufactured by RMS, and the Fluke 434, illus-
trated in Fig. 2, which are meters that register in real-time for
single-phase, two-phase and three phase electrical systems in
low, medium and high voltage.
Fig. 2. Energy Analyser Marh-21 and fluke 434, used in measurement.
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 A. LOADS SWITCHING THAT PRESENT INDUC-
TIVE CHARACTERISTICS ACCORDING TO
ELECTRICITY METERS
Initially, measurements of waveforms of voltages, cur-
rents, active and reactive power and power factor in various
types of electronic loads present on Consumer Units of
groups A and B were performed. The voltage and current
waveform in the laboratory bus bar obtained with the elec-
tronic switching of a shower are illustrated in Fig. 3, where it
can be observed that the shape of the voltage waveform is
almost sinusoidal. The current waveform showed the pres-
ence of harmonics positive sequence current, negative and
zero, as the current harmonic spectrum shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 3 - Voltage and current waveform of an electronic shower, measured in
the laboratory.
Fig.4. Harmonic spectrum of an electronic shower’s current, measured in the
laboratory.
Fig. 5 illustrates the phasor diagram of voltage and current
that feeds the electronic shower, obtained through the energy
analyzer Fluke 434. Note that current is delayed in relation to
voltage.
Fig. 5. Phasor diagram of the electronic shower’s voltage and current, meas-
ured in the laboratory.
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Fig. 6 shows the flow of active and reactive power in the
bus supplying the shower featuring a 660W absorption of
active power and an absorption of 1900VAr inductive reac-
tive power. Fig. 6 also illustrates the difference between the
displacement factor that represents the cosine of the angle of
current and voltage at 60 Hz (DPF), with a value of 0.52, and
the power factor (PF) that accounts for all frequencies present
in the form of the current waveform, this being a much
smaller value and equal to 0.33.
Fig. 6. Screenshot of power analyzer Fluke 434, indicating the inductive
reactive power characteristic absorbed into the system by the electronic
shower, measured in the laboratory.
The next measurement performed followed a similar proce-
dure to the previous, but using a commercial use dimmer,
varying the brightness of an incandescent lamp. Fig.7 illus-
trates the behavior of voltage and current, showing that the
current waveform, unlike the tension, did not appear sinusoi-
dal. Fig. 8 shows the harmonic spectrum of the current, anal-
ogous to the electronic switching of the shower, with posi-
tive, negative and zero current harmonics sequences.
Fig. 7. Waveforms of voltage and current of an incandescent bulb switching
with a dimmer, measured in the laboratory.
Fig. 8. Harmonic spectrum of electronic switching incandescent bulb’s
current, measured in the laboratory.
Fig. 9 shows that the flow of active and reactive power on
the bus that feeds the lamp driven by a dimmer presented an
absorption of 140W of active power and an absortion of
110VAr inductive reactive power. Fig. 9 also illustrates the
difference between the offset factor (DPF) whose value is 0.9
and the power factor (PF) value equal to 0.78.
Fig. 9. Screenshot of power analyzer Fluke 434 indicating the inductive
reactive power characteristic absorbed into the system by the incandescent
lamp with electronic switching, measured in laboratory.
The incandescent lamp controlled by a dimmer showed a
reactive power absorption close to the active power captured
by both the energy analyzer and the meter used by distribu-
tors in groups A and B, providing a low displacement factor
and also power factor, characterizing one reactive network
overload, despite the resistive load characteristic.
Fig. 10 illustrates the phasor diagram of current and voltage
observed for the incandescent lamp switching with dimmer
obtained through the Fluke 434 energy analyzer. It can be
observed that the voltage leads in relation to current, showing
the load inductive feature.
Therefore, this type of switched load contributes to a reduc-
tion in the power factor eighteen hours inductive time,
providing an increase in reactive power surplus of the con-
sumer unit.
B. SWITCHING LOADS PRESENTING CAPACI-
TIVE FEATURES ACCORDING TO ELECTRICI-
TY METERS
In the second stage of the procedure, measurements were
performed of waveforms voltages, currents, active and reac-
tive power and power factor in a set of 10 compact fluores-
cent lamps and in an air conditioner inverter. The waveforms
of voltage and current obtained in the laboratory bus for fluo-
rescent lamps are shown in Fig. 12, in which it can be ob-
served that the shape of the voltage waveform is almost si-
nusoidal. The form of the current wave shows the presence of
current harmonics of positive, negative and zero sequences,
as shown in the harmonic spectrum of the current Fig. 13 [3]
and [4].

Fig. 12 - Voltage and current waveforms of fluorescent bulbs, measured in

the laboratory.

Fig. 10. Phasor diagram of incandescent bulb’s voltage and current switching
with dimmer, measured in the laboratory.

After performing the analysis of the loads switched elec-

tronically using the energy analyzer, a commercial meter
used by electricity distributors was connected to the system in
groups A and B, both in the regulated market of energy and
the energy free market. And, the commercial meter, as shown
in Fig. 11, also recorded an accompanied active power of a
reactive power with inductive characteristics, both the elec-
tric shower, and for incandescent lamp driven by a dimmer
despite the absence of physical presence of inducers in the
system.
Fig.13. Current’s harmonic spectrum requested bus by compact fluorescent
lamps, measured in the laboratory.
Fig. 14 shows the phasor diagram of voltage and current
for fluorescent lamps, obtained from the energy analyzer
Fluke 434. Current leads in relation to voltage showing the
capacitive characteristic of the load.

Figura 11 - Displays of the electricity meter Actaris SL7000 showing the

Fig. 14. Phasor diagram of fluorescent bulb’s voltage and current, measured
vectors + P and + Q respectively when measuring resistive load under the
in the laboratory.
influence of thyristor switch.

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 Fig. 15 shows the flow of active and reactive powers on
the bus feeding fluorescent lamps featuring an absorption of
active power of 190W and a 240VAr injection capacitive
reactive power, recorded by the energy analyzer. Fig. 15 also
illustrates the difference between the displacement factor
whose value is 0.88, and the power factor (PF) value of 0.62.
Fig. 15. Screenshot of power analyzer Fluke 434 indicating the capacitive
reactive power characteristic injected into the system by the set of fluores-
cent lamps, measured in laboratory.
Assessing the behavior of fluorescent lamps, it is perceived
that the reactive power injection is greater than the absorption
of active power, observed by the energy analyzer and the
meter used by distributors in groups A and B, resulting in a
low displacement and power factor, implying a reactive net-
work overload, despite the absence of capacitors in the pro-
cess for power factor correction.
Subsequently, an 9000 BTU air conditioner of the inverter
type was analyzed. The Fig.16 demonstrates the voltage and
current on the load bus, showing that the current waveform,
unlike the voltage, is not sinusoidal. Fig. 17 shows the har-
monic spectrum of the current, which has positive, negative
and zero sequences of harmonic current.
Fig. 16. Wave forms of voltage and current of an inverter type air condition-
er, measured in the laboratory.
Fig. 17. Harmonic spectrum of air conditioning reverse current, measured in
the laboratory.
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Fig. 18 shows the flow of active and reactive power in the
bar supplying the air conditioner inverter presented a 460W
active power absorption and an injection of 760VAr capaci-
tive reactive power. Fig. 18 also shows the difference be-
tween the displacement factor (DPF) whose value is 0.99, and
the power factor (PF) with value equal to 0.52.
Fig. 18. Screenshot of power analyzer Fluke 434 indicating the capacitive
reactive power characteristic injected into the system by the non-linear load,
measured in the laboratory.
The air conditioner inverter presented a reactive power in-
jection larger than the absorption of active power, what was
captured by the energy analyzer as well as by the meter used
by distributors in groups A and B, providing a low displace-
ment and power factor, representing an reactive overload in
the network, despite the absence of capacitors in the process
for power factor correction.
Fig. 19 illustrates the phasor diagram of current and voltage
that powers the air conditioner, obtained from Fluke energy
analyzer 434. Note that the current is advanced in relation to
voltage showing the capacitive characteristic of the load.
Fig. 19. Diagram phasor of an air conditioner’s voltage and current, meas-
ured in the laboratory.
After the analysis of the switched electronically loads us-
ing the energy analyzers, a commercial meter, used by elec-
tricity distributors both in the regulated energy market and in
the free market, was used. This gauge, as shown in Fig. 20,
also recorded an accompanied active power of a reactive
power with capacitive characteristics.
 [4] Castro, A. G.; Muños, A. M.; Bollen, M.. “Study harmonics in
lamps with use of IEC 61000-3-6. " Moderna magazine
electricity. Ed. 479 Ed. 479. pages. 110 – 117. Fev. 2014.

Fig. 20 - Power Meter Displays Actaris SL7000 displaying the vectors +

P and Q respectively when measuring an air conditioner inverter.

Therefore, this type of switched load contributes to a reduc-

tion in the power factor in the six hours of the capacitive
time, providing an increase in reactive power surplus of the
consumer unit.

V. CONCLUSION

In this article the influence of non-linear electric loads in

the quality of energy and charging system was analyzed,
when connected on the buses of consumer units in groups B
and A. In the laboratory experiment electronic loads with
strong non-linear characteristics were used. Through the data
recorded in the energy analyzers it was possible to observe a
capacitive and inductive reactive flow to the power bus de-
pending on the nonlinear load type used. The nonlinearity of
electronic charge provided a high current distortion, with the
significant presence of positive, negative and zero harmonic
sequences, which may raise the effective value of the current
phases of the bus and the neutral conductor through the circu-
lation of harmonic zero sequence. Therefore, the bus bar of
the electrical systems of Consumer Units of groups B and A
which have a large number of electronic loads must be con-
stantly monitored to verify the heating conditions of the
phase conductors and the neutral, due to the presence of mul-
tiple frequency current injected. The injection of capacitive
reactive power and reactive inductive power absorption rec-
orded by meters and energy analyzers on the bus by different
electronic loads can contribute to changing the power factor
of consumer units and consequently influence the reactive
power surplus calculation, both inductive time, as the capaci-
tive time. Finally, there is the need for further studies on the
impact of reactive injection by electronic loads in Units Con-
sumer Group B and A, and the influence of these on power
charging system. In addition, studies should also include
analysis of the interference of the multiple frequencies of the
currents injected by non-linear electronic loads in Consumer
Units and the buses of the distribution concessionaire of
energy.

VI. REFERENCES
[1] ANEEL. Normative Resolution No. 414. September 9, 2010.
[2] ANEEL. Electricity Distribution procedures in the National Elec-
tricity System (Prodist) module 8.
[3] IEEE Task Force, “The Effects of Power System Harmonics on
Power System Equipment and Loads”, IEEE Trans. Power App.
and Systems, vol. 104, no. 9, Set. 1985, pp. 2555-2563.

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