WEEK 4 DISCUSSION

Meiosis
Most animals and plants are diploid, containing two sets of
chromosomes. In each somatic cell of the organism (all cells of a
multicellular organism except the gametes or reproductive cells), the nucleus
contains two copies of each chromosome, called homologous
chromosomes. Somatic cells are sometimes referred to as “body” cells.

Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs containing the same

genes in identical locations along their length. Diploid organisms inherit one
copy of each homologous chromosome from each parent; all together, they
are considered a full set of chromosomes. Haploid cells, containing a single
copy of each homologous chromosome, are found only within structures that
give rise to either gametes or spores.

Figure 1: Homologous chromosomes come together to form a synapse. The chromosomes are bound
tightly together and in perfect alignment by a protein lattice called a synaptonemal complex and by
cohesin proteins at the centromere.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-biology1/chapter/the-process-of-meiosis/

Spores are haploid cells that can produce a haploid organism or can
fuse with another spore to form a diploid cell. All animals and most plants
produce eggs and sperm, or gametes. Some plants and all fungi produce
spores.

The nuclear division that forms haploid cells, which is called Meiosis,
is related to mitosis. As you have learned, Mitosis is the part of a cell
reproduction cycle that results in identical daughter nuclei that are also
genetically identical to the original parent nucleus. Meiosis is a type of cell
division used by multicellular organisms in the formation of reproductive cells
(gametes), such as sperm cells, egg cells, or spores.
Meiosis results in the production of daughter cells containing half the
number of chromosomes of the parent cell. The resulting cells with half the
number of chromosomes is called a haploid cell. The daughter cell that are
produced after meiosis are not alike because of the manner how the
chromosomes divide. The four daughter cells produce after one meiotic
process because the cell divides twice in meiosis.

Meiosis is divided into two successive cell divisions. The first part
called Meiosis I halves the number of chromosomes from diploid to haploid
number. This stage of meiosis is also called reductional division. The
second part, Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis, thus called equational
division. Both Meiosis I and Meiosis II are subdivided into four stages as
summarized below.
Figure 2. An animal cell with a diploid number of four (2n = 4) proceeds through the stages of meiosis to
form four haploid daughter cells.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-biology1/chapter/the-process-of-meiosis/
Meiosis is important for three main reasons:
1. Allows Sexual Reproduction of Diploid organisms
Chromosomes are the cell's way of neatly arranging long
strands of DNA. Non-sex cells have two sets of chromosomes, one set
from each parent. Meiosis makes sex cells with only one set of
chromosomes. For example, body cells have 46 chromosomes, with
the exception of sperm and eggs, which contain only 23
chromosomes each. When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg, the 23
chromosomes from each sex cell combine to make a zygote, a new
cell with 46 chromosomes. Meiosis allows the reduction of a diploid
cell to a haploid gamete, which can then recombine with another
haploid gamete to create a diploid zygote. The zygote is the first cell in
a new individual.

2. Enables genetic diversity

The crossing over or recombination of genes which occurs in
meiosis rearranges the alleles present in each chromosome of a
homologous pair, allowing the mixing of paternal and maternal
genes, either of which can be expressed in the resultant offspring. This
allows genetic diversity in a population, which is a buffer to genetic
defects, susceptibility of the population to disease and changes in the
environment. Without this recombination, the gene pool of
populations would stagnate, and a single event could wipe out an
entire population. Genetic diversity means that there will be certain
individuals within any given population that will be better able to
survive a loss of habitat, a change in food availability, a change in
weather patterns, diseases or other catastrophic events, ensuring
species continuity. (Albert,2020)

3. Aids the repair of genetic defects

The recombination which occurs in meiosis can further help in
the repair of genetic defects in the next generation. If a genetic defect
is present on a certain allele of one parent, recombination can replace
this allele with the healthy allele of the other parent, allowing healthy
offspring.

Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis

Mitosis and Meiosis are both forms of division of the nucleus in
eukaryotic cells. They share some similarities, but also exhibit distinct
differences that lead to very different outcomes (Figure 3). Mitosis is a single
nuclear division that results in two nuclei that are usually partitioned into two
new cells. The nuclei resulting from a mitotic division are genetically
identical to the original nucleus.
 In contrast, Meiosis consists of two nuclear divisions resulting in four
nuclei that are usually partitioned into four new cells. The nuclei resulting from
meiosis are not genetically identical and they contain one chromosome set
only. This is half the number of chromosomes sets in the original cell, which is
diploid.

The main differences between mitosis and meiosis occur in Meiosis I,

which is a very different nuclear division than mitosis. In meiosis I, the
homologous chromosome pairs become associated with each other, are
bound together with the synaptonemal complex, develop chiasmata and
undergo crossover between sister chromatids, and line up along the
metaphase plate in tetrads with kinetochore fibers from opposite spindle poles
attached to each kinetochore of a homolog in a tetrad.

Meiosis II is much more analogous to a mitotic division. In this case,

the duplicated chromosomes (only one set of them) line up on the metaphase
plate with divided kinetochores attached to kinetochore fibers from opposite
poles. During Anaphase II, as in mitotic anaphase, the kinetochores divide
and one sister chromatid (now referred to as a chromosome) is pulled to one
pole while the other sister chromatid is pulled to the other pole. If it were not
for the fact that there had been crossover, the two products of each individual
meiosis II division would be identical (like in mitosis). Instead, they are
different because there has always been at least one crossover per

chromosome.
Figure 3. The process of chromosome alignment differs between meiosis I and meiosis II. In
Prometaphase I, microtubules attach to the fused kinetochores of homologous chromosomes, and the
homologous chromosomes are arranged at the midpoint of the cell in metaphase I. In anaphase I, the
homologous chromosomes are separated. In Prometaphase II, microtubules attach to the kinetochores
of sister chromatids, and the sister chromatids are arranged at the midpoint of the cells in metaphase II.
In Anaphase II, the sister chromatids are separated.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-biology1/chapter/the-process-of-meiosis/

The significance of mitosis and meiosis is that one really cannot

work without the other when it comes to sexual reproduction and multicellular
organisms. Another important factor of mitosis in sustaining meiosis is that the
cells that undergo meiosis to produce gametes can also under mitosis. These
cells undergo mitosis before so that they can make more copies of
themselves. The more copies there are of them, the more gametes can be
produced later. In men, these cells are called spermatogonia. In women,
they are called oogonia. Mitosis of spermatogonia is how a man can produce
sperm even in old age. It is also how a woman has 400,000 eggs by the time
she is born.
Figure 4. Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of DNA replication; however, meiosis
includes two nuclear divisions. The four daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and
genetically distinct. The daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid and identical to the parent cell.

Disorders and Diseases from

Malfunctioned Cell Cycle
Cancer is a collective name for many different diseases caused by a
common mechanism: uncontrolled cell division. Despite the redundancy and
overlapping levels of cell-cycle control, errors occur. One of the critical
processes monitored by the cell-cycle checkpoint surveillance mechanism is
the proper replication of DNA during the S phase.

Even when all of the cell-cycle controls are fully functional, a small
percentage of replication errors (mutations) will be passed on to the daughter
cells. If one of these changes to the DNA nucleotide sequence occurs within a
gene, a gene mutation results.

All cancers begin when a gene mutation gives rise to a faulty protein
that participates in the process of cell reproduction. The change in the cell that

results from the malformed protein may be minor. Even minor mistakes,
however, may allow subsequent mistakes to occur more readily. Over and
over, small, uncorrected errors are passed from parent cell to daughter cells
and accumulate as each generation of cells produces more non-functional
proteins from uncorrected DNA damage. Eventually, the pace of the cell cycle
speeds up as the effectiveness of the control and repair mechanisms
decreases. Uncontrolled growth of the mutated cells outpaces the growth of
normal cells in the area, and a tumor can result.
Figure 1: Illustration of Normal Cells and Cancerous Cells
Source: https://www.verywellhealth.com/cancer-cells-vs-normal-cells-2248794

The genes that code for the positive cell-cycle regulators are called

proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that, when mutated,
become oncogenes—genes that cause a cell to become cancerous.

Consider what might happen to the cell cycle in a cell with a recently
acquired oncogene. In most instances, the alteration of the DNA sequence
will result in a less functional (or non-functional) protein. The result is
detrimental to the cell and will likely prevent the cell from completing the cell
cycle; however, the organism is not harmed because the mutation will not be
carried forward. If a cell cannot reproduce, the mutation is not propagated,
and the damage is minimal.

Like proto-oncogenes, many of the negative cell-cycle regulatory

proteins were discovered in cells that had become cancerous. Tumor
suppressor genes are genes that code for the negative regulator proteins,
the type of regulator that—when activated—can prevent the cell from
undergoing uncontrolled division.

Benign tumor is a mass of cells that retain

adhesion proteins that keep them properly
attached to their home tissue. They have
no potential to invade other cells.

Malignant tumor includes cells that enable

them to spread to other tissues and impair
more organs of the body.

Figure 2: Benign and Malignant Tumor.

TUMORS
Source: https://juniperpublishers.com/ctoij/pdf/CTOIJ.MS.ID.555790.pdf
Uncontrolled growth may create a rapidly growing mass of cells that
form a lump, or tumor. Cells in a malignant tumor are considered
cancerous. Cancer cells may break away from the original tumor and move
to a different part of the body. If they settle and grow in this new location, a
new tumor will form. This process of breaking away and creating secondary
tumors is called metastasis. Cancer can occur anywhere in the body
including the breast, intestines, lungs, reproductive organs, blood, and skin.

MUTATION
When cells divide, their DNA is almost always duplicated error-free.
The genetic information in their daughter cells is identical to the parent cell.
Sometimes random changes occur in the cell’s DNA. These changes are
called mutations. Changes may result in the death of the cell or allow it to
survive and continue to grow and divide. If the cell cycle is abnormal, the
cells may be cancerous.
 Aneuploidy is the gain or loss of whole chromosomes. It is the most
common chromosome abnormality. It is caused by non-disjunction, the
failure of chromosomes to correctly separate.

Non-disjunction can occur during either meiosis I or II, with different results.
If homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I, the result is
two gametes that lack that chromosome and two gametes with two copies of
the chromosome. If sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis II, the
result is one gamete that lacks that chromosome, two normal gametes with
one copy of the chromosome, and one gamete with two copies of the
chromosome.

Figure 3. Following meiosis, each gamete has one copy of each chromosome. Nondisjunction occurs
when homologous chromosomes (meiosis I) or sister chromatids (meiosis II) fail to separate during
meiosis.
Researchers now appreciate that aneuploidy gametes are produced
at surprisingly high rates in human meiosis, and that very few aneuploidy
embryos are able to survive. Much attention is currently focused on
determining how specific imbalances in gene expression lead to the profound
phenotypes associated with aneuploidy conditions, such as Down syndrome,
with the ultimate goal of developing therapeutic interventions.

Down syndrome is a genetic condition that happens when a child is

born with an extra chromosome 21. The extra chromosome affects the way
the child’s brain and body develop, leading to developmental delays,
intellectual disability and an increased risk for certain medical issues. Down
syndrome is the most common genetic cause of intellectual disability,
affecting approximately 1 in every 700 children.
Source:https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/downsyndrome/growth-charts.html

Common Chromosomal Disorders

Source: https://basicmedicalkey.com/genetic-pathology/

Apoptosis is the programmed death of cells in the body. Once

triggered, cells undergo a series of programmed steps, such as the shrinkage
of the chromatin and the breakage of parts of the cell membrane, after which
the cells are eventually destroyed. Apoptosis plays an important role in
shaping plant and animal structure. Example: the fingers in your hands and
feet are separated from one another because cells between the digits die
during the tissue development.