Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Course Code: 8604

Tutor Name: Muhammad Sharif
Tutor's Address: ℅ Al Abbas Medical Store Shigar
Student Name Khalida Batool
Student ID: 00000373450@aiou.edu.pk
Semester: Autumn 2022
Allama Iqbal Open university

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Discuss different methods used as a tool of acquiring knowledge. Compare the various
steps in scientific method with steps in research process.?

scientific method
The scientific method is a procedure used by scientists to explore, confirm, or create a
precise and trustworthy model of any natural phenomenon. They are carried out by
developing an objective framework for scientific inquiry, assessing the findings
objectively, and drawing a conclusion that either confirms or disproves the initial
observation.

Scientific Method Steps

All scientific techniques have the same objective, which is to examine the initial observation.
Yet, different actions are taken as needed for any specific observation. Nonetheless, there is
a standard progression of steps in scientific procedures.

1. A scientific procedure begins with observation and the development of a question.

One must first make an observation about any phenomenon or part of the cosmos
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

that may be observed and then pose a question about it. You can inquire "Why is the
sky black at night?" or "Why is air invisible?" as examples.

2. Data gathering and a hypothesis The scientific process then involves gathering all
pertinent information and developing a hypothesis based on the observation. The
theory might explain the origin of the phenomenon, how it manifests, or how it
relates to other phenomena.

3. Following the formulation of the hypothesis, it must be tested scientifically.

Experiments are used by scientists to accomplish this. These tests are designed to
see if the hypothesis supports or refutes the observations made in the real world.
Depending on the outcomes of the trials, the degree of confidence in the hypothesis
rises or falls.

4. Analysis and Conclusion: At this step, the experiment's outcomes are determined
using appropriate mathematical and other scientific techniques. The study can be
used to determine the best course of action moving forward. The hypothesis is
accepted if the evidence from the analysis support it. If not, it is discarded or
changed before being reanalyzed.

It must be remembered that a hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved by doing one

experiment. It needs to be done repeatedly until there are no discrepancies in the data and
the result. When there are no discrepancies and the hypothesis is proved, it is accepted as a
‘theory’.

Scientific Method Examples

Following is an example of the scientific method:
Growing bean plants:

1. What is the purpose: The main purpose of this experiment is to know where the
bean plant should be kept inside or outside to check the growth rate and also set the
time frame as four weeks.
2. Construction of hypothesis: The hypothesis used is that the bean plant can grow
anywhere if the scientific methods are used.
3. Executing the hypothesis and collecting the data: Four bean plants are planted in
identical pots using the same soil. Two are placed inside, and the other two are
placed outside. Parameters like the amount of exposure to sunlight, and amount of
water all are the same. After the completion of four weeks, all four plant sizes are
measured.
4. Analyze the data: While analyzing the data, the average height of plants should be
taken into account from both places to determine which environment is more
suitable for growing the bean plants.
5. Conclusion: The conclusion is drawn after analyzing the data.
6. Results: Results can be reported in the form of a tabular form.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Scientists use a dynamic, open-ended process to investigate questions. Here are the five
steps.
1. Define a Question to Investigate
As scientists conduct their research, they make observations and collect data. The
observations and data often lead them to ask why something is the way it is. Scientists
pursue answers to these questions in order to continue with their research. Once scientists
have a good question to investigate, they begin to think of ways to answer it.
2. Make Predictions
Based on their research and observations, scientists will often come up with a hypothesis. A
hypothesis is a possible answer to a question. It is based on: their own observations, existing
theories, and information they gather from other sources. Scientists use their hypothesis to
make a prediction, a testable statement that describes what they think the outcome of an
investigation will be.
3. Gather Data
Evidence is needed to test the prediction. There are several strategies for collecting
evidence, or data. Scientists can gather their data by observing the natural world,
performing an experiment in a laboratory, or by running a model. Scientists decide what
strategy to use, often combining strategies. Then they plan a procedure and gather their
data. They make sure the procedure can be repeated, so that other scientists can evaluate
their findings.
4. Analyze the Data
Scientists organize their data in tables, graphs, or diagrams. If possible, they include relevant
data from other sources. They look for patterns that show connections between important
variables in the hypothesis they are testing.
5. Draw Conclusions
Based on whether or not their prediction came true, scientists can then decide whether the
evidence clearly supports or does not support the hypothesis. If the results are not clear,
they must rethink their procedure. If the results are clear, scientists write up their findings
and results to share with others. The conclusions they draw usually lead to new questions to
pursue.
Q.2 Describe different types of research categorized on the basis of methods used and
the purpose of research.
Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem
using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie,
“research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed
event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive
methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

● Identify potential and new customers

● Understand existing customers
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

● Set pragmatic goals

● Develop productive market strategies
● Address business challenges
● Put together a business expansion plan
● Identify new business opportunities
What are the characteristics of research?
1. Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data.
Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making
observations or drawing conclusions.
2. The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and
deductive methods.
3. Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural
settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
5. It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
research opportunities.
6. It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in
inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be
accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment
to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.
What is the purpose of research?
There are three main purposes:

1. Exploratory:As the name implies, exploratory investigations are carried out by

researchers to investigate a set of questions. The solutions and analyses might not
provide a resolution to the alleged issue. It is being done to address brand-new,
unexplored problem areas. The groundwork for more thorough data gathering
and analysis is laid by this exploratory procedure.
2. Descriptive:It focuses on gathering data in order to increase understanding of
current challenges. Research that is descriptive analyses the actions of a sample
population. The study only needs one variable to be conducted. Descriptive
studies' three main goals are to describe, explain, and validate the results. For
instance, a research was done to determine if top-level management executives
today have a moral claim to a sizeable portion of the company's profits.
3. Explanatory: Causal or explanatory research is conducted to understand the
impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is
the most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the
effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.
It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate
the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or
observations to draw reasonable conclusions.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

The more in-depth your inquiries are when it comes to client and market studies, the more
accurate the analysis. By carefully gathering customer data through surveys and
questionnaires, you gain crucial insights into brand perception and product demands.
Making informed selections about your marketing strategy can help you position your
company for success.
Use a research repository as a single source of truth in your business and manage your
research data in one centralised repository to help you understand your study and gain
insights more quickly.
Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative.

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.

Qualitative methods
Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods,
usually open-ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This
method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a
particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

1. One-to-one Interview
2. Focus Groups
3. Ethnographic studies
4. Text Analysis
5. Case Study
Quantitative methods
Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable
variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

1. Survey research
2. Descriptive research
3. Correlational research
Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect
results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

● Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.

Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

● Accurate – free of errors and including required details.

● Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar
results.
● Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.

● Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

1. Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe.
Write a sentence describing each one.
2. Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
3. Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
4. Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified
in a SWOT analysis.
5. Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
6. Act on your strategies
7. Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
8. Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret
results.

Q.3 discuss the concept of educational research. Also examine the need and importance
of research in education.
Educational Research

A sort of systematic investigation known as educational research uses empirical techniques

to address problems in education. It uses exacting and well-defined scientific procedures to
collect and evaluate data for problem-solving and the progress of knowledge.

According to J. W. Best, educational research is any activity that contributes to the creation
of a science of behavior in educational settings. The ultimate purpose of such a science is to
impart knowledge that will enable the educator to accomplish his objectives using the best
strategies.

The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge by
providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and learning
practices. Educational researchers also seek answers to questions bothering on learner
motivation, development, and classroom management. 

Characteristics of Education Research 

While educational research can take numerous forms and approaches, several
characteristics define its process and approach. Some of them are listed below:

1. It sets out to solve a specific problem.

2. Educational research adopts primary and secondary research methods  in its data
collection process. This means that in educational research, the investigator relies on
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

first-hand sources of information and secondary data to arrive at a suitable

conclusion. 
3. Educational research relies on empirical evidence. This results from its largely
scientific approach.
4. Educational research is objective and accurate because it measures verifiable
information.
5. In educational research, the researcher adopts specific methodologies, detailed
procedures, and analysis to arrive at the most objective responses
6. Educational research findings are useful in the development of principles and
theories that provide better insights into pressing issues.
7. This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and unstructured
questions to gather verifiable data from respondents.
8. Many educational research findings are documented for peer review before their
presentation. 
9. Educational research is interdisciplinary in nature because it draws from different
fields and studies complex factual relations.
Types of Educational Research 

Educational research can be broadly categorized into 3 which are descriptive

research, correlational research, and experimental research. Each of these has distinct and
overlapping features. 

Descriptive Educational Research

In this kind of educational research, the researcher only aims to gather information
regarding the current state of affairs. Determining the situation and qualities of the research
topic that is being understudied forms the basis of descriptive research.

Descriptive research can be referred to as an observational research method since it places

a strong emphasis on the "what" of the circumstance. To acquire the necessary data for
descriptive educational research, the researcher use quantitative research techniques such
as surveys and questionnaires.

Typically, descriptive educational research is the first step in solving a specific problem. Here
are a few examples of descriptive research: 

● A reading program to help you understand student literacy levels.

● A study of students’ classroom performance.
● Research to gather data on students’ interests and preferences. 

From these examples, you would notice that the researcher does not need to create a
simulation of the natural environment of the research subjects; rather, he or she observes
them as they engage in their routines. Also, the researcher is not concerned with creating a
causal relationship between the research variables. 

Correlational Educational Research

Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

This kind of educational research aims to provide light on the statistical association between
two study variables. When conducting correlational research, the researcher examines two
variables with the goal of finding a link between them.

Research on correlations may be neutral, harmful, or nonexistent. An increase in variable A

causes an increase in variable B, while an increase in variable A causes a drop in variable B is
known as a negative correlation.

When a change in any of the variables does not trigger a succeeding change in the other,
then the correlation is non-existent. Also, in correlational educational research, the research
does not need to alter the natural environment of the variables; that is, there is no need for
external conditioning. 

Examples of educational correlational research include: 

● Research to discover the relationship between students’ behaviors and classroom

performance.
● A study into the relationship between students’ social skills and their learning
behaviors. 

Experimental Educational Research

Experimental educational research is a research approach that seeks to establish the causal
relationship between two variables in the research environment. It adopts quantitative
research methods in order to determine the cause and effect in terms of the research
variables being studied. 

Two groups are commonly used in experimental educational research: the control group
and the experimental group. While the control group is left in its natural state, the
researcher makes certain changes to the experimental group, such as altering the
environment or adding a catalyst.

The addition of these catalysts enables the researcher to identify the experiment's causal
factor(s). The creation of a hypothesis is at the heart of experimental educational research,
therefore the total research design depends on statistical analysis to support or refute this
hypothesis.

Examples of Experimental Educational Research

● A study to determine the best teaching and learning methods in a school.

● A study to understand how extracurricular activities affect the learning process. 

Fundamental, applied, and action research are the three categories into which educational
research can be divided according to usefulness. Gaining new knowledge is the main goal of
fundamental research, which also aims to offer insights into the study's variables. Basic
research doesn't address any particular issues.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Applied research is a research strategy that, as its name suggests, aims to address particular
issues. Results from applied research are helpful in addressing real-world issues in the field
of education, such as enhancing teaching strategies, changing curricula, and streamlining
pedagogy.

Action research is tailored to solve immediate problems that are specific to a context such
as educational challenges in a local primary school. The goal of action research is to proffer
solutions that work in this context and to solve general or universal challenges in the
educational sector. 

Importance of Educational Research

1. Educational research plays a crucial role in knowledge advancement across different
fields of study. 
2. It provides answers to practical educational challenges using scientific methods.
3. Findings from educational research; especially applied research, are instrumental in
policy reformulation. 
4. For the researcher and other parties involved in this research approach, educational
research improves learning, knowledge, skills, and understanding.
5. Educational research improves teaching and learning methods by empowering you
with data to help you teach and lead more strategically and effectively.
6. Educational research helps students apply their knowledge to practical situations.
Educational Research Methods 
● Surveys/Questionnaires
A survey is a type of research technique used to gather information on a certain study
context from a designated audience. It often consists of a series of standardised questions
that give you information on the audience's experiences, ideas, and behaviours.
Physical survey administration methods include paper forms, in-person interviews, phone
interviews, and online forms. Because they enable you to gather precise data and a bigger
sample size, online forms are simpler to manage. You can quickly evaluate the data from
survey respondents by building an online survey using data collection platforms like
Formplus.
You must first determine the study setting and the research subjects that will make up your
data in order to collect correct data through your survey.
● Interviews
A qualitative data collection technique called an interview allows you to converse with
respondents and ask them questions to learn more about them. In order to acquire
information that will be helpful to the particular study environment, it is often necessary to
speak face-to-face with the research subjects.
Unstructured, semi-structured, or structured interviews are all possible. Using a set of
standardised questions to elicit information from the research respondents, a structured
interview is a sort of interview that adheres to a predetermined order.
A fluid interview, or one that is non-directive, is one that is unstructured. Instead than using
a scripted set of questions, the researcher asks ad hoc questions during a structured
interview to acquire information.
● Observation
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

The process of methodical selection, observation, listening, reading, touching, and recording
of the behaviours and qualities of live things, things, or phenomena is known as
observation. This approach can be used in the classroom by instructors to comprehend how
students behave in various situations.
The method of observation can be qualitative or quantitative. In quantitative observation,
the researcher wants to gather statistical data from participants, and in qualitative
information, they want to gather qualitative information from participants.
Q.4. What is an experiment and how you will conduct an experimental research? What
will be the threats to internal and external validity and how you will minimize these threats?
Internal validity is a measure of how well a study is conducted (its structure) and how
accurately its results reflect the studied group.

External validity relates to how applicable the findings are in the real world. These two
concepts help researchers gauge if the results of a research study are trustworthy and
meaningful.

Internal Validity
● Conclusions are warranted

● Controls extraneous variables

● Eliminates alternative explanations
● Focus on accuracy and strong research methods
External Validity
● Findings can be generalized

● Outcomes apply to practical situations

● Results apply to the world at large
● Results can be translated into another context
What Is Internal Validity in Research?

Internal validity is the extent to which a research study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-
effect relationship.1 This type of validity depends largely on the study's procedures and how
rigorously it is performed.

Internal validity is significant because, if demonstrated, it enables the exclusion of

competing hypotheses for a result. Internal validity assures that any progress in the
individuals is attributable to the treatment given and not to anything else, like in the case of
a smoking cessation programme.

Internal validity is not an either/or proposition. Instead, we look at whether the research
avoids any pitfalls that could cast doubt on the study's conclusions to determine how
confidence we can be in them. The internal validity is better and our level of confidence is
higher when there is less of a risk for "confounding."

In other words, you can only be sure that a study is internally valid if you can rule out
competing theories as to why the results occurred. There are three requirements.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

● The cause preceded the effect in terms of time.

● The cause and effect vary together.
● There are no other likely explanations for the relationship observed.

Factors That Improve Internal Validity

To ensure the internal validity of a study, you want to consider aspects of the research
design that will increase the likelihood that you can reject alternative hypotheses. Many
factors can improve internal validity in research, including:

● Blinding: Participants—and sometimes researchers—are unaware of what

intervention they are receiving (such as using a placebo on some subjects in a
medication study) to avoid having this knowledge bias their perceptions and
behaviors, thus impacting the study's outcome
● Experimental manipulation: Manipulating an independent variable in a study (for
instance, giving smokers a cessation program) instead of just observing an
association without conducting any intervention (examining the relationship
between exercise and smoking behavior)
● Random selection: Choosing participants at random or in a manner in which they are
representative of the population that you wish to study
● Randomization or random assignment: Randomly assigning participants to
treatment and control groups, ensuring that there is no systematic bias between the
research groups
● Strict study protocol: Following specific procedures during the study so as not to
introduce any unintended effects; for example, doing things differently with one
group of study participants than you do with another group

Internal Validity Threats

Just as there are many ways to ensure internal validity, there is also a list of potential
threats that should be considered when planning a study.2

● Attrition: Participants dropping out or leaving a study, which means that the results
are based on a biased sample of only the people who did not choose to leave (and
possibly who all have something in common, such as higher motivation)
● Confounding: A situation in which changes in an outcome variable can be thought to
have resulted from some type of outside variable not measured or manipulated in
the study
● Diffusion: This refers to the results of one group transferring to another through the
groups interacting and talking with or observing one another; this can also lead to
another issue called resentful demoralization, in which a control group tries less hard
because they feel resentful over the group that they are in
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

● Experimenter bias: An experimenter behaving in a different way with different

groups in a study, which can impact the results (and is eliminated through blinding)
● Historical events: May influence the outcome of studies that occur over a period of
time, such as a change in the political leader or a natural disaster that occurs,
influencing how study participants feel and act
● Instrumentation: This involves "priming" participants in a study in certain ways with
the measures used, causing them to react in a way that is different than they would
have otherwise reacted
● Maturation: The impact of time as a variable in a study; for example, if a study takes
place over a period of time in which it is possible that participants naturally change
in some way (i.e., they grew older or became tired), it may be impossible to rule out
whether effects seen in the study were simply due to the impact of time
● Statistical regression: The natural effect of participants at extreme ends of a
measure falling in a certain direction due to the passage of time rather than being a
direct effect of an intervention
● Testing: Repeatedly testing participants using the same measures influences
outcomes; for example, if you give someone the same test three times, it is likely
that they will do better as they learn the test or become used to the testing process,
causing them to answer differently

What Is External Validity in Research?

The term "external validity" describes how well the results of a study may be anticipated to
apply to different environments. This is significant because if external validity is
demonstrated, it signifies that the results can be applied to people or populations that are
similar.

External validity comes in two flavours: ecological validity and population validity. The ability
to generalise study findings to different populations or groups is referred to as population
validity. Ecological validity is the question of whether the results of a study can be applied to
different contexts or settings.

Transferability is a concept used to describe whether outcomes apply other circumstances

with similar characteristics. Transferability refers to a qualitative research design and is
related to external validity.

Factors That Improve External Validity

If you want to improve the external validity of your study, there are many ways to achieve
this goal. Factors that can enhance external validity include:

● Field experiments: Conducting a study outside the laboratory, in a natural setting

● Inclusion and exclusion criteria: Setting criteria as to who can be involved in the
research, ensuring that the population being studied is clearly defined
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

● Psychological realism: Making sure participants experience the events of the study
as being real by telling them a "cover story," or a different story about the aim of the
study so they don't behave differently than they would in real life based on knowing
what to expect or knowing the study's goal
● Replication: Conducting the study again with different samples or in different
settings to see if you get the same results; when many studies have been conducted
on the same topic, a meta-analysis can also be used to determine if the effect of an
independent variable can be replicated, therefore making it more reliable
● Reprocessing or calibration: Using statistical methods to adjust for external validity
issues, such as reweighting groups if a study had uneven groups for a particular
characteristic (such as age)

External Validity Threats

External validity is threatened when a study does not take into account the interaction of
variables in the real world.2 Threats to external validity include:

● Pre- and post-test effects: When the pre- or post-test is in some way related to the
effect seen in the study, such that the cause-and-effect relationship disappears
without these added tests
● Sample features: When some feature of the sample used was responsible for the
effect (or partially responsible), leading to limited generalizability of the findings
● Selection bias: Also considered a threat to internal validity, selection bias describes
differences between groups in a study that may relate to the independent variable—
like motivation or willingness to take part in the study, or specific demographics of
individuals being more likely to take part in an online survey3
● Situational factors: Factors such as the time of day of the study, its location, noise,
researcher characteristics, and the number of measures used may affect the
generalizability of findings

While rigorous research methods can ensure internal validity, external validity may be
limited by these methods.
Internal Validity vs. External Validity
Internal validity and external validity are two research concepts that share a few similarities
while also having several differences.

Similarities

The fact that both aspects should be taken into account when planning a study is one of the
commonalities between internal validity and external validity. This is because both affect
whether a study's findings have any real relevance.
The concepts of internal validity and external validity are not mutually exclusive.
Determining how well a study performs in terms of each level of validity is thus always
necessary.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Each of these ideas is frequently discussed in research articles that are printed in academic
journals. This is done so that other researchers may assess the study and determine whether
the findings are reliable and valuable.

Differences

Internal validity refers to a study's structure (and its variables), whereas external validity
refers to the results' applicability to all situations. This is the key distinction between
internal validity and external validity. Yet, the two also differ in additional ways.
For instance, internal validity emphasises differences that may be attributed solely to the
independent variable. In contrast, the conclusions of external validity can be applied to the
entire globe.
External and internal validity do not necessarily conflict. Even if a study has strong internal
validity, it may not be very relevant to everyday life. You might also carry out a field study
that is very applicable to the actual world but doesn't produce reliable outcomes in terms of
understanding what factors led to the validity
Examples of Validity
Perhaps the best way to understand internal validity and external validity is with examples.

Internal Validity Example

An example of a study with good internal validity would be if a researcher hypothesizes that
using a particular mindfulness app will reduce negative mood. To test this hypothesis, the
researcher randomly assigns a sample of participants to one of two groups: those who will
use the app over a defined period and those who engage in a control task.

The researcher ensures that there is no systematic bias in how participants are assigned to
the groups. They do this by blinding the research assistants so they don't know which
groups the subjects are in during the experiment.

A strict study protocol is also used to outline the procedures of the study. Potential
confounding variables are measured along with mood, such as the participants'
socioeconomic status, gender, age, and other factors. If participants drop out of the study,
their characteristics are examined to make sure there is no systematic bias in terms of who
stays in.

External Validity Example

An example of a study with good external validity would be if, in the above example, the
participants used the mindfulness app at home rather than in the laboratory. This shows
that results appear in a real-world setting.

To further ensure external validity, the researcher clearly defines the population of interest
and chooses a representative sample. They might also replicate the study's results using
different technological devices.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Q.5 Define descriptive research What are its major forms? Strengthen your answer with
the example of Case Studies, Causal Comparative studies and correlation studies?

Publication of a completed study's findings is a key objective for research scientists.

Scientific publications do not permit the literary flourishes and expressions that are
frequently found in other journals because the goal is to present the scientific discoveries as
clearly and uniquely as possible. The applied professional frequently finds it challenging to
fully understand what the article has to offer because of this. This article seeks to fill in some
of that communication gap in scientific writing.

Almost every research item you read will include a clear approach that will make the study
easier for you to grasp. Fortunately, the majority of research journals start each article with
an Abstract that gives you a summary of the research. The researchers will quickly review
relevant research, identify the topic or question that was investigated, and possibly even
hypothesis (make a preliminary assumption) about prospective study outcomes in the
introduction. The method of study is crucial to the validity and repeatability of any scientific
discovery. The methods and procedures section is where the researchers methodically
describe how they investigated their issue: who the subjects were, how and why they were
selected, how many subjects were there, how they were tested, what type of equipment
was used, what type of research and statistical design was employed, and how they
controlled for all extraneous factors that might effect the study results. Of great interest to
all readers are the findings. These are presented in a most direct manner in
the Results section. This section is invariably the most difficult to understand because it is a
straight forward recounting of the statistical results. The Discussion and Conclusions section
explains, discusses and concludes the meaning of the study findings and often parallels
these findings to similar studies for comparison.

Nowadays, some publications offer a Practical Applications section that summarises the
practical value of the research. Usually, the researchers will address the practical
applicability in the final couple of paragraphs if it isn't explicitly defined in the article. The
reader's task is to assess the researchers' methods in order to determine the study's
trustworthiness as accurately as possible. Fortunately, the majority of primary research
journals (journals where research is first published) have a stringent peer-review procedure
where two or more experts in the article's field of study critically evaluate it and suggest
whether it should be accepted or rejected for publication.

Classification of Research
Research can be differentiated into five categories. The following explanations provide a
brief overview of each group so that you can determine the type of research you are
reading.

Historical Research:
Historical research involves understanding, studying, and explaining past events. Its purpose
is to arrive at some
conclusions concerning past occurrences that may help to anticipate or explain present or
future events. Understanding past research from high-impact aerobics injuries has helped
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022

our industry design step and slide programs that offer safer means of achieving similar
goals.

Descriptive Research:
Information for descriptive research is frequently gathered by data analysis, surveys,
interviews, or observation. The state of the world is best described by this kind of research.
Descriptive research is research that has already been published but is being reviewed. This
type of research is demonstrated in the article in this issue of IDEA Today about music and
exercise. This descriptive approach frequently leads to the discovery and presentation of
new concepts and theories.

Correlational Research:
The goal of correlational research is to ascertain the relationship between two or more
variables. A correlation coefficient is used to describe the strength of the relationship. For
instance, a researcher might want to find out how college women's cardiorespiratory fitness
and self-esteem are related. What connection exists between the level of cardiorespiratory
fitness and self-esteem among female college students? A correlation coefficient that is
close to 1.00 indicates that the variables are strongly associated and are therefore positively
related. An estimate of the correlation coefficient will be found to be close to.00 if the two
variables are unrelated. The variables are inversely associated when the correlation
coefficient is close to -1.00.

Causal-Comparative Research:
The goal of causal-comparative research is to establish a cause-and-effect connection
between two or more groups.

Unlike to correlation research, which examines relationships,causal-comparative

investigations entail comparison. For instance, a researcher might compare the body
composition of individuals who have exclusively used free weights in their training to
individuals who have only used exercise machines in their training. In this instance, the
researcher is solely examining how using free weights as opposed to exercise machines
affects body composition; no other factors are being manipulated. It goes without saying
that casual-comparative research must be carefully examined to determine how these other
factors were controlled because they may have an impact on body composition. These other
factors include diet, training regimen, and aerobic conditioning.

Experimental Research:
A hypothesis (or numerous hypotheses) that describes the anticipated relationship between
two or more variables serves as the basis for experimental investigation. To confirm or
refute this experimental hypothesis, an experiment is carried out. For instance, the
physiological consequences of step training with and without handweights have been a
major focus of this author's research. As part of this type of experiment, I randomly selected
the subjects, chose the exercise regimen (step training with handweights, step training
without handweights, and a control group that continued to be physically active but did not
participate in step training), tried to control all relevant variables (e.g., no other aerobic
programmes, no change in diet, no additional resistance training, etc.), and then measured
the impact of the step training with and without handweights.
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604) Semester: Autumn, 2022