Digital

Electronics

Dr. Brij Bhushan Sharma

Assistant Professor
YSAICDS
Signal: An electromagnetic or electrical current used to transfer data from one
device or network to another is known as a signal. It describes any time-varying
voltage that is an information-carrying electromagnetic wave in electronics and
telecoms. Another way to think of a signal is as an apparent shift in quality, like
quantity. Signals can be divided into two categories: analog and digital.
***Analog and Digital

Analog: Analog refers to something, i.e., continuous. A set of points of data and
all possible points in between.

Digital: Refers to something, i.e., a discrete set of specific points of data with no
other points in between.

An example of analog data is a human voice. When somebody speaks, a

continuous wave is created in the air. Microphones can capture this and convert
it to an analog signal. An example of digital data is the data stored in the
memory of a computer in the form of 0’s and 1’s. It is usually converted to a
digital signal when it is transferred from one position to another inside or
outside the computer.

An analog signal is a continuous waveform that changes smoothly over time. As

the wave moves from value A to value B. It passes through an infinite number of
values along its path. A digital signal, on the other hand, is discrete. It can have
only a limited number of defined values, often as simple as 1 and 0. The
transition of a digital signal from value to value is instantaneous, like a light
being switched off and on.

Analog Signals: Analog Signals are Continuous signals and can have value
in a limited range. Analog S/g is defined as “Voltage or current whose size is
proportional to the quantity it represents.”
In the real world, Some Examples are Sound, velocity, temperature, pressure,
etc.
An analog signal is represented as

Fig 1. Analog Signal

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 Analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple analog signal
or sine wave cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite signal is
composed of multiple sine waves.
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal
visualized as a simple oscillating curve, it's change over the course of a cycle is
a smooth and consistent, continuous rolling flow. A sine wave can be fully
described by three characteristics amplitude, period or frequency, and Phase.

Frequency Maximum Amplitude

will be no.
of Cycles or
periods in
one second.

Period or one Cycle Maximum Amplitude

Figure 2. Amplitude, Frequency and Period

Amplitude: On a graph, the amplitude of a signal. It is the value of the signal.

At any point. On the wave. It is equal to the vertical distance from a given point.
On the way from the horizontal axis. The amplitude of a sine wave is equal to
the highest value it reaches on the vertical axis.
Amplitude is measured in either Volts, amperes, or watts. Depending on the type
of signal.
Period and Frequency: Period refers to the amount of time in seconds the
signal needs to complete one cycle. Frequency refers to the number of periods in
one second. The frequency of the signal is its number of cycles per second.

Digital Signals
The digital signal is one that changes between two discrete levels
of voltage or values. Two different representation of digital signals
is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Digital Signals

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In the two levels shown above. The voltage level is not fixed, for example, any
voltage between 0 to 1 V is considered as logic low. Whereas voltage levels
between 3.5 to 5V is considered as logic high. These two discrete low and high
levels can also be represented by 0 and 1. These 0 and 1 are not actual 0 and 1
but are logic 0 and logic 1. Logic 0 represents the voltage level of low. That is
zero to one Volt. Whereas logic 1 represents voltage of high that is 3.5 to 5 V.
The two levels can also be designated as on and off or true and false. A binary
digit, (0 or 1) is referred to as a bit. Since a digital signal can have only one of
the two possible levels. One or zero? The binary number system can be used for
the analysis and design of digital systems.

Advantages and Applications of Digital Systems.

The main advantages of using digital systems are as follows:

1. Digital systems are easier to design.

2. Digital systems have got fast response time. That is, the circuits are
fast.
3. On digital systems, information can be stored and retrieved easily.
4. Digital systems are much more accurate and have greater precision.
5. Digital systems are less affected by noise.
6. A set of stored instructions can operate a digital system.
7. Digital systems are easier to use because the direct display of data is
convenient to read.
8. Digital circuits can be fabricated on IC chips.

Some of the reasons for the widespread use of digital systems are as
follows:
1. Digital devices operate in only Two states, i.e., 1 and o or On and Off.
No third state is available, and this results in a simple operation.
2. Only a few basic operations in digital circuits are available, and these
are easy to understand.
3. Techniques use Boolean algebra, which is easy to understand.
4. A Large number of ICs are available for performing various
operations. These are fast, reliable, accurate, and small inside.
5. Various ICs are available in the logic family with similar electrical
characteristics, which makes the design and development of digital
circuits very simple and also reduces interfacing problems.
6. The effect of fluctuations in the characteristics of components. aging of
components temperature and noise etc., is very small in digital circuits.
7. Digital circuits have large memory capacity, making them suitable for
use in calculators, computers, telephones, etc.

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 8. The display of the data and other information is very convenient,
accurate, and elegant using digital techniques.

In addition to being represented by an analog signal, data can also be

represented by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as
positive voltage and 0 as zero voltage. As illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4

Bit Interval & Bit Rate: Most digital signals are periodic, and thus period
or frequency is inappropriate. Two new terms, bit interval (instead of period)
and bit rate (instead of frequency), describe the digital signal. The bit interval is
the time required to send one bit. The bit rate is the number of bit intervals per
second. This means that the bit rate is the number of bits sent in one second,
usually expressed as bits per second or bps.

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Number System
A Computer understands information composed of zeros and ones.
Therefore, instructions and data processed by the computer should be in the
form of zeros and ones. But we are familiar with the number system in which an
ordered set of 10 symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 known as digits are used
to specify any number. These ten numbers are the basic numbers and are used to
formulate other numbers this number system is known as decimal number
system as there are 10 basic numbers that are used to formulate other numbers
the radix or base of these number system is 10. The decimal number system is
convenient for the programmer. The computer uses binary digits for its
operation. In the binary system there are only 2 digits 0 and 1. As it has got 2
values the radix or base is 2 and these values are used to formulate other
numbers. The binary number system is very important in digital electronics, but
decimal number system is universally excepted. Therefore, decimal number
system has to be converted into binary value before they are entered into the
digital system. After processing the output obtained in the binary value must be
converted into decimal value so that people can understand it. Therefore,
conversion mechanism is required for converting a value from binary to
decimal and vice versa. Besides binary and decimal number system other
number systems are Octal having a base 8 and Hexadecimal having a base 16.

Decimal Number System

The decimal number system has 10 separate symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9. These are called Arabic numerals. The base or radix of a number system
is defined as “the number of different digits which can occur in each position
in the number system.” As the decimal number system has 10 different digits
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) and anyone of them may be used in each position in a
number, therefore decimal number system has a base or radix of 10.

Important characteristics of number system

1. The base of radix is equal to the number of digits.
2. The largest digit is one less than the base.
3. Each digit is multiplied by the base of radix raised to an appropriate
power depending upon the digits position to get its place value.

Position of each of the digit in the decimal number system indicates the
magnitude of the quantity represented and can be assigned a weight. The value
of attachment number is the sum of the digits times of their respective column
weights. e.g.,

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The digit 4 has a weight of 10 has indicated by exposition and digit 7 has a
weight of one as indicated by its position.

Another example

4732?

So, here the digit 4 has a weight of 1000, 7 has a weight of 100, 3 has a weight
10, and 2 has a weight 1.

Note: 5 bits to count from zero to 31. The following formula tells us how high we
can count in decimal with n bits, beginning with zero.

Highest decimal number = 2n-1.

With 2 bits we can count as.

22 - 1 = 4 - 1 = 3 i.e., from 0 to 3

With 4 bits,
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24 - 1 = 16 – 1 = 15 i.e., from 0 to 15

With 6 bits,

26 – 1 = 64 - 1 = 63 i.e., from 0 to 63

A collection of 4 bits is called a nibble. Collection of 8 bits is called a byte.

Therefore, a byte contains two nibbles, and a byte is the basic unit of storage in a
computer.

Binary to Decimal conversion.

A binary number can be converted into a decimal number using the weights
assigned to it. The value of a given binary number in terms of decimal
equivalent can be determined by adding the products of each bit and its weight.
The right-most bit is the least significant bit (LSB) and has a weight of zero, i.e.,
20 = 1. The weight increases by a power of 2, i.e. (20, 21, 22, 23, 24…….) for each
bit from right to left. You can easily understand the method from the following
examples.

Examples.

Convert 1101 to decimal.

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Convert (110101)2 to Decimal

Convert

a. (110110)2 b. (1101101)2 c. (11111011)2 d. (1000010000)2

e. (00000100)2

a. (110110)2

b. (1101101)2

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c. (111110101)2

d. (100001000)2

e. (00000100)2

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Therefore, rules for converting from binary to decimals are as follow.

1. Each digit of binary number is multiplied by 2 having power (position

– 1). Here position is the position of binary digit in the number counted
from right hand side.
2. all the products of multiplication are summed to get the decimal
equivalent of the number.

the binary numbers converted so far are whole numbers. Fractions can also be
represented in binary by placing bits to the right of the binary position in same
way as in decimal number.

The weights for binary numbering are.

2𝑛 … … … … … … . 24 23 22 21 20 . 2−1 2−2 2−3 2−4 … … … … … … . 2−𝑛

Binary point

Thus, all the bits on the left hand side of binary point have positive powers of 2
and all bits to the right of the binary point have weights that are negative power
of 2.

Determine the decimal value of binary number (101.0101)2

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Determine the decimal value of binary number (111.101)2

Determine the decimal value of binary number (1100.1011)2

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Decimal to binary conversion
Any decimal number can be converted into its binary equivalent number. For
integer, the conversion is obtained by continuous division by 2 and keeping
track of the reminder while for fractional parts the conversion is affected by
continuous multiplication by 2 and keep in track of the integers generated.

For converting decimal number to binary, the decimal number is divided by 2

successively. At each stage, quotient and reminder are noted down the quotient
of one stage is divided by 2 at the next stage. the procedure is repeated till the
quotient becomes zero,

Find the binary equivalent of decimal number 37.

Quotient Reminder

Divide 37 by 2 18 1 (LSB)
Divide 18 by 2 9 0

Divide 9 by 2 4 1

Divide 4 by 2 2 0

Divide 2 by 2 1 0

Divide 1 by 2 0 1 (MSB)

Binary number is (100101)2

Check the decimal equivalent.

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 Convert decimal number 25 to its binary equivalent.

This Can also be 2 25

written as 2 12 1 (LSB)
2 6 0

2 3 0

2 1 1

(MSB)

(25)10 = (11001)2

Cross Checking

Converting decimal fractions to binary

Till now we have converted whole decimal numbers to binary. Decimal numbers
can be converted to binary by dividing it by 2 i.e., base of binary numbers. For
converting decimal fraction to binary instead of dividing, we must multiply
fraction part by 2 and obtaining the integer part, we must multiply fraction part
by 2 until the fractional product is zero. The carries generated by each
multiplication from the binary number. the first carrier produced is MSB. the
procedure is as follows.

Convert (0.68752)10 to binary.

Step 1:

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Step 2:

Step 3:

Step 4:

Convert the following decimal numbers into binary.

a. (25.5)10
b. (10.625)10
c. (19.6)10

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