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SYNTAX

INTRODUCTION

Syntax is the part of grammar which deals with sentences and combinability of
words. The core of syntax is the study of the sentence. Syntax embraces on the one
hand the structure of the sentence, that is, its components, their structure and the
relations between these components, and on the other hand structural and
communicative types of sentences.

THE SENTENCE

Anything that is said in the act of communication is called an utterance. Most


utterances are sentences, although there are some which are not sentences and are
called non-sentence utterances. Thus utterances fall into two groups: sentences and
non-sentence utterances.
Sentences may be regarded from the point of view of their structure and their
communicative value.

Structural classification of sentences


From the point of view of their structure, sentences can be:
1. Simple or composite (compound and complex).
2. Complete or incomplete (elliptical).
3. Two-member (double-nucleus) or one-member (single-nucleus).

These three classifications are based on different approaches to the structural


organisation of sentences and reflect its different aspects.

The difference between the simple sentence and the composite sentence lies in the
fact that the former contains only one subject-predicate unit and the latter more than
one. Subject-predicate units that form composite sentences are called clauses.
1. Honesty is the best policy. (one subject-predicate unit)
2. Still waters run deep. (one subject-predicate unit)
3. You can take a horse to the water, but you cannot make him drink, (two
subject-predicate units, or two clauses)
4. You never know what you can do till you try. (three subject-predicate units, or
three clauses)
The difference between the compound and complex sentence lies in the relations
between the clauses that constitute them.

Complete and incomplete ( or elliptical ) sentences are distinguished by the presence


or absence of word-forms in the principal positions of two-member sentences.

In a complete sentence both the principal positions are filled with word-forms.
When did you arrive?
I came straight here.

In an incomplete (elliptical) sentence one or both of the main positions are not filled,
but can be easily supplied as it is clear from the context what is missing.
Cheerful, aren’t you?
Ready?
Could’ve been professional.
Wrong again.

Elliptical sentences are typical of conversational English.

One-member and two-member sentences are distinguished by the number of


principal parts (positions) they contain: two-member sentences have two main parts -
the subject and the predicate, while one-member sentences have only one principal
part, which is neither the subject nor the predicate.

Two-member sentences:
The magpie flew off.
We are going to my house now.
One-member sentences:
An old park.
Mid-summer.
Low tide, dusty water.
To live alone in this abandoned house!
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
Two-member sentences
The basic pattern of a simple sentence in English is one subject-predicate unit, that is,
it has two main (principal) positions: those of the subject and of the predicate. It is the
pattern of a two-member sentence. There are several variations of this basic pattern,
depending mainly on the kind of verb occupying the predicate position. The verb in
the predicate position may be intransitive, transitive, ditransitive or a link verb.

Here are the main variants of the fundamental (basic) pattern:


1. John ran.
2. John is a student.
3. John is clever.
4. John learned French.
5. John gives Mary his books.
6. John lives in London.
7. We found John guilty.
8. We found John a bore.

The basic pattern may be u n e x t e n d e d or e x t e n d e d .


An unextended sentence contains two main positions of the basic pattern, that of the
subject and the predicate.
Mary laughed.
Mary is a doctor.
Mary is happy.
An extended sentence may contain various optional elements (including attributes,
certain kinds of prepositional objects and adverbial modifiers).
John ran quickly to me.
My friend John is a very kind student.
Mary laughed heartily at the joke.
One-member sentences

One-member sentences in English are of two types: nominal sentences and verbal
sentences.
N o m i n a l s e n t e n c e s are those in which the principal part is expressed by a
noun. They state the existence of the things expressed by them. They are typical of
descriptions.
No m i n a l s e n t e n c e s may be:
a) u n e x t e n d e d .
Silence. Summer. Midnight.
b) e x t e n d e d.
Dusk - of a summer night.
The grass, this good, soft, lush grass.
English spring flowers!

V E R B A L S E N T E N C E S are those in which the principal part is expressed by a


non-finite form of the verb, either an infinitive or a gerund. Infinitive and gerundial
one-member sentences are mostly used to describe different emotional perceptions of
reality.
To think of that!
To think that he should have met her again in this way!
Living at the mercy of a woman!
Elliptical (incomplete) sentences
A two-member sentence may be either c o m p l e t e or incomplete
(elliptical) . An elliptical sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in
the principal positions are omitted. Ellipsis here refers only to the structural elements
of the sentence, not the informational ones.
There are several types of elliptical sentences.
1. Sentences without a word-form in the subject position.
Looks like rain.
Seems difficult.
Don’t know anything about it.
2. Sentences without word-forms in the subject position and part of the predicate
position. In such cases the omitted part of the predicate may be either a) an auxiliary
verb or b) a link verb.
a) Going home soon?
See what I mean?
Heard nothing about him lately.
b) Not bad.
Free this evening?
Nice of you to come.
Susan’s father?
3. Sentences without a word-form only in part of the predicate position, which may
be an auxiliary or a link verb.
You seen them?
Everything fixed?
You sure?
All settled.
4. Sentences without word-forms both in the subject and the predicate position. Such
ellipses occur in various responses.
What time does Dave come for lunch? - One o’clock.
What were you thinking about? - You.
What do you want of us? Miracles?
Where’re you going? - Home.
5. Sentences without a word-form in the predicate position. Such ellipses occur only
in replies to questions.
Who lives there? - Jack.
What’s happened? - Nothing.
Nominal
The Structural Types of Sentence

Verbal Complete Incomplete


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