Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mini Ace Genisletilmis (B.GULER) 2
Mini Ace Genisletilmis (B.GULER) 2
GPWS
Ground proximity warning system is a system designed to
alert pilot if aircraft is in imminent danger of flying into ground
or an obstacle. This system combines the data which are R/A,
barometric altitude, configuration, vertical speed, glide slope
deviation, present position, gear position, approach minima,
flap position, throttle position, and in enhanced mode DTED, to
warn pilot about the closure of impact. In EGPWS system wind
shear is also shown. EGPWS reduces the risk of CFİT almost
50 times. GPWS is mandatory on public transportation aircraft
over 5700 kg.
DUTCH ROLL
If the aircraft is yawed to the right, the left wing advances
(sideslip) and generates more lift, whilst the right wing slows
down and produce less lift. The result of the imbalance in lift is
1
to roll the aircraft in the direction of the initial yaw. The
advancing wing also produces greater drag due to the larger
areas exposed to the airflow, which causes the aircraft yaw in
the opposite direction. This results in the right wing producing
more lift than the left wing, reversing the direction of the roll.
The final result is Rolling and yawing oscillation which have
the same frequency. Yaw dampers prevent Dutch Roll on
swept-wing aircrafts.
LIFT
Lift is the force that is generated by the pressure difference
between the upper and lower surface of airfoil that is facing the
air with a certain speed. An airfoil is cambered on its top side
and flattened on its bottom, so the air facing airfoil separates
into two parts. The air on top of the wing travels faster than the
air on the bottom. Faster air produces less pressure than
faster air as in the Bernoulli principle. Lift can be formulated
as= 1/2 CLxSxqxV2, where CL is the coefficient of lift. CL
depends upon the angle of attack and shape of that specific
wing. By moving the elevators, basically AOA is changed
therefore the lift. Lift is assumed to be acting on center of
pressure of the airfoil. CP moves forward as the AOA increase
and moves backward as the AOA decrease.
ALDİS
LIGHT FORM GROUND AIR
Return to starting
Flashing white ----
point
VREF
Vref = Landing Reference Speed at a point 50 feet above
the landing threshold. It is not less than 1.3 times the stall
speed in the normal landing configuration.
In simple terms.... your final approach speed.
Hydroplaning.
As causes by a thin layer of standing water that separates
the tires from the runway. It causes the reduction of friction
between the tires and runway surface. High aircraft speeds,
water, slush, and runway texture are the effects for
hydroplaning. Braking action is reported by ATC like" poor,
good, fair, nil". If it is nil, directional control may be impossible.
If hydroplaning occurs, landing roll may be longer than the one
on smooth ice. To estimate the minimum hydroplaning speed,
sqrt of tire pressure times 8,6.
3
PRECISION AND NON-PRECISION
APPROACH
Precision approach, as it is understood from its name, is
more precise and has lower minimums than non-precision
approach. The easiest way to distinguish between precision
and non-precision approach is to look up chart's minima part. If
DA(H) is published it is precision approach. If MDA(H) is
published, it is non-precision approach.
The types of precision approach are İLS, MLS, PAR and
WAAS GPS RNAV. The types of non-precision approach are
NDB, VOR, LOC and GPS RNAV.
Final approach segment for a precision approach begins
with intercepting the glide slope at designated altitude.
On the other hand final approach segment for a non-
precision segment begins at designated FAF or at a point
when you establish final approach course. When FAF is not
designated, final approach begins at final approach point
(FAP) where procedure turn intercepts the final approach
course inbound.
VISIBILITY / RVR
Meteorological visibility is defined as the greatest
horizontal distance at which a specified object can be seen in
daylight conditions. Visibility is reduced whenever particles are
present in the atmosphere that absorbs the light, e.g., water,
ice, pollution, sand, dust, volcanic ash, etc.
Runway visual range (RVR). The range over which the
pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the
runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway
or identifying its centre line.
4
- RVR is not normally reported if it is 1500m or more.
- Between 1500 and 800m it is reported in steps of 100m.
- Between 800 and 200m it is reported in steps of 50m.
- Between 0 and 200m it is reported in steps of 25m.
6
T-VASI consists of twenty light units. Ten either sights of
the runway. They form a cross shape with: Six lights in a line
with the runway, four across in a bar.
When high on the approach; four lights in each bar show
white; and depending on how high one is, one, two or three
white lights are visible beyond the bar.
When on the correct path, only four bar lights are visible.
7
When below the approach path: Four lights in the bar show
red. Depending on how low one is, one, two or three red lights
are visible in front of the bar.
CAT
Clear air turbulence. İt is commonly thought as high
altitude turbulent air phenomena. There is no visual warning
for CAT. So it is hard to detect. CAT is usually found in jet
streams. This kind of turbulence is mostly 2000 feet deep, 10-
20 miles wide and 50 miles long. Long streams of cirrus cloud
formation may show jet stream CAT. CAT is usually faced
above 15000 feet.
TURBULENCE
8
Turbulence is the swirl motions in the atmosphere. İt
may cause stress on the airframe. There are several types of
turbulence which are low level turbulence, clear air turbulence
and mountain wave turbulence.
Low level turbulence may be faced under 15000 feet and
occurred because of surface heating, friction, or ground
shapes. Wake turbulence is considered as low level
turbulence. İt is generated by preceding aircraft's wingtips.
That is why it is also called wingtip vortices. The greatest
vortex strength occurs when the preceding aircrafts is slow,
heavy, clean configuration and at high angle of attack.
Generally wingtip vortices suspend in the air for several
minutes. According to İCAO rules, there is supposed to be
separation between the aircrafts. These are; light to light,
Medium to medium and heavy to heavy none on the other
hand, medium to heavy 3 and light to heavy 5 minutes.
TURBULENCE PENETRATION
Maintain level attitude, use maneuvering as penetration
speed (rough air speed) and accept variations in airspeed and
altitude.
If you encounter turbulence during approach, increase
the airspeed slightly above normal approach speed to attain
more positive control.
WEIGHTS
Aircraft Authorized gross weight limits are laid down in
the aircraft flight manuals (AFM). The authorized or permitted
limits may be equal to or lower than the structural design
weight limits.
10
Maximum weights established, for each aircraft, by
design and certification must not be exceeded during aircraft
operation (ramp or taxiing, takeoff, en-route flight, approach,
and landing) and during aircraft loading (zero fuel conditions,
centre of gravity position, and weight distribution).
Maximum Taxi Weight (MTW)-(Maximum Ramp Weight
(MRW)) is the maximum weight authorized for maneuvering
(taxiing or towing) an aircraft on the ground as limited by
aircraft strength and airworthiness requirements. It includes
the weight of taxi and run-up fuel for the engines and the APU.
It is greater than the maximum takeoff weight due to the fuel
that will be burned during the taxi and run-up operations. 10 to
15 minutes allowance of taxi and run-up operations.
Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW)-(Maximum Brake
Release Weight) is the maximum weight authorized at brake
release for takeoff, or at the start of the takeoff roll.
In operation, the maximum weight for takeoff may be
limited to values less than the Maximum Takeoff Weight due to
aircraft performance, environmental conditions, airfield
characteristics (takeoff field length, altitude), maximum tire
speed and brake energy, obstacle clearances, and/or enroute
and landing weight requirements.
Maximum Landing Weight (MLW)-The maximum weight
authorized for normal landing of an aircraft. The MLW must not
exceed the MTOW.
The operation landing weight may be limited to a weight
lower than the Maximum Landing Weight by the most
restrictive of the following requirements:
Aircraft performance requirements for a given altitude
and temperature:
11
landing field length requirements,
approach and landing climb requirements
Noise requirements
If the flight has been of short duration, fuel may have to
be jettisoned to reduce the landing weight.
Overweight landings require a structural inspection or
evaluation of the touch-down loads before the next aircraft
operation.
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)- The zero fuel
weight (ZFW) of an aircraft is the total weight of the airplane
and all its contents, minus the total weight of the usable fuel on
board (unusable fuel is included in ZFW). It is the maximum
weight permitted before usable fuel and other specified usable
fluids are loaded in specified sections of the airplane. The
MZFW is limited by strength and airworthiness requirements.
BEM+VL=DOM TOM=Ramp Mass-Taxi Fuel
DOM+TOF=OM TL+TOF=Useful Load
OM+TL=TOM DOM+TL+TOF=TOM
DOM+TL=ZFM
ZFM+TOF=TOM
FORWARD CG AFT CG
Hard to climb
Needs more lift so higher stall Needs less lift so lower stall
speed speed
13
Requires more thrust Requires less thrust
TORA-TODA
TORA - Takeoff Run Available is the usable length of the
runway available.
The physical length of runway pavement.
TODA - Takeoff Distance Available=TORA+Clearway /
1,5xTORA
Clearway - Obstacle-free area at the end of the runway with
the dimension of 75 m. Either side of the extended runway
centerline.
TORR - Takeoff Run Required is the measured run
required to the unstick speed (Vr) plus one-third of the
airborne distance between the unstick and the screen height.
ASDA - Acceleration Stop Distance
Available=TORA+Stopway
EMDA - Emergency Distance Available=ASDA
Stopway-Unprepared surface at the end of the runway in
the direction of takeoff supporting the aircraft can be stopped
in case of an abandoned/rejected takeoff.
BALANCED FIELD refers to TODA=ASDA
LDA - Landing Distance Available is the length from 50 ft
above the surface of the runway threshold (screen height) to
the end of the landing runway.
14
LDR - Landing Distance Required is the length from 50 ft
above the surface of the runway threshold (screen height) to
the point where the aircraft reaches a full stop.
ATMOSPHERE LAYERS
Troposphere 0-36000 feet
Stratosphere 36000-160000 feet
Mesosphere 160000-280000
Thermosphere 280000-~
Ozone layer is characterized by high concentration of O3,
with maximum concentration of O3, with maximum
concentration about 80000 feet. This special type of oxygen
molecule absorbs the harmful solar energy and accounts for
the increase the temperature in that part of atmosphere.
The lapse rate is defined as the rate of decrease with height
for an atmospheric variable. In the lower regions of the
atmosphere (up to altitudes of approximately 40,000 feet [12
km]), temperature decreases with altitude at a fairly uniform
rate. (2º/1000’)
TS occurrence
TS's are one of the most dangerous weather hazard that
pilots should avoid. Thunderstorms are associated with
cumulonimbus clouds, and there may be several thunderstorm
cells within a single cloud. It occurs in these conditions;
1. Unstable lapse rate ( instability)
2. Some type of lifting action
3. High moisture content
Embedded TS is one which is obscured by massive cloud
layers and cannot be seen.
15
There are three steps of TS which are cumulus stage,
mature stage, dissipating stage. Wind shear areas can be
found on all sides TS and directly under it. There are several
hazards of thunderstorms which are wind shear, gusty winds,
hail, icing conditions, lightening, turbulence, reduced visibility
and radio/com interference. Pilots should avoid TS at least 20-
25 NM.
STABILIZED APPROACH
A stabilized approach is the safest profile, and it is one of
the most critical elements of a safe approach and landing
operation. There are five basic elements to the stabilized
approach:
1. Landing configuration: The airplane should be in the
landing configuration early in the approach.
2. Stabilize on profile: The airplane should be stabilized
on profile before descending through the 1,000 feet.
3. Descent rate: The optimum descent rate should be
500-700 fpm.
4. Indicated airspeed: Indicated airspeed should be not
more than VREF + 5 and appropriate adjustment for wind or
other factors, and never less than VREF.
5. Engine speed: The engine speed should be at a setting
that allows best response when and if a rapid power increase
is needed.
Otherwise, a go-around should be considered by the pilot.
METAR
Aviation routine weather report; is a report of observation of
current surface weather. METARs are issued normally hourly.
A special METAR SPECİ is issued between routine METAR
16
reports. SPECİ is generated whenever a critical metorological
condition exists such as wind shear or microburst.
TAF
Terminal aerodrome forecast; the best source of weather for
that specific aerodrome. İt is issued four times a day and valid
for 24 hours and the other type is issued for a nine-hour period
updated every three hours.
WS/SİGMET
Is inflight advisory concerning convective weather that is
potentially hazardous to all aircraft. Report may be about
severe icing, extreme turbulence, CAT, dust, sand stor,
volcanic ash or hurricanes.
INVERSION
When there is an inversion in lapse rate, warm air cannot rise
up and even temperetture may increase with altitude. This is
called inversion. Radiation cooling from ground at clear cool
nights and warm air mass over cold air mass cause inversion.
İnversion occurs at low levels acting like a lid for humidity and
politants. İt usually contributes to low visibility, fog, low ceiling
with no wind and no turbulance conditions.
DEWPOINT
İs the point below which water vapor will condense into liquid.
Dew point is used to calculate ceiling of clouds.
AIRMASSES
Air masses are large body of air that have fairly same
temperature and moist. An air mass moving over a cold area
creates stable airwith poor surface visibility and moving over a
warm area warming from below and cause a rapid rise of
17
moist air. This creates unstability, good surface visibility,
cumulus clouds, turbulence and showers.
FRONTS
Boundary between air masses is called front and generally
brings hazardous weather. The most reliable indication of
frontal passage is shift in wind direction.
There are four types of fronts which are cold, warm, stationary
and occluded fronts.
Warm front; occurs when a warm airmass moves and
replaces the cold air mass. Because of the density difference
between the air masses, warm air slides over cold air. This
boundary is called warm front. On the front line visibility
decreases rain or snow occurs and low ceiling will be
encountered. İf a pilot flies towards a warm front, he or she will
face cirrus, cirrostarus, altostratus and nimbostaratusclouds
associating with precipitation and low ceiling progresively. This
wind blows from south, south east.
Cold front; cold front occurs when a cold air mass which is
moving faster than warm air mass moves and replaces the
warm air mass. İt slides under the warm air mass. This
boundary layer is called cold front which brings towering
cumulus, CB, heavy rain, lightining, thunderstorm, hail even
tornadoes, low visibility and gusty winds. A pilot heading cold
front will face more cumuluform clouds with decreasing
barometric pressure and finally on the front vertically
developed clouds, lightining, rain, gusty winds, poor visibility,
CB's and various weather hazards.
18
they make complete weather change in few hours. Weather
clears rapidly after passage of cold front and unlimited visibility
and dry air develops. On the other hand warm fronts provide
advance warning of their approach by developing startiform
clouds and takes days to pass through a region.
SQUALL LINE
It is a narrow band of active thunderstorms. It develops on
or ahead of cold front in moist and unstable air. This line is too
wide to detour and too severe to penetrarte. İt forms rapidly
and reaches its maximum strength at late afternoon and first
few hours of darkness.
CLOUDS
There are four types of clouds. These are low level,
middle level, high level and vertically developed clouds.
Low level clouds: this type of clouds are seen from ground to
6500' AGL. these clouds may contain supercooled water
droplets and create icing hazard. Types of low clouds are
stratus, nimbostratus, startocumulus and fog.
Middle clouds are seen from 6500' to 20000' AGL. İn these
clouds, severe icing, moderate turbulence might be faced.
19
Types of middle clouds are altostarus and alto cumulus.
High clouds are seen above 20000'AGL.Turbulence an icing
are seldom. Types of this clouds are cirrus, sirrostarus and
cirrocumulus.
Vertically developed clouds are independent of altitude. They
show lifting and unstability. All weather hazards such as icing,
turbulence, lightinig, windshear etc can be seen. Types are
towering cumulus and cumulunmbus.
ICING
There are mainly two types of icing. First one is induction,
second one is structural icing. Induction icing occurs in
carburetor or air intake of the engine. It is most likely to occur
when OAT is between -7 and 21C and humidity is above 80%.
Structural icing builds up on any exposed surface of an
aircraft causing lost of lift, increase in weight and control
problems. There are two types: rime and clear ice.
Rime ice is normally encountered in stratus clouds. İt has
an opaque appearance. Major hazard of rime ice is the
change of the shape of the airfoil and destroy the lift.Clear ice
normally encountered in cumulus clouds or in freezing rain. It
can glaze the aircraft surface. It is the most serious form of
icing because it has the fastest rate of accumulation.
If you encounter freezing rain, temperatures are above
freezing at some higher altitude and freezing rain is most likely
to have highest rate of accumulation.
İce, snow or frost having a thickness of sandpaper can
increase the drag by 40% and decrease the lift by 30 %.
When you encounter icing immediate action is for cumulus
clouds change of route/course and for stratus clouds change
altitude and switch on all deice systems. When you encounter
20
freezing rain immediately climb if not possible make a 180
degree turn .
There are four types of icing; trace, light , moderate,
severe icing.
Trace: no need for deice/antiice operation
Light İce: for prolonged exposure (more than one
hour)deice/anti-ice necessary
Moderate ice: Deice/anti-ice is immediately necessary
Severe: is beyond capability of deice/anti-ice systems
Frost is hazardous especially at take-off. İt is essential to
clear frost before take-off.
Anti-ice : prevents the formation of ice
Deice: remove the ice after it has been accumulated.
The devices used for deice/anti-ice are: Thermal anti-ice,
pneumatic deice boots, windshield anti-ice alcohol, windshield
heater, pro heat, prop antiice
Estimating freezing level: (OAT/2)x1000 AGL . İt is the
altitude where you likely to encounter icing.
RVSM
Reduced vertical seperation minimum reduces the vertical
seperation between flight levels FL290 and FL410 from 2000'
to1000' and makes 6 additional flight levels available for
operation. Only aircrafts with specially certified altimeters and
autopilots may fly in RVSM airspace. Additionally, operators
must receive approval to conduct opertations in RVSM
21
airspace. But state aircrafts exempted from this requirement.
Aircrafts to fly in RVSM airspace shall have the following
equipment;
- 2 independent working altimeters.
- autopilot
- XNDR reporting altitude information
- altitude alert system.
22
RACETRACK: A racetrack procedure consists of a turn from
the inbound track through 180º from overhead the facility or fix
on to the outbound track, for 1, 2, 3 minutes, followed by a
180º turn in the same direction to return to the inbound track.
STALL
23
Stall is occurred when the critical angle of attack is
exceeded. After this point, the airflow above the upper surface
of airfoil begins to separate therefore lift production is
decreased dramatically. This affect is called stall.
Stall speed is affected by various factors.
1. Weight; as weight increase, stall speed increase. When
weight of aircraft increases, AOA needs to be increased too to
maintain the the lift. Part of that lift is used to overcome the
disadvantage of excess weight. Eventually stall speed is
increases.
In addition to weight affect, forward CG also increases the
stall speed. As the CG moves forward, stabilizer needs to
produce more downward force to balance the nose down
attitude. This creates more effective weight, so the weight
increases and stall speed increases.
2. Icing conditions, dirt or any FOD over the wings eases
the separation of airflow and increases the stall speed.
3. Turbulent air creates up or down winds causing the
relative wind change rapidly, which may lead AOA to exceed
critical angle and stall. Therefore turbulent air increases the
stall speed.
4. As Density of air increases, stall speed decreases.
Actually stall speed is given in term if CAS or İAS. Although it
is a constant value at higher altitudes density of air decreases
resulting TAS increase. So at higher altitudes stall speed
increases. (Bkz. Şekil)
5. Flaps; flap usage decrease the stall speed. Since flap
extended wing produces higher coefficient of lift. Aircraft can
fly at lower speed without exceeding the critical angle.
24
6. Load factor; stall speed is directly proportional with load
factor.
Vs=sqrt(n)*Vs where n is the load factor. As a result as the
load factor increases stall speed increases. For example at the
absolute ceiling of an aircraft turn maneuver becomes
impossible because of stall.
25
A. Fixed slot; a nozzle shaped opening that ducts the air
onto the top of the wing to increase the lift at high AOA.
B. Movable slot; is like fixed slot but this time it is
deployable by the operator.
C. Leading edge flaps; is used to increase the camber of
the wing to increase AOA and lift.
D. Leading edge cuffs; are fixed aerodynamic devices, that
bends the leading edge, to increase both CL and camber of
the wing. It delays stall.
26
IMSAFE CHECKLIST
I- Illness M-Medication S- Stress A-Alcohol F-Fatigue
E-Eating
Q CODES
QDM - Magnetic bearing (radial) TO the station
QDR - Magnetic bearing (radial) FROM the station
QFE - Zeros the altimeter on the airfield
QNE - 29.92 set by the transition altitude
QNH - Local altimeter setting that altimeter indicates AMSL
QUJ - True bearing TO the station
QTE - True bearing FROM the station
28
Cabin pressurization is the pumping of compressed air into
an aircraft cabin to maintain a safe and comfortable
environment for crew and passengers when flying at altitude.
Pressurization is essential over 10,000 feet (3,000 m)
above sea level to protect crew and passengers from the risk
of a number of physiological problems caused by the low
outside air pressure above that altitude; it also serves to
generally increase passenger comfort. The essential
physiological problems are; hypoxia, altitude sickness,
decompression sickness, barotraumas
The most common source of compressed air for
pressurization is bleed air extracted from the compressor
stage of a gas turbine engine. Most modern commercial
aircraft today have fully redundant, duplicated electronic
controllers for maintaining pressurization along with a manual
back-up control system.
The cabin altitude of an aircraft planning to cruise at
40,000 ft (12,000 m) is programmed to rise gradually from the
altitude of the airport of origin to around a maximum of 8,000 ft
(2,400 m) and to then reduce gently during descent until it
matches the ambient air pressure of destination.
CRITICAL ENGINE
When one of the engines on a typical multi-engine aircraft
becomes inoperative, a thrust imbalance exists between the
operative and inoperative sides of the aircraft. This thrust
imbalance causes several negative effects in addition to the
loss of one engine's thrust. The left engine of a conventional
twin-engine propeller-driven aircraft is typically considered
critical.
29
The operating right-hand engine will produce a more
severe yaw towards the dead engine, thus making the failure
of the left-hand engine critical.
ADVERSE YAW
Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift or
in other saying Outside wing produces more lift and induced
drag, the same wing slows down slightly. This creates
opposite side yawing motion. This is called adverse yaw. This
is more common at lower airspeeds. Application of rudder is
used to counteract adverse yaw. As a result, all the turns
should be coordinated turns.
ORGANISATIONS MEMBERS
IATA - The International Air Transport Association Airline
companies
ECAC - European Civil Aviation Conference All EC countries
JAA - Joint Aviation Authorities. ECAC
EASA - European Aviation Safety Agency. - Replacement of
JAA
Euro Control.- Plan/optimize European air traffic management
30
HYPOXIA
Hypoxia; is basically lack of oxygen. Symptoms may
change individually, however the common symptoms are
headache, euphoria, cyanosis, increased response time,
impaired judgment, limping muscles, drowsiness and
dizziness. There are four types of hypoxia.
A. Hypoxic hypoxia: when there are not enough oxygen
molecules in sufficient pressure. This can occur very suddenly
at rapid decompression or relatively slower at lower altitudes
on extended period of time.
Altitude. Time of useful conciseness
45000. 9-15 sec.
40000. 15-20 sec.
35000. 30-60 sec.
30000. 1-2 min
25000. 3-5 min
18000. ~40 min
B. Hypemic hypoxia: blood carries CO easier than O2, so
in case of CO amount is greater than O2 hypemic hypoxia
occurs. This can be seen in piston engine aircrafts with faulty
cabin heating system.
C. Stagnant hypoxia: circulation problem leads this kind of
hypoxia. Especially, during G maneuvers, cold weather
operations or heart problems may increase the risk.
D. Hystootoxic hypoxia: this kind of hypoxia happens when
the cells are unable to use O2 effectively. Alcohol, drug or
smoking may increase the risk.
31
TCAS-ACAS
A Traffic Collision Avoidance System is an aircraft system
based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR) transponder
signals, which operates independently of ground-based
equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential conflicting
aircraft that are equipped with SSR transponders.
It is mandated by the International Civil Aviation
Organization to be fitted to all aircraft with a maximum take-off
mass (MTOM) of over 5700 kg (12,586 lbs) or authorized to
carry more than 19 passengers.
TCAS 1 provides TA-traffic information only to a range of
about 40 miles.
TCAS 2 provides TA+RA (vertical)-traffic information and
additional maneuver advice for vertical separation.
TCAS 3 provides TA+RA (vertical+horizantal)-traffic
information and additional maneuver advice for vertical and
horizontal separation.
TCAS 4 provides TA+RA and uses additional information
encoded by the target aircraft in the Mode S transponder reply
that additional position information encoded on an air-to-air
data link to generate the bearing information, so the accuracy
of the directional antenna would not be a factor.
TA - Traffic Advisory
RA - Resolution Advisory
ILS CATEGORIES
Category I ILS has minimums of 200 ft DH and 800 m
visibility or 550 m RVR.
32
Category II ILS has minimums of 100-200 ft DH and 350 m
RVR.
Category III has three sub-categories.
III A ILS has minimums of below 100 ft DH and 200 m
RVR.
III B ILS has minimums of below 50 ft DH and 50-200 m
RVR.
III C ILS has no minimums.
EQUIPMENT
CAT-1 AIRCRAFT: The plane has to be equipped apart
from the devices for flying in IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)
conditions also with the ILS system and a marker beacon
receiver.
CAT-2 AIRCRAFT: The plane has to be equipped with a
radio altimeter or an inner marker receiver, an autopilot link, a
raindrops remover and also a system for the automatic
draught control of the engine can be required. The crew
consists of two pilots.
CAT-3 A AIRCRAFT: The aircraft has to be equipped with
an autopilot with a passive malfunction monitor or a HUD
(Head-up display).
CAT-3 B AIRCRAFT: A device for alteration of a rolling
speed to travel speed.
BASIC SYSTEMS FOR ILS: VHF localizer transmitter,
UHF glide slope transmitter, marker beacons, approach
lighting system
33
(If there is a predominance of either 90 Hz or 150 Hz
modulation, the aircraft is off the centerline.)
FIRE
Class A Fires consist of ordinary combustibles such as
wood, paper, trash or anything else that leaves an ash. Water
works best to extinguish a Class A fire.
Class B Fires are fueled by flammable or combustible
liquids, which include oil, gasoline, and other similar materials.
Smothering effects which deplete the oxygen supply work best
to extinguish Class B fires.
Class C Fires. Energized Electrical Fires are known as
Class C fires. Always de-energize the circuit then use a non-
conductive extinguishing agent. Such as Carbon dioxide.
34
Class D Fires are combustible metal fires. Magnesium and
Titanium are the most common types of metal fires. Once a
metal ignites do not use water in an attempt to extinguish it.
Only use a Dry Powder extinguishing agent. Dry powder
agents work by smothering and heat absorption.
Class K Fires are fires that involve cooking oils, grease or
animal fat and can be extinguished using Purple K, the typical
agent found in kitchen or galley extinguishers.
OPTICAL ILLUSİON
Of the senses vision is the most important for safe flight.
Optical illusions are primarily encountered during landing.
These illusions are associated with runway width, runway
slope. A narrow runway leads to an illusion that aircraft is
higher so you tend to make a lower approach. Wider runway
causes the opposite.
A downsloping runway leads to a higher approach whereas
upsloping runway causes the opposite.
To overcome optical illusions use VASİ, PAPI, check
altimeter frequently, use glideslope and utilize VDP.
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
SA is basicly knowing the position and what is happening
around. Monitoring radio comm., weather discussion, and ATC
comm. can enhance SA by helping the pilot to develop a
mental picture of what is happening.
ETOPS
( Extended range twin engine operations standards)
According to ICAO standards, a twin engine aircraft operator
shall plan its route to land an aerodrome within 60 minutes in
case OEİ. ETOPS applies on routes with diversion time more
than 180 minutes for airplanes with more than two engines.
36
MOCA, MORA, MCA, MRA, MHA, COP,
MEA, MAA, MSA
MOCA ; minimum obstruction clearance altitude. Minimum
altitude published on routes or segments which provides
obstacle clearance for the entire rote but provide signal
coverage only within 22NM of VOR. 7500T shows MOCA
MORA; minimum off-route altitudes is the minimum altitude
published on rotes or segments provides obstacle clearance
10 NM off the route in each side by 1000 or 2000 feet in
mountainous area.
Grid MORA; minimum off- route altitude. İs the min altitude
published on enroute chart grid block that provides obstacle
clearance of 1000 or 2000 feet in mountainous area within the
grid. İt is depicted in blue as first two digits.
MCA; minimum crossing altitude. is the min altitude that
has to be gained before reaching that point.
MRA; minimum reception altitude is the lowest altitude that
ensures adequte reception of navigation signals to identify that
intersection.
COP; change over point. Is the point that guiding
frequency for that airway has to be changed to the preceding
navaid frequency.
MEA; minimum enroute altitude. İs the lowest altitude that
is depicted on the airway that provides signal coverage and
obstacle clearance for that part of enroute segment.
MAA ; maximum authorized altitude is the maximum
altitude for that airway that provides accurate signal coverage
for that part of airway. Above this altitude the guiding signal
may be confused with another navaid.
37
MSA; minimum sector altitude or terminal arrival altitudes
are established for each aerodrome and provide at least 300m
(1 000 ft) obstacle clearance within 46 km (25 NM) of the
navigation aid, initial approach fix, or intermediate fix
associated with the approach procedure for that aerodrome.
38
THE FORCES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE
The forces that acting on an aeroplane are lift, drag, weight
and thrust.
When thrust and drag are in equilibrium, an aircraft will
maintain a steady speed. For an aircraft to accelerate thrust
must exceed the value of drag. When lift and weight are in
equilibrium, an aircraft will maintain a steady, level attitude.
For an aircraft to climb, lift must exceed the weight of the
aircraft.
In a banked turn, weight is constant, but lift is lost due to
the effective reduction in wing span. Therefore, to maintain
altitude in a banked turn, the lift value needs to be restored by
increasing speed and/or the angle of attack.
LIFT
(Mentioned before)
DRAG
39
Drag is the resistance to motion of an object (aircraft)
through the air. It’s parallel to the relative airflow. It has got two
major components;
PARASITE DRAG
Parasite drag is the drag caused by the relative motion of
the aeroplane wing to the air. Parasite drag increases directly
with speed because the faster aircraft moves through the air,
the more air molecules its surfaces encounter, and it is this
molecules that resist the motion of the aircraft through the air.
Parasite Drag α CAS²
INDUCED DRAG
Induced drag is caused by the production of lift and is
associated with the wing-tip vortices. Induced drag is greatest
at lower speeds due to the high angles of attack required to
maintain the necessary lift.
Vmd
40
Vmd is the speed at which parasite and induced drag
values are equal.
Because
the heavier
aeroplane
requires
more lift at
the same
CAS, the
angle of
attack must
have
increased (and therefore CL inreases). Because the CL has
increased, the induced drag increases.
i. More drag at all speeds, and
ii. Vmd is at a faster speed.
The
extension of
41
the flaps and undercarriage results in the parasite drag
increasing.
i. More drag at all speeds, and
ii. Vmd is at a slower speed.
SPEED STABILITY
Speed stability is the behavior of the speed after a
disturbance at a fixed power setting.
Speed stable:
1. An increase in speeds leads to an increase in drag, thus
causing a return to the original speed.
2. A decrease in speed leads to a decrease in drag, thus
causing return to the original speed.
Speed unstable:
1. A decrease in speed leads to an increase in drag, which
causes a further decrease in speed, thus causing a negative
speed divergence.
42
2. A increase in speed leads to an decrease in drag, which
causes a further increase in speed, thus causing a positive
speed divergence.
WEIGHT
The weight of an
aeroplane always
acts vertically
straight down
from the
aeroplane’s
center of gravity.
W=mg
43
In straight-and-level flight, the flight path and the relative airflow
are horizontal. This means that lift will be vertical and drag
horizontal.
L=W and
T=D
44
STEADY DESCENDING FLIGHT
THE GLIDE
TERMINOLOGY
THE CHORD LINE
The chord line is a straight line from the leading edge to the trailing
edge of an aerofoil.
ANGLE OF ATTACK
46
Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of an aerofoil
and the relative airflow.
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
The angle of incidence is the angle between the aerofoil’s chord line
and the aircraft’s longitudinal datum. It’s fixed angle for a wing but
may be variable for a tailplane.
CENTER OF PRESSURE
The center of pressure is a single point where the lifting force is
produced. (not a fixed point)
ASPECT RATIO
The ratio of wing span to average chord.
High aspect ratio= high lift (gliders)
Low aspect ratio= lower lift but capable of higher speeds
CRM
47
CRM used primarily for improving air safety, CRM focuses on
interpersonal communication, leadership, and decision making in
the cockpit.
CRM grew out of an NTSB analysis of the crash of United Airlines
flight 173 where the plane ran out of fuel while the flight crew were
troubleshooting a landing gear problem in 1978.
CRM can be defined as a management system which makes
optimum use of all available resources - equipment, procedures and
people - to promote safety and enhance the efficiency of
operations.
Address the individual - "Hey Chief," or "Captain Smith," or
"Bob,"
State your concern - "I'm concerned that we may not have
enough fuel to fly around this storm system,"
State the problem as you see it - "We're only showing 40
minutes of fuel left,"
State a solution - "Let's divert to another airport and refuel,"
Obtain agreement - "Does that sound good to you, Captain?"
These are often difficult skills to master, as they may require
significant changes in personal habits, interpersonal dynamics, and
organizational culture.
1. Aircraft performance
2. Meteorology
3. Systems
4. Crash Dynamics
5. Media Relatıons
6. Accident Side Management
WINGLET FUNCTION
50
Winglets are aerodynamically efficient surfaces added to wingtips.
As it is known, the high pressure airflow below the wing surface tries
to escape upper part of wing where there is lower pressure at the
wing tip. This flow creates wing tip vortices which is the reason of
induced drag. Winglets at the tip of the wings act as a dam to prevent
or lessen this flow to decrease the wingtip vortices, eventually the
induced drug to increase the efficiency of wings.
HOLDING PROCEDURES
ISOLATED AERODROME
TRANSPONDER CODES
7700 emergency
7500 hijack
0033 parachute
52
Mode A: 4 digit code entered by the pilot
SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN
REQUIREMENT
FOR PASSANGERS
Between 10.000 and 14.000 feet
Entire time for 10% of the passengers
53
Between 14.000 and 15.000 feet
Entire time for 30% of the passengers
ORIENTATION PROBLEMS
RNP
55
HAA: The height of the MDA above published airport
elevation. This is published with circling minimums.
V SPEEDS
V2: Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely
become airborne with one engine inoperative.
VR: Rotation speed, the speed to start raising the nose during the
takeoff run.
56
VX: The airspeed that provides the best angle of climb (highest
altitude in shortest distance). It is typically a fairly slow speed, and is
most useful for taking off over obstacles like trees.
VY: The airspeed that provides the best rate of climb (highest altitude
in least time). It is faster than Vx, and is most useful for getting to an
altitude as quickly as possible (say, to avoid icing).
IAS: When you read the Airspeed on the Airspeed Indicator Flight
Instrument, you are reading the Indicated Air Speed
TAS: To calculate TAS, you will need to factor in the Outside Air
Temperature (OAT) and the Pressure Altitude. For every 1,000 feet
of altitude gain, True Air Speed (TAS) increases approximately 2%
over Indicated Air Speed (IAS).
AIRPORT LIGHTING
AERODROME BEACON
57
Two types of beacon: Identification Beacon and the Location
Beacon. An Identification Beacon flashing a two letter
identification code in green.
TAXİWAY LIGHTING
59
At those aerodromes equipped for low visibility operations,
taxiways are equipped with green centreline lighting, otherwise blue
edge lighting is provided.
NEWTON’S LAWS
ST
1 LAW: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body
in motion tends to remain moving at the same speed and in the same
direction.
ND
2 LAW: When a body is acted upon by a constant force,
its resulting acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the
body and is directly proportional to the applied force. F=ma
RD
3 LAW: Whenever one body exerts a force on another,
the second body always exerts on the first, a force that is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction.
COMPASS ERRORS
60
corrections should be substracted, while westerly corrections be
added to magnetic heading.
FUEL MANAGEMENT
62
administrative action (suspension of AOC, loss of licence, etc) or
financial penalties being assessed against the pilot, the Company or
both.
BACK COURSE
63
sensing does not occur on a horizontal situation indicator (HSI),
which gives correct course guidance during both front-course and
back-course approaches.
FOG
After critical mach number, drag rises sharply, trim and stability
changes causing a decrease in controllability.
As altitude increases, true air speed increases and local sound of
speed decreases so the mach number increases. To prevent speeding
up beyond critical mach number, at flight levels after mid twenties
mach number is used.
DISTANCE SEPERATION
66
Others 3 nm
TIME SEPERATION
If you try to make a landing from the MAP in a large or fast aircraft
you would land long and possibly overshoot the runway. Cause that,
the VDP is always located before the MAP. VDP provide the
standard 3 degree flight path to the touchdown zone.
VDP=HAT/300
67
AERODYNAMIC FLUTTER
The constructor should design the airplane in such a way that it will
not suffer from flutter below VNE (Never Exceed Velocity) or below
VMO/MMO (Max Operating Velocity or Mach number). So, do not
fly at a speed greater than the red line (for SEP, Single Engine
Piston, and MEP, Multi Engine Piston) or at a speed greater than
barber's pole (VMO needle on jet airplanes).
69