UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT

ENVIRONMENT

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS LABORATORY REPORT

SEMESTER 2 | SESSION 2021/2022

COURSE CODE : BFC21201

COURSE NAME : HYDRAULIC AND MECHANICS OF MATERIAL LABORATORY
SECTION :2
GROUP NO. :2
GROUP MEMBER :1. MUHAMMAD ALIEF ASYRAAF BIN MOHD PARID (DF200100)
2. MUHAMMAD ARIFAFIFI BIN JUPRI (DF200090)
3. MUHAMMAD AZRI BIN NIZAMDIN (DF200053)
4. MUHAMMAD FARHAN HAZIQ BIN ABDUL RAJAF (DF200004)
5. MUHAMMAD FARIS HAZWAN BIN MOHD ROSDI (DF200162)

LECTURE NAME : TS. DR. AHMAD FAHMY BIN KAMARUDIN

 3
e-LAB MoM COGNITIVE RUBRIC
STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING CLUSTER
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Name of Group Members : SECTION : 2 _ Matric No.:
1 MUHAMMAD ALIEF ASYRAAF BIN MOHD PARID DF200100
2 MUHAMMAD ARIFAFIFI BIN JUPRI DF200090
3 MUHAMMAD AZRI BIN NIZAMDIN DF200053
4 MUHAMMAD FARHAN HAZIQ BIN ABDUL RAJAF DF200004
DF200164
5 MUHAMMAD FARIS HAZWAN BIN MOHD ROSDI 30 Marks [CLO1, PLO4]
Very Poor = 1 Poor = 2 Moderate = 3 Good = 4 Very Good = 5
QUESTION / Incomplete calculations, Able to perform mediocrity Able to perform sufficient Able to perform good Able to perform excellent
Marks
DOMAIN LEVEL critical analysis and/or calculations, critical analysis calculations, critical calculations, critical calculations, critical and/or
discussions and/or discussions analysis and/or discussions analysis and/or discussions discussions
a(i) – C1
a(ii) – C1
e-LAB 1

a(iii) – C2
a(iv) – C2
a(v) – C2
25
a(i) – C1
e-LAB 2

a(ii) – C2
a(iii) – C2
a(iv) – C2
20
a(i) – C1
e-LAB

a(ii) – C2
15
3

a(iii) – C2
a(i) – C2
e-LAB

a(ii) – C2
4

a(iii) – C2 15
OE 1
e-LAB
OEQ

OE 2
OE 3 15
REPORT FORMAT/
WRITING SKILL 10
TOTAL MARKS
(100 M)

e-Lab MoM Semester II Session 2021/2022 - AFK

i. Sketch the idealized model and free body diagram of the beam. Fill Table 1.1 with the
proposed mass configurations. Modify the table if necessary for any additional
information.

| Vˣ at cut section(N)
Load W1(N) W2(N) Laboratory(N) Calculations
cases (N)
1 1.47 1.47 0.9 0.7721
2 1.6677 1.2753 0.7 0.485
3 1.962 0.981 0.7 0.591
W1 = 150g = 1.47N

W2 = 150g = 1.47N

Free body diagram

Idealized Model
 Reaction force

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

1.47(100) + 1.47(100) − 𝐵𝑦 (440) = 0

𝐵𝑦 (440) = 294𝑁𝑚𝑚

𝐵𝑦 = 294𝑁𝑖̃

↑ 𝐹𝑦 = ↓ 𝐹𝑥

𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 = 1.47𝑁 + 1.47𝑁

𝐴𝑦 = 1.47𝑁 + 1.47𝑁 − 0.67𝑁

𝐴𝑦 = 2.27𝑁 ↑

→ 𝐹𝑥 =← 𝐹𝑥
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 = 0

ii. Calculate shear force at cut-section for each load cases, and complete Table 1.1 from
the findings of laboratory test.

Shear force
↑ 𝐹𝑦 = ↓ 𝐹𝑦

1.47𝑁 + 1.47𝑁 + 𝑉𝑥 = 2.27𝑁

𝑉𝑥 = −0.7721𝑁
𝑉𝑥 = 0.7721𝑁 ↑
iii. Discuss the outcomes from question 1a(ii) in terms of the relationship between the
external forces and shear forces obtained. You may use any type of graphical
illustrations in your discussions.

Based on the experiment that had conducted in laboratory, there are few different for the
value obtained between manual calculation and by using digital force display. Maybe it will
have a bit of different between manual calculation and the laboratory result but the different
maybe just one or two value of the result. For example, in load cases 1, value of shear force at
the cut-section in laboratory is 0.7N and for manual calculation is 0.9N. So, based on the result
that we get, we can see that the different is not too big just one or two value different between
the result in manual calculations and laboratory. The difference between manual calculation
and the laboratory value maybe it has an error while doing the laboratory.

iv. Calculate and sketch shear stress distribution at the cut-section for any load cases. Use
the beam cross section 20 mm of width and 3 mm of thickness.

Shear force diagram

Beam size

0.772(𝑦̅)(𝐴)
𝜏=
45 × 20
15
0.772 ( 2 ) (20)(15)
𝑦̅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
45 × 20
= 0.0193 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦̅ = 0.75𝑚𝑚
0.75
0.772 ( 2 × 20) (0.75)
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
45 × 20
= 0.0048𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦̅ = 𝑜𝑚𝑚
0.772(0 × 20)(0)
=
45 × 20
= 0𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

𝜏 = 0.0048𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.0193 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

𝜏 = 0.0048𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

v. Describe how shear stress works, why it's significant in design, and how it may be
decreased without reducing the external loading applied on the beam.

Shear stress exists when two parts of a material tend to slide across each other in any
typical plane of shear upon application of force parallel to that plane. Shear stress exists
when two parts of a material tend to slide across each other in any typical plane of shear
upon application of force parallel to that plane. Torsion is a variation of pure shear in which
a structural member is twisted. Torsional forces produce a rotational motion about the
longitudinal axis of one end of the member relative to the other end. Shear strength is the
maximum value of shear stress that can resist failure due to shear stress. It is a significant
parameter while designing and manufacturing machines. Example: While designing bolts
and rivets, it is indispensable to know about the material’s shear strength. To decrease
deflection for a beam you can, decrease the load, moment or length of the beam; change
the support types or location; add more supports; increase the are moment of inertia of the
modulus of elasticity or add other beams to share the load.
2.0 e-LAB2: Bending Moment and Bending Stress in Beam

In this experiment, the bending moment and bending stress of the beam at the cross
section are determined at the cut-section. The hangers are set at the sites with mass
configurations and load scenarios comparable to the e-LAB 1 technique, as shown in Figure
2.1.

Figure 2.1
(a). Place the hangers at positions with mass configurations and load cases similar to e-LAB 1
procedure.

(i) Sketch the idealized model and free body diagram of the beam. Fill Table 2.1 with the
proposed mass configurations. Modify the table if necessary for any additional information.

Idealized model

Pinned Support W1 Cut-Section W2 Pinned

Support
F

B
A C D
F

140mm 160mm 140mm 40mm 100mm

140 mm 300 mm 140 mm

Free Body Diagram

W1 Cut-Section W2
F

𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥
B
A C
D
𝐴𝑦 F
𝐵𝑦

140mm 160mm 140mm 40mm 100mm

140 mm 300 mm 140 mm

(ii) From Table 2.1, determine the shear force at the load cell, and the bending moment at the
cut section. Compare your calculations with laboratory findings.

Load cases M1(g) W1(N) M2(g) W2(N)

1 150 1.4715 150 1.4715
2 130 1.2753 170 1.6677
3 100 0.981 200 1.962
Table 2.1

Load Vx(N) Percentage Mx (Nmm) at cut-section Percentage

Cases difference difference
Calculation Laboratory Calculation Laboratory
1 1.40 1.4 0% 175.29 175.0 0.17%
2 1.43 1.5 4.67% 178.64 187.5 4.73%
3 1.47 1.6 8.13% 183.66 200.0 8.17%
Table 2.2

Calculation for load cases 1

Free body diagram:
1.4715N 1.4715N
F

𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥
B
A C
D
𝐴𝑦 F
𝐵𝑦

140mm 160mm 140mm 40mm 100mm

140 mm 300 mm 140 mm

Reaction force:
+↻ΣMA=0
-1.4715(160) -1.4715(160) +RBy (440) =0
RBy= 1.672N (↑)
+ƩFy = 0;
RAy + 1.672 – (1.4715x2) = 0
RAy = 1.271N ()

+ƩFx = 0;
Ax + Bx = 0
Ax = 0, Bx = 0

Shear force and bending moment at cut section:

1.4715N

Ax=0
Mx
A C
Vx
Ay=1.271N

140mm 160mm 140mm

140 mm 300 mm

+ƩMx = 0;
-1.271(300) + 1.715(140) + Mx= 0
Mx = 175.29 N.mm()

Shear force at cut section:

Mx = Vx x d , where d = length of lever arm

175.29 = Vx x (125)

Vx = 1.4023N()
 Shear force diagram (SFD) and bending moment diagram (BMD)of load case 1:

1.4715N 1.4715N
Vx Mx

Ax=0 Bx=0
B
A C
D
Ay=1.271N By=1.271N
140mm 160mm 15mm 125mm 40mm 100mm

140 mm 300 mm 140 mm

1.271N 1.271N
N N
Vx
SFD
0 0

-0.2005N

-1.672N -1.672N
Mx

BMD
0 0

152.55N.mm
190.65N.mm
(iii) Discuss the outcome from question 2a(ii) in terms of the accuracy of the testing, and the
relationships between the external forces and bending moment. You may use any type of
graphical illustrations in your discussions.

Based on the result that have been obtained, it shows a very small difference for load
cases 1 between the calculated value and the laboratory value which is 0.17% for the bending
moment with 175. 29N.mm and 175N.mm while the shear force shows 0% difference for the
calculation and laboratory value with 1.4N. The percentage difference increases for load cases
2 and 3. Load cases 2 shear force value for calculation is 1.43N and the laboratory value is 1.5N
which mean the percentage difference is 4.67%, while the bending moment is a bit higher with
4.73% difference. For load cases 3, the percentage difference for shear force and bending
moment is 8.13% and 8.17%. These differences happen may cause by the error while handling
the laboratory equipment that the bending moment value were influenced by the shear forces.

Shear force and bending moment diagrams are analytical tools used in conjunction with
structural analysis to help perform structural design by determining the value of shear force and
bending moment at a given point of a structural element such as a beam. It may not be obvious
at first sight, but the functions corresponding to shear force V(x) and bending moment M(x)
are intimately correlated which mean you can use one of them for calculating the other one.
Generally known that the relationship between the external force and bending moment is
directly proportional. It shown by data obtained where if the difference between the external
load applied increases, while the bending moment will also increase.

(iv) Calculate and sketch bending stress distribution at the cut-section from any load cases.
Using similar cross section from e-LAB 1. Discuss the important of bending stress in real
design, relates and justify it with your laboratory findings.

Cross sectional of the beam

Equation of bending stress
(M)(y)
𝜎= N/𝑚𝑚2
l

Where:
σ: bending stress
M: bending moment
y: distance from neutral axis to the point
bh2
I: moment of inertia, I = for rectangular shape
12

For load case 1

Bending moment at cut section, Mx = 175.29 N.mm

Moment of inertia at axis x-x

(20)(3)2
Ixx= 12

= 45mm4

Bending stress

When y = 0

175.29 x 0
σ=
45

= 0 N/mm2

When y = 0.75mm

175.29 x 0.75
σ=
45

= 2.92 N/mm2

When y = 1.5mm

175.29 x 1.5
σ=
45

= 5.84 N/mm2
Bending stress distribution diagram for load case 1

σ top = σ compression = -5.84 N/mm2

1.5mm σ = -2.92 N/mm2

NA ỹ=0mm
σ = 0 N/mm2
1.5mm σ = 2.92 N/mm2

σ bot = σ tension = 5.84 N/mm2

A bending moment is a measurement of the bending effect that can occur when a
structural member is subjected to an external force (or moment). This notion is useful in
structural engineering because it can be used to calculate where and how much bending will
occur when forces are applied.
e-lab 3: Deflection of beam
In this experiment, the maximum deflection (𝑌max⁡) of the beam was determined. The
laboratory is carry out the following instructions by referring to Figure 3.1 below and the
hangers was placed at the positions with mass configurations and load cases refer to group task
given by lecturer.

(i) Sketch the idealized model and free body diagram of the beam.

Idealized model
Free body diagram

Cut section

(ii) Complete Table 3.1. Carry out calculations and laboratory testing for the maximum
deflection from every load case. Take similar beam cross section as in e-LAB 1. You are
allowed to use any deflection methods in your calculations. Modify the table if necessary,
for any additional information.

Provide X (mm), 𝑌max⁡

Load to archive the Percentage
Cases maximum Calculations Laboratory Difference (%)
deflection (𝑌max⁡)
1 360.02 0.998 1.31 23.82
2 367.21 1.390 1.56 10.90
3 362.93 1.389 1.51 8.01

Table 3.1: The result obtained for e-lab 3

Load case 1

Find support reaction:

↺ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
−1.4715(140) − 1.4715(300) + 𝑅𝐷𝑦 (440) = 0
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡440𝑅𝐷𝑦 = 647.46⁡
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑅𝐷𝑦 = 1.4715⁡𝑁⁡(↑)
(↑)⁡𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑅𝐴𝑦 − 1.4715 − 1.4715 + 1.4715 = 0
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑅𝐴𝑦 = 1.4715⁡𝑁⁡(↑)
Using Macaulay’s Method:

↺ 𝑀𝑥 = 0
𝑀𝑥 + 1.4715(𝑥 − 140) − 1.4715(𝑥 − 280) − 1.4715(𝑥 − 440) + 1.4715(𝑥 − 580) = 0
𝑀𝑥 = −1.4715(𝑥 − 140) + 1.4715(𝑥 − 280) + 1.4715(𝑥 − 440) ⁡ − 1.4715(𝑥 − 580)

𝑴𝒙 equation:

𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 2 = 𝑀𝑥 = −1.4715(𝑥 − 140) + 1.4715(𝑥 − 280) + 1.4715(𝑥 − 440)
𝑑𝑥
− 1.4715(𝑥 − 580)

Slope equation:

𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = −0.7358(𝑥 − 140)2 + 0.7358(𝑥 − 280)2 + 0.7358(𝑥 − 440)2
𝑑𝑥
− 0.7358(𝑥 − 580)2 + 𝐶1

Deflection equation:

𝐸𝐼𝑦 = −0.2453(𝑥 − 140)3 + 0.2453(𝑥 − 280)3 + 0.2453(𝑥 − 440)3

− 0.2453(𝑥 − 580)3 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2

Boundary Condition:

At roller support, deflection will be zero, 𝑦 = 0

When, 𝑥 = 140𝑚𝑚⁡𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚⁡𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡⁡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒, 𝑦 = 0

0 0 0
𝐸𝐼(0) = −0.2453(140 − 140) + 0.2453(140 − 280) + 0.2453(140 − 440)3
3 3
0
− 0.2453(140 − 580)3 + 𝐶1 (140) + 𝐶2
𝐶2 = −140⁡𝐶1
 When 𝑥 = 580𝑚𝑚⁡, 𝑦 = 0

𝐸𝐼(0) = −0.2453(580 − 140)3 + 0.2453(580 − 280)3 + 0.2453(580 − 440)3

0
− 0.2453(580 − 580)3 + 𝐶1 (580) + 𝐶2
𝐶2 = 0.2453(440)3 − 0.2453(300)3 − 0.2453(140)3 + 580⁡𝐶1
𝐶2 = 13599432 − 580⁡𝐶1

Find 𝑪𝟏 :

−140⁡𝐶1 = 13599432 − 580⁡𝐶1

440⁡𝐶1 = 13599432
⁡𝐶1 = 30907.8

𝐶2 = −140⁡𝐶1
𝐶2 = −140⁡(30907.8)
𝐶2 = −4327092

Find 𝐱⁡𝐟𝐨𝐫⁡𝐘𝐦𝐚𝐱⁡ :

𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥, =0
𝑑𝑥
0.7358(𝑥 − 580)2 − 0.7358(𝑥 − 440)2 − 0.7358(𝑥 − 280)2 + 0.7358(𝑥 − 140)2
− 30907.8 = 0

140𝑚𝑚 ≪ 𝑥 ≪ 280𝑚𝑚
0 0 0
−0.7358(𝑥 − 140) + 0.7358(𝑥 − 280) + 0.7358(𝑥 − 440) − 0.7358(𝑥 − 580)2
2 2 2

+ 30907.8 = 0
−0.7358(𝑥 − 140)2 + 30907.8 = 0

−0.7358(𝑥 2 − 280𝑥 + 19600) + 30907.8 = 0

−0.7358𝑥 2 + 206.02𝑥 + 16486.12 = 0

𝑥1 = 344.95⁡𝑚𝑚⁡, 𝑥2 = −64.95⁡𝑚𝑚⁡ ∴ 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑡, 𝑛𝑜𝑡⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

280𝑚𝑚 ≪ 𝑥 ≪ 440𝑚𝑚

0 0
−0.7358(𝑥 − 140) + 0.7358(𝑥 − 280) + 0.7358(𝑥 − 440) − 0.7358(𝑥 − 580)2
2 2 2

+ 30907.8 = 0
−0.7358(𝑥 − 140)2 + 0.7358(𝑥 − 280)2 + 30907.8 = 0
−0.7358(𝑥 2 − 280𝑥 + 19600) + 0.7358(𝑥 2 − 560𝑥 + 78400) + 30907.8 = 0
−0.7358𝑥 2 + 206.02𝑥 − 14421.68 + 0.7358𝑥 2 − 412.05𝑥 + 57686.72 + 30907.8 = 0
−206.03𝑥 = −74172.84
𝑥 = 360.00⁡𝑚𝑚
∴ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡⁡𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒⁡𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒⁡𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

440𝑚𝑚 ≪ 𝑥 ≪ 580𝑚𝑚

0
−0.7358(𝑥 − 140) + 0.7358(𝑥 − 280) + 0.7358(𝑥 − 440) − 0.7358(𝑥 − 580)2
2 2 2

+ 30907.8 = 0
−0.7358(𝑥 − 140)2 + 0.7358(𝑥 − 280)2 + 0.7358(𝑥 − 440)2 + 30907.8 = 0
−0.7358(𝑥 2 − 280𝑥 + 19600) + 0.7358(𝑥 2 − 560𝑥 + 78400)
+ 0.7358(𝑥 2 − 880𝑥 + 193600) + 30907.8 = 0
−0.7358𝑥 2 + 206.02𝑥 − 14421.68 + 0.7358𝑥 2 − 412.05𝑥 + 57686.72 + 0.7358𝑥 2
− 647.50𝑥 + 142450.88 + 30907.8 = 0
0.7358𝑥 2 − 853.53𝑥 + 216623.72 = 0
𝑥1 = 784.93⁡𝑚𝑚⁡, 𝑥2 = 375.07⁡𝑚𝑚
∴ 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑡, 𝑛𝑜𝑡⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
 Find 𝐘𝐦𝐚𝐱⁡ when 𝒙 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎. 𝟎𝟎⁡𝒎𝒎 :

𝐸 = 69⁡𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 69000⁡𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

Aluminium beam sample

3 mm 𝑥
𝑦
20 mm

bh3 20(33 )
Ixx = =⁡
12 12
= 45mm4

0
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = −0.2453(360.00 − 140)3 + 0.2453(360.00 − 280)3 + 0.2453(360.00 − 440)3
0
− 0.2453(360.00 − 580)3 + 30907.8(360.00) − 4327092
(96000)(45)(𝑦) = −0.2453(220)3 + 0.2453(80)3 + 30907.8(360.02) − 4327092
4313355.2
𝑦=
4320000
𝑦 = 0.998⁡𝑚𝑚
(iii)Discuss the outcome from question 3a(ii) in terms of relationships between external forces
and the maximum deflection from this experiment. You may use any type of graphical
illustrations as part in your discussions.

1.6

1.4
Maximum Deflection, mm

1.2

0.8
calculation
0.6 laboratory
0.4

0.2

0
0 40 100
Difference between load, g

The relationship between external forces and the maximum deflection from this
experiment is directly proportional which is when the difference between two loads are
increases, the maximum deflection also increases. This can be seen through in Table 3.1
which is maximum deflection value for the laboratory increase if the load difference and
also the distance to archive the maximum deflection increase.
e-LAB 4: Buckling of Compression Member

This experiment will determine the critical buckling load (Pcr) of aluminium strut. This
experiment is carried out by using this Figure 4.1 from the instructions.

Figure 4.1

Table 4.1 shows the calculation for critical buckling load for each size and end restrain
conditions.
Strut Length (mm) Critical Buckling Load, Pcr
Pinned-Pinned (N) Pinned-Fixed (N) Fixed-Fixed (N)
370 45.9 65.6 91.9
470 28.5 40.7 56.9
520 23.3 33.2 46.5
Table 4.1

Table 4.2 shows the differences between calculation and laboratory results for pinned-pinned
condition.
Strut Length (mm) Critical Buckling Load, Pcr Percentage
Pinned-Pinned (N) Difference (%)
Calculation Laboratory
370 45.9 40.0 12.85
470 28.5 25.0 12.28
520 23.3 20.0 14.16
Table 4.2
Table 4.3 shows the differences between calculation and laboratory results for pinned-fixed
condition.
Strut Length (mm) Critical Buckling Load, Pcr Percentage
Pinned-Fixed (N) Difference (%)
Calculation Laboratory
370 65.6 61.0 7.01
470 40.7 37.0 9.09
520 33.2 31.0 6.62
Table 4.3

Table 4.4 shows the differences between calculation and laboratory results for fixed-fixed
condition.
Strut Length (mm) Critical Buckling Load, Pcr Percentage
Fixed-Fixed (N) Difference (%)
Calculation Laboratory
370 91.9 85 7.51
470 56.9 52 8.61
520 46.5 43 7.53
Table 4.4

Load case 1:

Figure 4.2 Cross-section area of the strut

𝐵ℎ3
Ixx = 12

19(1.83 )
=
12

= 9.234𝑚𝑚4
𝐵ℎ3
Iyy = 12

1.8(193 )
= 12

= 1028.85𝑚𝑚4
∴ 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Free Body Diagram:

Figure 4.3 Fixed-Fixed

Figure 4.4 Pinned-Fixed

Figure 4.5 Pinned-Pinned

Calculation for each situation:
1. Pinned-Pinned

K=1
E = 69000N/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
Pcr = 𝑘𝐿2

L = 370mm
𝜋 2 (69000)(9.234)
=
1(3702 )

= 45.9N
L = 470mm
𝜋 2 (69000)(9.234)
= 1(4702 )

= 28.5N
L = 520mm
𝜋 2 (69000)(9.234)
= 1(5202 )

= 23.3N
2. Pinned-Fixed

K = 0.7
L = 370mm
𝜋 2 (69000)(9.234)
= 0.7(3702 )

= 65.6N
L = 470mm
𝜋 2 (69000)(9.234)
= 0.7(4702 )

= 40.7N
L = 520mm
𝜋 2 (69000)(9.234)
= 0.7(5202 )

= 33.2N
 3. Fixed-Fixed

K = 0.5
L = 370mm
𝜋 2 (69000)(9.234)
= 0.5(3702 )

= 91.9N
L = 470mm
𝜋 2 (69000)(9.234)
=
0.5(4702 )

= 56.9N
L = 520mm
𝜋 2 (69000)(9.234)
= 0.5(5202 )

= 46.5N

Graphical sketch shown the relationship between strut length and Pcr value for each
situation:

Pcr value VS Strut length

100
80
60
Pcr (N)

40
20
0
370 470 520
Strut Length (mm)

Pinned-Pinned Calculation Pinned-Pinned Laboratory

Pinned-Fixed Calculation Pinned-Fixed Laboratory
Fixed-Fixed Calculation Fixed-Fixed Laboratory

There are slightly differences between manual calculation and laboratory results because of the
aluminium strut have been used several times that it has not in the best condition to give the
precise results.
Identification of the classification of the compression member for each aluminium strut
length at respective end restraint conditions:

k: effective length factor

L: length of strut
r: smallest radius of gyration
𝐼
=√𝐴

Ixx = 9.234𝑚𝑚4
9.234𝑚𝑚4
r = √ (1.8)(19)

= 0.52𝑚𝑚

kL/r
Strut Length (mm) Pinned-Pinned k=1
Pinned-Fixed k=0.7 Fixed-Fixed k=0.5
1(370)
= 711.54 0.7(370) 0.5(370)
370 0.52 = 498.08 = 355.77
0.52 0.52
1(470)
= 903.85 0.7(470) 0.5(470)
470 0.52 = 632.69 = 451.92
0.52 0.52
1(520)
= 1000 0.7(520) 0.5(520)
520 0.52 = 700 = 500
0.52 0.52

End Restraint Classification Of

Strut Length (mm) kL/r
Conditions Compression Member
Pinned-Pinned 711.54 Long column-Elastic buckling
370 Pinned-Fixed 498.08 Long column-Elastic buckling
Fixed-Fixed 355.77 Long column-Elastic buckling
Pinned-Pinned 903.85 Long column-Elastic buckling
470 Pinned-Fixed 632.69 Long column-Elastic buckling
Fixed-Fixed 451.92 Long column-Elastic buckling
Pinned-Pinned 1000 Long column-Elastic buckling
520 Pinned-Fixed 700 Long column-Elastic buckling
Fixed-Fixed 500 Long column-Elastic buckling

Because the effective slenderness ratio, kL/r, is larger than 89, the compression member
classification for each aluminium strut in this calculation is the same, which is long column-
elastic buckling. This finding is reasonable because the type of buckling seen during the
experiment was all elastic buckling, no inelastic buckling has been seen.
e-LAB 5: Mechanical properties of tension member

Reinforcement bar tensile testing is performed using a universal tester (UTM) at 1000kN
with reference to the specific practice standards of BS EN ISO 68921: 2019. The rebar ϕ (mm) and
the stress-strain curves testing output given from lecture is shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.1
Rebar size :12 mm

Figure 5.2: Stress-Strain Curve

(i) Recognize the standard safety operational procedure to be fulfilled before conducting this
testing. Provide any related images or sketches illustrations as part of your discussions.

First and foremost, the danger when lifting. Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is the task of lifting
large objects that can cause personal injury such as muscle aches, joint aches, and tendons. In this
scenario, a forklift is needed to lift and position the UTM. Before lifting an object, determine its
size and weight and follow these general lifting guidelines:
i. Evaluate buoyancy and determine the weight of the object.
ii. Bend our knees and hold firmly.
iii. Keep our back straight and raise your legs straight to avoid twisting. It is important to lift
with our feet, not our back.
iv. If the object is too big or too heavy to lift alone, ask for help. All machine operators, such
as equipment, need to be thoroughly trained and licensed if mechanical assistance is needed
to perform the lifting operation.
 Secondly, there is a risk of tripping because the cable and hose are connected to the UTM.
We need to follow safety measures to avoid tripping over these dangers. When working near test
equipment, make sure that the operator is lifting rather than dragging, and monitor the path of travel
for obstacles that could pose a risk of tripping. Next, the types of mechanical hazards (moving parts)
caused by the machine are cutting or slicing hazards, snagging, striking, piercing or puncturing
hazards, entanglement, pulling or confinement, high pressure fluid injection, and friction or wear.
Moreover, there is a risk that two objects will move together and at least one of them will rotate.
There is a risk of pinching a part of the body. Hands, hair, and work clothes may be pinched or
pulled. So, to avoid it wear tight clothing to prevent this. We need to protect the area near the
rotating element and tie the hair. Last but not least, Personal protective equipment (PPE). Based on
the surgical techniques described in this OSHA manual, we recommend at least the following to
minimize damage:

i. Lab coat. ii. Long pants iii. Close-toed shoes iv. Safety glasses
(ii) Establish the sample preparations prior to sample installation and testing. Provide any
related images, sketches or schematic diagram as part of your discussions.
The first is sample selection and dimensions, and test piece location. Samples come in many
product forms: profiles, bars, flats, tube materials. Steel bars are used in this test and the dimensions
used are 12 mm (diameter) and 600 mm (length). Next is cutting and editing. Precautions must be
taken during cutting and machining to avoid superficial work hardening and heating of the sample,
which can alter the mechanical properties of the sample. After machining, remove any traces of
tools that may interfere with the inspection results. Samples should be provided by keeping the
dimensions and shape within the tolerances specified in the standard for proper testing. Last
reference heat treatment. If heat treatment is required, the heat treatment specifications for the
sample should be the same as for the raw sample. Complete the values in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1

Yield Strength (MPa), σy 478

Ultimate Strength (MPa), σult 661

Ratio of σult / σy 1.18

Elastic region From: 0MPa to 478MPa

Plastic region From: 478MPa to 661MPa

(iii) Produce a standard testing procedure (SOP) for tensile testing of your rebar accordingto
BS EN ISO 6892-1: 2019. Provide any related graphical or schematic diagram if necessary.

The Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is used to test the tensile strength of specimens in
accordance with BS EN ISO 68921: 2019. Reinforcing bar tensile tests are performed on a Universal
Testing Machine (UTM) at 1000 kN with reference to the specific practice standards of BS EN ISO
68921: 2019. Before conducting the test. The dimensions of the sample are measured. First, use an
extensometer to measure a gauge length of 50 mm. 12mm rebar is placed on the grip. Then fix the
12mm rebar first to the top of the handle and then gently fix the sample to the bottom handle. Third,
the extensometer is mounted on a gauge length of 50 mm. Fourth, make sure all test machines are
zero before starting the test. Fifth, the test started by clicking the software start button. Finally, the
test ends after the sample fails. Once all the data has been entered into the software, the graph will
be generated automatically.

(iv) Discuss whether the strength of this steel rebar is satisfied by the standard code of
practice.

No. The strength of this steel rebar is satisfied by the standard code of practice. Because
the standard high yield strength steel, 𝑓 = 500𝑀𝑃𝑎, while the yield strength indicated in this test
is 478MPa. Thus, the 478MPa is lower than 500MPa (standard). Besides that, the tensile ratio,
Rm/Re obtained in this test (1.18) is also at the range of standard and the Ag obtained in this test
(10.10%) is also greater than the standard. Thus, we can conclude that this steel rebar is not
satisfied by the standard code.

Figure: The Characteristic tensile properties (MS 146: 2014)

e-OEQ: Open Ended Question

OE 1:

What are the main purposes to conduct laboratory/ experiment on the structural
members?
The purpose of performing structural member laboratories or experimental work is to
learn more about the concept of structural members under tension. Students will investigate
how the behaviour of the system changes over time, and when the system becomes unstable or
non-functional. The purpose of this structure is to properly transfer the load to the support so
that it can handle the load on the support. When a load is applied, internal and external forces
and displacements are calculated to ensure the safety of the structure. Further investigation is
required to determine bending moments, shear forces, and other properties in the relevant
sections.

OE 2:

How significant the outcome from laboratory/ experiment is assuredly proven to be as a

reliable finding?
The laboratory needs to demonstrate that the test can be performed in a clinically
appropriate manner. State and federal regulatory agencies monitor the lab and set the
requirements that must be followed in order to perform tests. These are some standards. Labs
need to perform standard quality control tests daily, often multiple times each day. Normal and
abnormal specimens are typically included in quality control tests and ensure that the
equipment, technicians, and reagents used in the tests meet established standards. In addition
to quality control testing, the lab must participate in a proficiency testing program. External
agencies provide "challenge" samples that are graded for proficiency testing. The institute is
obliged to submit the results to the authorities. The agency has previously evaluated each test
sample and is aware of the expected results. This assessment compares the results of other
participating labs and records any similarities or discrepancies that may be related to the test
method used. To continue testing patient samples, the laboratory must receive the correct
results. If the lab does not consistently provide good results, it is forbidden to run tests until
you can prove that the problem that is causing the unacceptable results has been resolved. The
lab must demonstrate that policies and processes are in place to document the methods of
sample collection, transportation, analysis, and written reporting. These guidelines ensure that
tests performed in clinical patient care labs provide reproducible and reliable results.

OE 3:

What are the alternative methods to provide reliable finding without doing laboratory/
experiment?
Simulation testing with structural analysis and design software is an alternative way to
provide reliable results. Structural analysis and design software similar to Building Information
Modeling (BIM). Therefore, all relevant data can be entered into the software and the software
can automatically calculate and analyze the structure.