Table of Contents

Chapter 2: EARTH’S STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION.........................................................................................4

 Definition............................................................................................................................................................ 4
o Atmosphere.....................................................................................................................................................4
o Surface.............................................................................................................................................................4
 STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.........................................................................................................................5
o Chemically......................................................................................................................................................5
o Mechanically...................................................................................................................................................6
 How Do Plates Move...........................................................................................................................................7
 PLATE BOUNDARIES......................................................................................................................................7
o Divergent Boundaries......................................................................................................................................7
o Convergent Boundaries...................................................................................................................................7
 Definition............................................................................................................................................................ 9
o Steps................................................................................................................................................................ 9
 Elements of Minerals...........................................................................................................................................9
 Properties of Minerals.........................................................................................................................................9
o Color................................................................................................................................................................ 9
o Streak...............................................................................................................................................................9
o Transparency...................................................................................................................................................9
o Luster...............................................................................................................................................................9
o Density............................................................................................................................................................ 9
o Hardness..........................................................................................................................................................9
o Tenacity...........................................................................................................................................................9
o Crystal Habit...................................................................................................................................................9
 Definition..........................................................................................................................................................10
 Types of Rocks..................................................................................................................................................10
o Igneous Rocks...............................................................................................................................................10
o Sedimentary Rocks........................................................................................................................................10
o Metamorphic Rocks.......................................................................................................................................10
 Definition..........................................................................................................................................................11
o How Rock Cycle Driven................................................................................................................................11
 Rock Cycle Explanation....................................................................................................................................11
 Latitude............................................................................................................................................................. 12
 Description of Latitude Zones...........................................................................................................................13
 Longitude..........................................................................................................................................................14
 Definition..........................................................................................................................................................15
 Earth’s Rotation on its Axis...............................................................................................................................15
o Coriolis Effect...............................................................................................................................................15
o Tides of ocean...............................................................................................................................................15

1
 o Day & Night alteration..................................................................................................................................15
o Bulge at equator.............................................................................................................................................15
 Earth’s revolution around the sun......................................................................................................................15
 Change in seasons.............................................................................................................................................15
 Equinox and Solstice.........................................................................................................................................15
 Day and night at Arctic and Antarctic...............................................................................................................15
 Difference between Rotation of Earth and Revolution of Earth.........................................................................15
Rotation of Earth...................................................................................................................................................16
Revolution of Earth...............................................................................................................................................16
 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................17
 ELEMENTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE................................................................................................17
o Temperature...................................................................................................................................................17
o Humidity........................................................................................................................................................17
o Precipitation...................................................................................................................................................17
o Atmospheric Pressure....................................................................................................................................17
o Wind.............................................................................................................................................................. 17
o Cloud............................................................................................................................................................. 17
 Weather Forecasting..........................................................................................................................................17
 Definition..........................................................................................................................................................18
 Factor Affecting Climate...................................................................................................................................18
o Distance from the equator..............................................................................................................................18
o Distance from the sea....................................................................................................................................18
o Nature of prevailing winds............................................................................................................................18
o Cloud cover...................................................................................................................................................18
o Ocean currents...............................................................................................................................................18
o Direction of the mountains............................................................................................................................18
o Slope..............................................................................................................................................................18
o The nature of the soil.....................................................................................................................................18
 Climate Classification.......................................................................................................................................18
o A= Tropical Moist.........................................................................................................................................19
o B= Dry Desert...............................................................................................................................................19
o C= Mid-Latitude Climates.............................................................................................................................19
o D= Mid Latitude Continental.........................................................................................................................19
o E= Polar.........................................................................................................................................................19
o H= Highland..................................................................................................................................................19
 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................20
 Definition..........................................................................................................................................................20
 Classification.....................................................................................................................................................20
o Physical/Abiotic Environment.......................................................................................................................20

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 o Living/Biotic Environment............................................................................................................................20
 Components.......................................................................................................................................................20
 GASES.............................................................................................................................................................. 21
o Constant Gases..............................................................................................................................................21
o Variable Gases...............................................................................................................................................21
 Characteristics of Atmosphere...........................................................................................................................21
o Maintenance of temperature..........................................................................................................................21
o Atmospheric pressure and Air temperature....................................................................................................21
o Lowest to higher layer...................................................................................................................................21
 Layers of Earth..................................................................................................................................................21
o Troposphere...................................................................................................................................................21
o Stratosphere...................................................................................................................................................21
o Mesosphere....................................................................................................................................................21
o Thermosphere................................................................................................................................................21
o Exosphere......................................................................................................................................................21
o Explanation....................................................................................................................................................22
 Importance of Atmosphere................................................................................................................................22

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 Chapter 1: ASTRONOMY
 1. Astronomy
o It is the study of universe which includes celestial bodies, gas and dust.
 2. Universe
o All sum total of all matter and energy that exists or has existed both in space and time
 3. Astronomical System of Units
o 1. Unit of Time
 Day is the unit and D is symbol
o 2. Unit of Mass
 Solar Mass is Unit 1.98892x1030
 It is equal to sun mass
o 3. Unit of Length
 Distance between the Earth and the Sun is 150 million KM
 Light-year and parsec are units
 Light Year
 Distance that travel in one year in a vacuum, 5.8x1012
 4. Origin of the Universe
o 1. Big Bang Theory
 Day is the unit and D is symbol
o 2. Evidence for the Big Bang
 Day is the unit and D is symbol
o 3. The Ultimate Fate of the Universe
 Day is the unit and D is symbol
 Galaxy
o A gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, gas, dust and dark matter. It is
derived from the Greek galaxias, literally “milky” a reference to the Milky Way.
o Example
 Milky Way and Andromeda

4
GEOGRAPHY
Chapter 1: EARTH’S STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
o Astronomy
o Earth Science is the study of Earth’s Atmosphere and Surface.
o It includes the following areas:-
o Atmosphere
 1. Lithosphere
 2. Atmosphere
 3. Hydrosphere
 4. Biosphere
o Surface
 1. Geology
 2. Biogeography
 3. Zoogeography
 4. Oceanography
 5. Hydrology
 6. Meteorology
 7. Climatology
 8. Astrophysics
 9. Astronomy

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 EARTH’S STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
 STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
o The structure of the earth is divided into two categories:- Mechanically & Chemically
o Chemically
 It is divided into Crust, Mantle, Outer core and Inner core
 Earth Crust
 Definition/Meaning
o Outermost layer of earth is called crust.
 Physical Composition
o This is comprises of Continental (40-50 KM thickness) and Oceanic
Crusts (5-10 KM thickness).
o The rocks are made up of three kinds Igneous, Sedimentary and
Metamorphic
o Mohorovicic or Moho is the boundary between Lithosphere and
Mantle
 Chemical Composition
o The crust is composed of Aluminosilicate.
 The Mantle
 Chemical Composition
o This is comprises of Magnesium Silicates.
 Physical Composition
o It is about 2900 KM deep.
o It is subdivided into two upper mantle and lower mantle
 Upper Mantle
 Chemical Composition
 Upper mantle is compose of Magnesium
Silicates
 Physical Composition
 There are two zones:- Asthenosphere and
Transition
 It is 400 KM deep from Moho and within the
upper mantle there is a zone called
Asthenosphere (the zone of weakness)
 After Asthenosphere (the zone of weakness)
another zone called transition is about 400 KM
to 670 KM deep
 In transition zone the minerals undergo in a
process of change in structure and form another
atomic arrangements
 Lower Mantle
 Chemical Composition
 The lower mantle consist of Magnesium, Silicon
and Iron
 Physical Composition
 The mantle below 670 KM is called lower
mantle
 It is denser then upper mantle due to increase in
pressure
 Core
 The core is divided into Outer Core and Inner Core
 Outer Core
 Chemical Composition
 It is composed of Nickel-Iron Alloy

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  Physical Composition
 The outer core is 2300 KM thick
 It remains in liquid state
 Inner Core
 Chemical Composition
 It is composed of Iron
 Physical Composition
 The inner core is 1200 KM thick
 It remains in solid state due to high pressure
o Mechanically
 It is divided into Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, Mesospheric mantle, Outer Core and
Inner Core
 Lithosphere
 Physical Composition
o It comprises the Crust and solid portion
o It is 100 KM deep
 Asthenosphere
 Physical Composition
o It is weaker than lithosphere
o It remains in Semi-Liquid form
 Mesosphere
 It refers to the region of Mantle

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 TECTONIC PLATES
 The concept of tectonic plates was formulated in 1960s.
 According to the theory the lithosphere is broken up into a dozen large plates and several small ones.
 Many smaller plates are remnants/leftover/waste of once larger plates that are now being sub-ducted.
 These plates move relative to each other typically at the rate of 1 to 10 CM (0.4 to 4 inches) per year
and interact along with boundaries
 How Do Plates Move
o Due to breakdown of Radioactive Isotopes within the Mantle heat is produced which causes
convection in the Mantle i.e. hot rocks rise and cold rocks descend, hence The driving
mechanism for plates is hidden in convection within Earth’s Mantle.
o This slow motion in solid state transfers stresses to the lithosphere which causes the
movement of tectonic plates
 PLATE BOUNDARIES
o Divergent Boundaries
 At a divergent boundary, magma from the Asthenosphere wells up in the opening
between plates that spills out onto the ocean floor.
 Divergent boundary is represented by Mid-ocean ridge
 Most of Mid-ocean ridges are either active or extinct spreading ridges.
 Such spreading ridges are associated with Shallow focus earthquakes [Meaning that
the ruptures (separation) that generate earthquakes are within about 70 KM of the
surface] volcanic activity and hydrothermal metamorphism.
 Divergent boundaries are said to be constructive because material is being added to
such crustal surface
 Divergent boundaries can also develop/grow within continent resulting in continental
rift valley i.e. East African Rift Valley and Red Sea.
o Convergent Boundaries
 At a convergent boundary plates collides and sometimes also called destructive
boundaries because they result in removal or compression of surface crust.
 Convergent plates are responsible for massive landforms: major mountain ranges,
volcanoes and oceanic trenches
 Types of convergent boundaries
 Oceanic-Continental Convergence
 Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence
 Continental-Continental Convergence
 Oceanic-Continental Convergence
 Oceanic lithosphere always under rides continental lithosphere because of its
heavy density of Oceanic lithosphere
 Slab pull is the main cause of most plate movement
 Shallow-focus earthquakes are common at the trench because sub-ducting
plate descends into the asthenosphere so earthquakes are as deep as 600 KM
below the surface
 Oceanic crust is relatively cold that’s why it takes long time to melt down
when it approaches to Asthenosphere
 Mountain range and parallel oceanic trench is formed as a result of Oceanic-
Continental Convergence i.e. Andes range of South America and Cascades in
northwestern North American
 The chain of volcanoes that develops by Oceanic-Continental plate sub-
duction referred as Continental Volcanic Arc.
 Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence
 When Oceanic-Oceanic convergence takes place sub-duction also takes place
consequently oceanic trench is formed, shallow sea and deep focus
earthquakes occur and volcanic activity initiated on ocean floor.

8
  With time Volcanic island arc develops i.e. Aleutian Island and Mariana
Islands
 These Volcanic islands eventually matures such as Japan and Island of
Sumatra and Java in Indonesia
 Continental- Continental Convergence
 Where tectonic plates slip horizontally past one another, lithosphere is neither
created nor destroyed that’s why they are classified as Conservative
 The San Andreas Fault in California, United States is the most famous fault
system

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 MINERALS
 Definition
o Mineral is a naturally occurring, Inorganic solid that has a crystalline structure and have a
definite chemical composition
o Steps
 Mineral is a:-
 Naturally occurring
 Inorganic solid
 That has a crystalline structure
 And definite chemical composition.
 Elements of Minerals
o There are eight elements that make up most of these minerals:-
 Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium and
they are account for about 90% of the earth crust.
o Presently, about 4000 minerals have been identified
 Properties of Minerals
o There are several properties which are used to identify physical and chemical properties of
minerals:-
o Color
 Minerals derive their color from the presence of a particular element within crystal
 Presence of that element determines which wavelength of light will reflect and which
will be absorbed.
o Streak
 Streak is the color which a mineral displays when it has been ground to a fine powder.
 Trace amounts of impurities do not affect the streak of a mineral
o Transparency
 Mineral that possess metallic bonding/skin are opaque/dense/cloudy as they do not
transmit light.
 Mineral that possess Ionic bonding/skin are transparent as they allow transmission of
light.
o Luster
 It indicates how much light is being reflected by the surface of mineral.
o Density
 The property of density is defined as mass per unit volume. Density is used to identify
the mineral
 Minerals whose chemical composition contains heavy metals or atoms possessing an
atomic number greater than iron are relatively dense
 Dark color mineral are fairly dense
 Light color trend to be less dense
o Hardness
 It is define as the level of difficulty with which a smooth surface of a mineral may be
scratched and it is measured according to the Moh’s scale.
o Tenacity
 Tenacity refers to a mineral's resistance to breaking, bending, or otherwise being
deformed
o Crystal Habit
 Crystal habit is the characteristic external shape of an individual crystal or crystal
group. A single crystal's habit is a description of its general shape and its
crystallographic forms, plus how well developed each form is. Recognizing the habit
may help in identifying a mineral.

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 ROCKS
 Definition
o A rock is any naturally occurring solid material consisting of one or more minerals.
o A rock is a solid mass of geological materials. Geological materials include individual
mineral crystals, inorganic non-mineral solids like glass, pieces broken from other rocks, and
even fossils.
 Types of Rocks
o There are mainly three types of rocks
o Igneous Rocks
 Igneous rocks form from the cooling and hardening of magma or lava.
 It is further classify in two categories:
 Extrusive rocks
o Extrusive rocks are formed when the magma comes out on surface and
cools down.
 Intrusive rocks
o Intrusive rocks are formed when magma solidifies below the earth
crust.
o Sedimentary Rocks
 Weathering is the process through which rocky materials break down due to physical,
chemical or biological reasons. Those broken pieces of rock are called sediments.
 Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments that get buried compacted and
cemented together into a single rock layer.
 It is further classify in three categories:
 Organic or Biologic Sedimentary
o Organic or Biologic Sedimentary forms mainly comprise of coal and
limestone which are formed due to deposition and accumulation of
dead plants and animals in rock layers.
 Chemical Sediment
o Chemical Sediment layer are formed when chemical reactions between
minerals present in rock forms settle down as precipitate and converts
to rock forms over a period of time.
 Clastic Sediments
o Clastic Sediments are formed when rock layers are formed due to
mechanical weathering of rock forms.
o Metamorphic Rocks
 The name of metamorphic rocks is form the Greek work “Meta” which means change
and “morphs” means form. Metamorphic rocks form when any rock is exposed to
extremely intense heat and pressure. The heat and pressure cause the rock to change
into a new form of rock called metamorphic rock.
 It has two types
 Foliated metamorphic rock
o Foliated metamorphic rock forms when pressure squeezes the flat or
elongate minerals within a rock so they become aligned.
 Non-foliated metamorphic rocks
o Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have a platy or sheet-like
structure. There are several ways that non-foliated rocks can be
produced. Some rocks, such as limestone are made of minerals that are
not flat or elongate.

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 ROCK CYCLE
 Definition
o Rock cycle helps to explain how rocks are formed from other rocks.
o Rock cycle can be defined as time consuming transitions through geologic time among the
three main rock types sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous.
o How Rock Cycle Driven
 The rock cycle is driven by two forces:-
 Earth's internal heat engine, which moves material around in the core and the
mantle and leads to slow but significant changes within the crust
 The hydrological cycle, which is the movement of water, ice, and air at the
surface, and is powered by the sun.
 Rock Cycle Explanation
o Through the various plate-tectonics-related processes of mountain building, all types of rocks
are uplifted and exposed at the surface. Once exposed, they are weathered, both physically
(by mechanical breaking of the rock) and chemically (by weathering of the minerals), and the
weathering products—mostly small rock and mineral fragments—are eroded, transported,
and then deposited as sediments. Transportation and deposition occur through the action of
glaciers, streams, waves, wind, and other agents, and sediments are deposited in rivers, lakes,
deserts, and the ocean.

12
 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
 Latitude
o Latitude and longitude, coordinate system (Coordinate system is an arrangement of reference
lines or curves used to identify the location of points in space) by means of which the
position or location of any place on Earth’s surface can be determined and described.
o Latitude is a geographic coordination that specifies the north south position of a point on the
Earth’s surface. Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0o at Equator to 90o North to South
at the poles.
o Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the precise location of features on the
surface of the Earth.

13
 Description of Latitude Zones

o Low Latitude between equator and 30 o N and S

o Mid Latitude between about 30 o and 60 o N and S
o High Latitude greater than 60o N and S

14
 Longitude

15
 EARTH-SUN RELATIONSHIP
 Definition
o Life of earth is dependent on solar energy and earth perpetually moves around the earth due
to which the relationship between sun-earth does not remain same throughout the year.
 Earth’s Rotation on its Axis
o Earth rotates from west to east on its Axis a complete rotation requires 24 hours; the moon,
the sun and star appear to rise in the east and set in the West; this is of course an illusion
created due to rotation of earth.
o The speed of earth where is by latitude it is constant at any given place on Earth so we
experience no sense of motion rotation has several striking effect on physical characteristics
of surface of the earth most important are the following:-
o Coriolis Effect
 An effect whereby a mass moving in a rotating system experiences a force (the
Coriolis force) acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the axis of
rotation. On the earth, the effect tends to deflect moving objects to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern and is important in the formation
of cyclonic weather systems.
o Tides of ocean
 High tides and low tides are caused by the Moon. The Moon's gravitational pull
generates something called the tidal force. The tidal force causes Earth—and its water
—to bulge out on the side closest to the Moon and the side farthest from the Moon.
These bulges of water are high tides.
o Day & Night alteration
 The most important fact of Earth rotation is alteration of light and darkness;  first a
portion of Earth's surface turn towards and then move away from the Sun
o Bulge at equator
 The rotation of earth has created Bulge at equator
 Earth’s revolution around the sun
o Another significant/ important earth motion is its Revolution around the sun. Each
Revolution takes 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes and 46 seconds. This is officially known as the
tropical year.  The path followed by the earth in its journey around the sun is not a true circle
but an ellipse because of elliptical Orbit the earth and sun distance is not constant rather it's
varies. 
 Change in seasons
o The seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth's rotational axis away or toward the sun as it
travels through its year-long path around the sun. The Earth has a tilt of 23.5 degrees relative
to the "ecliptic plane".
 Equinox and Solstice
o There are only two times of the year when the earth's axis tilts neither towards nor away from
the Sun. Resultantly in a nearly equal amount of daylight and darkness. These events are
referred to as equinoxes. The word equinox is derived from to Latin word “Aequus” (equal)
and “nox” (night).
o Solstice is an astronomical event that occurs twice each year in June and December as the sun
reaches its highest and lowest point relative to the equator. The day of Solstice is either
longest day of the year (summer Solstice) or the shortest day of the year (winter Solstice) for
any place outside the tropics. 
 Day and night at Arctic and Antarctic 
o Antarctica has six months of daylight in its summer and six months of darkness in its winter.
During summer, Antarctica is on the side of Earth tilted toward the sun and is in constant
sunlight. In the winter, Antarctica is on the side of Earth tilted away from the sun, causing the
continent to be dark.
 Difference between Rotation of Earth and Revolution of Earth

16
 Rotation of Earth
Rotation of earth is the spinning at its own axis.
Earth completes one rotation in one day.
Due to rotation days and nights are formed
Earth rotates from west to east.
Rotation speed at equator is almost 1000 mph
Rotation is the cause of tides, currents and winds.
Rotation causes bulge at the equator of earth.
Revolution of Earth
Revolution of earth is the movement of earth
around sun
Earth completes one revolution in one year
Due to rotation of earth seasons are formed
Earth revolves counter clock-wise
Revolution speed is incredible 66,000 mph
Revolution is the cause of equinox and
solstice.
Revolution balances centrifugal and
centripetal forces of the earth.
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 CLIMATE AND WEATHER
 Introduction
o Weather describes the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time  i.e. from day
to day or week to week,  boy climate this climate describes average conditions over a long
period of time. Humidity, air, temperature, pressure, wind speed, wind direction, cloud cover
and type, and the amount and the form of precipitation are all atmospheric characteristics of
the weather.
o It has been said that climate is what you expect, weather is what you get. In other words, you
can expect snow in Murree in January, but you may or may not get it on a particular day. The
climate of an area or country is known through the average weather over a long period of
time. If an area has more dry days throughout the year then wet days, it would be described as
a dry climate.
 ELEMENTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE
o Temperature
 Temperature is hot or cold temperature is how many degrees Celsius it is above or
below freezing. Temperature is a very important factor in the precipitation, humidity,
clouds and atmosphere pressure.
o Humidity
 Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Water vapor results from
operation or transpiration. Humidity is measured in terms of gram per cubic meter.
The amount of water vapor in a volume of air is known as absolute humidity. The
amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere compared to that compared that
when the air is fully saturated is relative humidity.
o Precipitation
 Precipitation is the term given to the moisture that falls from the air to the ground.
Precipitation includes snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, fog, mist and rain.
o Atmospheric Pressure
 Atmospheric pressure is the weight of air resting on the Earth's surface. pressure is
shown on a weather map open called a synoptic map,  with lines called isobars. 
o Wind
 Wind is the movement of air masses from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
o Cloud
 Clouds can be referred as a visible mass of condensed water vapour floating in the
atmosphere typically high above the ground. Condensation or deposition water above
the Earth's surface creates clouds. In general, clouds develop in any air mass that
becomes saturated.
 Weather Forecasting
o The prediction of weather at some future time is based upon an understanding of weather
processes and observations of present conditions of weather. When there is a certain sequence
of cloud types, rain usually can be expected to follow. With the establishment of weather
observation stations, continuous and accurate weather information became available. Now
better weather forecasts are available with the use of weather satellites. Weather conditions
are televised every day. When dangerous weather is expected warnings are issued over the
radio television and newspaper so that people can prepare to save themselves and their
property.

18
 Climate
 Definition
o Climate is the composite or generally prevailing weather condition of a region, as
temperature, air, pressure, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloudiness and winds throughout
the year, averaged over a series of years.
 Factor Affecting Climate
o Different regions of the world have differences in temperature, humidity and precipitation.
These differences influence the lifestyle of the people living under different climate
conditions. To understand different climatic conditions, it is important to understand the
factor which causes the variations in different climate of a place or region.
o Distance from the equator
 The places near the equator are warmer than the places which are far away from it.
This is because the rays of Sun fall vertically on the equator which is near the equator
is then England which is far away from the equator. Height from the sea level.
Mountains are cooler than the plains the temperature decreases with the height of
place the temperature of Murree and Quetta is less than Multan
o Distance from the sea
 Water is a bad conductor of heat. It takes long time to heat and longer time to cool.
Due to this moderating effect of the sea places near the coast have low temperature
while places far from the sea have higher temperature.
o Nature of prevailing winds
 The on-shore winds such as Monsoon brings moisture from the sea and cause rainfall
on the area through which the pass. The off-shore winds coming from the land are dry
and help in evaporation
o Cloud cover
 Clouds have profound impact on the atmospheric condition of the area. In desert areas
cloudless sky observe high temperature even under shade. On the other hand, under
cloudy sky at deserts hinder both incoming and outgoing radiation which decreases
the range of temperature.
o Ocean currents
 Ocean waters move from one place to another partly as an attempt to equalise
temperature and density of water. Ocean currents are large movements of water from
a place of warm temperature  to one cooler temperature. the warm ocean currents rise
the temperature of coast and sometime bring rainfall, while the cold currents lower the
temperature and create fog near the coast.
o Direction of the mountains
 The mountain chains act as a neutral barrier for the wind. The wind gets moisture
from the mountains and causes heavy rainfall. 
o Slope
 The mountain slopes facing the sun are warmer than the slopes which are away from
the sun rays. The southern slopes of Himalaya are warmer than the northern slopes
o The nature of the soil
 The nature of the soil depends upon its texture, structure and composition. These
qualities vary from soil to soil. Stony and sandy soil is good conductors of heat while
black clay soil absorbs the heat of the sun’s ray quickly. The deserts are hot in the day
and cold in the night. The forest area has lower range of temperature throughout the
year in contrast to the non-fostered area.
 Climate Classification
o The Koppen climate classification system is the most widely used system for classifying the
world climate.  Climate classification system is the most widely used system for classifying
the world climate. Its categories are based on the annual and monthly average of temperature
and precipitation. According to this system there are five major climatic types:-

19
 o A= Tropical Moist
 Very warm climates i.e. no winters, found in tropics. All months have average
temperature above 18 centigrade and observe height precipitation amounts
o B= Dry Desert
 Climates that see little annual precipitation and where evaporation exceeds
precipitation.
o C= Mid-Latitude Climates
 Climates having warm to hot summers and mild winters; the coldest month has an
average temperature between -3 centigrade and 18 centigrade.
o D= Mid Latitude Continental
 Climates having warm summers and cold winters; the warmest month has an average
temperature above 10 degrees centigrade the coldest month has an average
temperature below - 3 degree centigrade.
o E= Polar
 Climates that see very cold winters and summers the warmest month has an average
temperature below 10 degree centigrade. 
o H= Highland
 These climates are strongly influenced by the latitude.
Tropical Moist Climates (A)

20
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Book: JWT

Chapter 3: ENVIRONMENT
 Introduction
“The environment is man’s first right. Without a safe environment, man cannot exist to claim its
other rights, be they political, social or economic.”
[Ken Saro-Wiwa (1941-1995)]
 Definition
“Environment is anything immediately surrounding an object and exerting a direct influence on it”
(P.Gisbert)
o Word environment is derived from French word “Environia” means surround.
 Classification
o Physical/Abiotic Environment
 External Factors i.e. Air, Water and Land etc.
o Living/Biotic Environment
 All living organisms around us i.e. Plants, Animals and Micro-organisms etc.
 Components
o Atmosphere
o Hydrosphere
o Biosphere
o Lithosphere

21
 ATMOSPHERE
 Definition
o Earth is surrounded by a thin layer of gases called Atmosphere
 GASES
o Constant Gases
o Variable Gases
o Constant Gases
 Concentrations do not change over time and their concentrations remain same.
Oxygen and Nitrogen etc.
o Variable Gases
 Change from time to time, from place to place. Carbon dioxide, water vapor and
ozone etc.
 Characteristics of Atmosphere
o Maintenance of temperature
 Atmosphere keeps temperatures stable and protecting living organisms from harmful
solar radiation.
o Atmospheric pressure and Air temperature
 Atmospheric pressure follows a similar pattern. In contrast, air temperature follows a
less consistent pattern.
o Lowest to higher layer
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
 Exosphere.
 All of the names have the suffix “sphere.” This is because each layer surrounds the
earth.
 Layers of Earth
o Troposphere
 Starts at earth’s surface and goes up about 12 km.
 Weather layer prevails here (Clouds, Precipitation etc.)
 Commercial aircraft fly in this layer
 Tropopause is the Boundary between troposphere and stratosphere
o Stratosphere
 Starts about 12 km and goes to about 50 km high.
 Stratosphere contains Ozone layer which protects us from harmful ultraviolet
radiation
 Ultraviolet radiation can damage living beings
o Mesosphere
 Middle layer which starts at about 50 km to 80 km high
 Most meteors burn up in this layer
 Coldest layer of atmosphere
 Carbon dioxide in the mesosphere also helps make this layer cold. CO2
molecules absorb heat energy
o Thermosphere
 Hottest layer of atmosphere which rises up to 2000o C or higher
 High-energy X-rays and UV radiation from the Sun are absorbed in the
thermosphere, raising its temperature to hundreds or at times thousands of
degrees
 Ionosphere
 This layer is Ionized by solar and cosmic radiation
 Lies between 60-1000 km above earth
 Because of high energy the electrons are positively charged

22
 o Exosphere
 Outermost part of atmosphere which blends/mixed/combine into outer space
 Almost airless
o Explanation
 Earth is primary absorber of temperature
 Energy is reradiated as which warms the overlying troposphere.
 Temperature begins to increase with altitude in stratosphere.
 Importance of Atmosphere
o Ozone layer (Prevents about 95% of harmful ultraviolet radiation)
o Constant concentration of oxygen
o Energy for photosynthesis
o Green House Effect
 The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the
sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and
rest is absorbed and Re-radiated by the by greenhouse gases (Carbon Dioxide, Water,
Methane and Ozone). The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and surface of the
earth.

23
 HYDROSPHERE
 Definition
o It is total amount of water exits on planet, underground and in the air.
o A hydrosphere includes:-
 Liquid
 Oceans, lakes and river and also exist below the ground
 Vapor
 Clouds and fog
 Ice is a called Cryosphere
 Glaciers, ice caps and icebergs
 Global Water Distribution
o 97% in oceans
o 3% fresh water
 69% permanent ice (continental and mountain glaciers)
 30% Underground water
 1% lakes, streams and swamps
 WATER CYCLE
o Water collects in clouds, than falls to earth in form of rain or snow. This water collects in
rivers, lakes and oceans. Then it evaporates into the atmosphere to start the cycle all over
again. This is called the water cycle or Hydrologic cycle.
 Hydrologic Cycle
o Water is stored by the following process:-
o Transpiration
 Plants absorb water from soil, the water moves from the roots through the
stems/branches to the leaves and this water evaporates through leave called
transpiration
o Evaporation
 Liquid state of water changes into gaseous state
 Temperature is the primary factor as water is warmed by the sun and evaporates
o Condensation
 Gas changed into a liquid, when the temperature of the vapor decreases
o Precipitation
 When any and all forms (including rain, snow, sleet and hail) of water particles fall
from the atmosphere and reach the ground
o Surface runoff
 After precipitation, water flows downhill into streams, rivers, ponds and lakes
 Much water returns again to the oceans, where a great deal of evaporation occurs.
o Infiltration
 Water soaks into ground through the soil and underlying rock layers
 Importance of Water Cycle
o Maintenance of life
o Maintenance of Ecosystem on the planet
o It provides water for our population, animals and plant
o Water cycle provides fish to eat

24
 LITHOSPHERE
 Definition
o Lithosphere consists of Crust and upper most layer of mantle and usually considered to be
about 100 kilometers in thickness. This is the coolest and most rigid part of the earth.
 Components of Lithosphere
o Brittle Crust
o Mantle
o Core

25
 BIOSPHERE
 Definition
o Biosphere is a Greek word, -Bios- which means life and sphaira means sphere so biosphere is
the sphere where life exists.
o Life is possible where these three components meets i.e. Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and
Atmosphere
 Characteristics of Biosphere
o Biosphere ranges from heights up to 10 km above sea level and 8 km at ocean depth
o Upper atmosphere has little oxygen and low temperature
o Ocean depth greater than 1000 are dark and cold
 Components
o Lithosphere
 Land
o Hydrosphere
 Water
o Atmosphere
 Air

26
 WORLD BIOMES
 Definition
o A biome is a collection of plants and animals that grow in a specific environment and also
have common characteristics
(From Internet)
o Major biomes includes Forests, Deserts, Grasslands and several types of Aquatic
Environments
 FOREST BIOME
o The forest is a complex ecosystem consisting mainly of trees that buffer the earth and support
a myriad/countless forms of life
(From Internet)
o Characteristics/Importance for life
 Forest cover up to 30% area of the earth
 Storage of carbon and emission of oxygen
 Role in change in climate change
 Types of Forest Biome
o Three main types of forest biome
o Tropical Rainforest
 Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur/grow/exist in areas of tropical rainforest
climate in which there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of
at least 60 mm – and may also be referred to as lowland equatorial evergreen
rainforest.
(From Internet)
 Characteristics of Tropical Rainforest
 High humidity (high amount of evaporated water)
 Temperatures remains high all year
 Cooler at surface because very low sunlight reach at the floor
Chain: High humidity so high level of precipitation but temperature remains high
but cooler at surface.
 Examples
 Amazon
 Congo
o Temperate Forest
 A temperate forest found between the tropical and boreal regions
 Characteristics of Temperate Forest
 High levels of precipitation and humidity
 Variety of deciduous trees or trees that fall leaves
 Plants are less dense
 Low sunlight reach at the floor
Chain: high level of precipitation. As trees fall leaves so they are less dense hence
low sunlight reach at the floor
 Examples
 Pacific Coast of North America
 Southern Chile
 New Zealand
o Boreal Forest
 A forest that grows in regions of the northern hemisphere with cold temperatures.
 Characteristics of Boreal Forest
 Severe winters (temperatures below freezing)
 Short summers
 Cooler at surface because very low sunlight reach at the floor
Chain: Severe winter and short summer so cooler at surface

27
  Examples
 Urals Montane tundra and taiga in Russia
 West Siberian taiga in Russia
 Desert Biome
o A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently,
living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life.
o Characteristics/Importance for life
 Deserts makeup about 20% area of the earth
 Little or no rainfall
 Low humidity
 High temperature
 Less clouds
 Low atmospheric moisture
 Land’s exposure to the sun
Chain: Little rainfall because no humidity and high temperature because less
clouds, low atmospheric moisture and land exposure to the sun
o Types of Desert Biome
 There are following types of Deserts
 Arid/Hot and Dry Deserts
 Semi-arid Deserts
 Coastal Deserts
 Cold Deserts
 Grassland Biome
o Grassland biomes consist of large open areas of grass. Trees can be present, but they are
infrequent.
(From Internet)
o Characteristics of Grasslands
 Semi-arid/hot and dry climate
 Moderate Rainfall
 No major floods
 Vegetation structure that is dominated by grasses
Chain: Semi-arid/hot and dry climate hence moderate rainfall so no major floods and
vegetation structure
o Types of Grassland
 Tropical Grasslands.
 Flooded Grasslands.
 Temperate Grasslands.
 Montane Grasslands.
 Desert Grassland.
o Examples
 Steppes
 Savannas
 Tundra Biome
o It is the coldest biome and come from Finnish word (Finland language) Tunturia which
means tree less plain place.
(From Internet)
o Characteristics of Tundra Biome
 Extremely cold climate.
 Freezing Temperature
 Short season of growth and reproduction
 Limitation of drainage.
Chain: Extremely cold climate i.e. Freezing temperature and short season of growth and
reproduction

28
 o Types of Tundra Biome
 There are following types of Tundra Biome
 Arctic Tundra
 Treeless region in Arctic
 Heavy rainfall
 Alpine Tundra
 Located on high mountains
 It is very cold
 Very few trees
 Very little vegetative cover
 Example
 Arctic Circle in Alaska, Canada, Russia, Greenland, Iceland
 Antarctica.
 Aquatic Biome
o All water bodies that exist on the earth.
o The aquatic biome is divided into freshwater and marine regions.
o Freshwater regions, such as lakes and rivers have a low salt concentration.
o Marine regions, such as estuaries/bay and the ocean, have higher salt concentrations. This
includes all water bodies on the earth’s surface.
o Types of Aquatic Biome
 Freshwater Biome.
 Marine Biome.

29
 POLLUTION
 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
“We live in a land of vanishing beauty, of increasing ugliness, of shrinking open space and of an
overall environment that is diminished daily by pollution and noise and blight.”
(Stewart L. Udall, U.S. Politician)
 Definition
o Pollution is defined as “undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air, water and land brought about by man’s activities that may harmfully
affect living organisms and other resources”.
 Types of Environmental Pollution
o Water Pollution
o Air Pollution
o Land Pollution
o Noise Pollution
WATER POLLUTION
 Any change or medication in the physical, chemical and biological properties of water that will have
a detrimental consequences on living things\
Indicators to measure quality of water
 Dissolved oxygen
 PH amount of nutrients
 Toxics substances
 Bactria
Minimizing Water Pollution
 Renewable energy sources
o For example solar energy, wind turbines and hydro power
 Eco-friendly chemicals
 Toxic fumes/gases/smoke should be filtered
 Reduce recycle leftovers
 Proper disposal and containment of toxic chemicals
Drinking Water Quality Standards
 Standard for WHO’s Drinking Water Quality set up in Geneva, 1993
 Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency
o National Standards for Quality Drinking Water in June 2008
 Change from time to time, from place to place
*****
AIR POLLUTION
“Water and air, the two essential fluids on which all life depends have become global garbage cans.”
Jacques-Yves
Definition
 Air pollution occurs when air contains gases, dust and odor in harmful amount.
 When the amount of waste entering in an area of atmosphere exceeds the atmosphere ability to
disperse or break down the pollutants, problem results.
 The substance that cause air pollution is Pollutant
Types
 Primary Pollutant
o Pollutant that pumped into an atmosphere and directly pollute the air is primary pollutant
 Carbon Monoxide from cars
 Combustion from coal
 Secondary Pollutant

30
 o When the primary pollutant react with other gases in the air and formed another harmful
compound that is secondary pollutant
 Smog
Causes of Air Pollution
 Stationary sources
o That are fixed
 Mobile sources
o That moves from place to place
 Automobile, trucks, busses cars, trains and ships etc.
 Emissions from factories & industries
 Chemical industries
 Agricultural activities (Fertilizer and pesticide)
 Wildfires & volcanic activity
 Power Stations (Thermal energy)
 Exhaust from transportation vehicles
 Indoor air pollution
Control Measures
 The atmosphere has built-in self-cleaning processes such as:-
o Rain washout
o Absorption
o Dispersion
Source Measures
 Using unleaded petrol
 Using fuels with low Sulphur and ash content
 Encourage people for walk or use of cycle instead of transportation
 Plant trees along busy streets
 Ensure that schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located in busy streets
 Industries and waste disposal sites should be away from city
Control Measures in industrial centers
 Emission rate should be restricted
 Incorporation of Air Pollution Control Equipment
 Monitoring of Emission rate
Equipment Used to Control Air Pollution
 Approaches to control air pollution
o Sufficient supply of oxygen to combustion
o To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, bag houses and electro-static precipitators in
manufacturing process
*****
LAND POLLUTION
“Land pollution means destruction of earth’s surface and soil directly or indirectly as a result of human
activities.”
Causes of Land Pollution
 1. Solid Waste
o Human waste is sent to landfill site which end up in polluting the environment
 2. Chemical and Nuclear Waste
o Fission and fusion reactions
o Leftover Radioactive material
 Harmful and toxic chemical
 3. Land Conversion
o Modification in original properties of land to make it use
 4. Urbanization and Industrialization
31
 o Due to increase in demand of food more waste is produced
 5. Deforestation and Soil Erosion
o Deforestation is carried out to create dry or barren lands for residence which can never be
fertile again
 6. Herbicides and Pesticides
o Farmers often use highly toxic and pesticides to get rid of insects, fungi and bacteria which
ultimately poison the soil
 7. Mining Activities
o Removal of topsoil causes the land pollution
Effects of Land Pollution
 1. Ground Water Poisoning in Landfill
o Garbage in landfill poison the ground water
 2. Loss of Biodiversity
o Animals and plant kingdom suffered due to loss of natural environment
 3. Damage Food Safety
o Poison water reached the plants which ultimately damage food safety
 4. Effect on Human Health
o Toxic chemicals and pesticides reached our body through food
 Skin cancer
 Human respiratory system
 5. Burning of Waste and Air Pollution
o Landfill burn ultimately produce air pollution
Prevention of Land Pollution
1. Education about littering
2. Personal litter should disposed properly
3. Recycling of things
4. Purchase of Biodegraded products
5. Purchase things with little packaging
6. Use of spill proof container
7. Don’t use pesticide
8. Plantation of more trees
9. Application of Scientific Waste Management System
*****
WASTE MATERIAL & SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (SWM)

1. Waste Material
“Waste material is produced from domestic, commercial, industrial process which includes mining,
agricultural operations and water treatment plants.”
2. Solid Waste Management
“Solid waste management is collecting, treating and disposing of solid material that is discarded because it
has no longer useful.”
3. Categorization of Solid Waste
 Origin
o Domestic, Commercial, Construction and Industrial
 Content
o Organic and Inorganic
 Hazard Potential/Harmful Effect
o Toxic, non-toxic, flammable and radioactive etc.
4. Classification of Wastes
 1. Municipal Waste

32
 o Any waste produced from house hold activities i.e. garbage, rubbish, sanitation, packaging
material etc.
o It is the responsibility of Municipality
 2. Industrial Waste
o Waste generated during manufacturing process in industries i.e. chemical, petroleum, coal
etc.
 3. Bio-Medical Waste
o Waste generated during diagnosis, treatment and research activates of medical science i.e.
containers, intermediate and end products etc.
 4. Radioactivity Waste
o Waste generated during nuclear process. Usually, it contains radioactive material
 5. E-Waste
o Waste during manufacturing process of electric devices, it also includes discarded electronic
devices
 6. Agricultural Waste
o Waste generated from farming i.e. remaining of pesticides, insecticides etc.
 7. Fishery Waste
o Waste generated from fishery activities
 8. Hazardous Waste
o Waste that poses a substantial danger to the lives of human, plants and animals now, or in the
future. Hazardous waste must be disposed of with some special precautions. It has four types
 Ignitability
 Substance that catch fire
 Corrosively
 Substances corrode metals
 Reactivity
 Chemically unstable substances that react with other chemicals in dangerous
way
 Toxicity
 Harmful to human health
o Hazardous waste is generated in Agriculture, hospital, laboratories, industries and oil
refineries sectors in Pakistan.
5. Key Issues in Solid Waste Management in Pakistan
 1. High Growth Rate of Waste
o According to World Bank
“Current Global Municipal Solid Waste generation levels are approximately 1.3 billion tons
per year and are expected to increase approximately 2.2 billion tons per year by 2025.”
o According to Ministry of Environment Study
“Total solid waste generation in Pakistan is 20.024 million tons per year and its growth rate is
2.4% per annum.”
 2. Increase in Population
o Population in major cities i.e. Karachi, Hyderabad, Rawalpindi and Lahore is consistently
increasing which ultimately increase solid waste in Pakistan

33
  3. No Proper Scientific Solid Waste Management System
o 1. Inadequate Capital Resources
o 2. Inadequate Human Resources
o 3. No transportation system
o 4. No Collection Method
o 5. Inappropriate disposal sites
 1. Un-engineered sanitary landfilling
 2. Unavailability of official dumping sites
 3. Open Dumping
 4. Open Burning
o 6. Unplanned Urbanization
o 7. Poor Sanitation
o 8. No recycling process
6. Solid Waste Management System
 1. Waste Generation
o Discarded material or material which has no use
 2. Waste Handling
o Handling means loading of waste in containers and bags
 3. Waste Collection
o Collection means gathering the waste from one point to emptied point. This include two
stages:-
 Primary Collection
 Collection of waste from its source point i.e. domestic and commercial areas
and transported this waste to transfer point
 Secondary Collection
 Collection of waste from transfer point (Secondary collection point) to
disposal site
 4. Waste Sorting, processing and transformation
o Sorting means separate of waste material i.e. papers waste, plastic waste, e-waste etc.
o Processing means change the shape of waste for proper disposal
 5. Transfer or transportation
o Transportation of waste to disposal sites
 6. Disposal
o Final placement of solid waste in a landfill
7. Waste Hierarchy Concept
 The waste hierarchy was introduced formally for the first time by European Union’s Waste
Framework Directive of 1975.
 The hierarchy emphasis on reducing, reusing and recycling
 The hierarchy adopted the following things:-
o Source reduction and reuse
o Recycling and composting
o Energy recovery
o Treatment and disposal
1. Source Reduction and Reuse
 Reuse of products and the change in the design, manufacture, purchase or use of materials or
products to reduce their amount or toxicity before they become municipal solid waste
2. Recycling and Composting
 Recycling is a series of activities that includes collecting used, reused, or unused items that would
otherwise be considered waste; sorting and processing the recyclable products into raw materials;
and remanufacturing the recycled raw materials into new products.
3. Energy Recovery

34
  Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into useable heat,
electricity or fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification and landfill gas
etc. This process is often called waste-to-energy.
4. Treatment and Disposal
 Treatment can help to reduce the volume and toxicity of waste. Treatment can be physical, chemical
and biological. Landfills are important components for disposal of waste.
8. Landfill
 Landfill is a site for disposal of waste materials. Landfill is the oldest and most common form of
waste disposal. There are following types of landfills.
o 1. Municipal Solid Waste Landfills
 Household waste is dumped in these landfills
o 2. Sanitary Landfills
 It uses technology to contain the waste and prevent the leaching out the hazardous
substances
o 3. Industrial waste Landfill
 The landfill that contain industrial waste i.e. waste from manufacturing process
o 4. Construction and demolition waste landfills
 The landfill that contain construction and demolition waste i.e. Garbage from
construction, renovations and demolitions of buildings
9. Structure of Landfill
 Main components of any secured, permitted landfills are below:-
o Bottom Liner
 It separate and prevent the buried waste from mixing with/coming with contact
underlying natural soil and underground water.
 In Municipal Solid Waste landfills the bottom liner are generally constructed by using
High Density Polyethylene.
o Cells
 It separates the adjacent waste cell. These cells range in size from a few acres to as
large as 20+ acres.
o Leachate Collection System
 At the bottom surface of the landfill a slop is built to a lower point, called sump, this
is where any liquid called leachate that are trapped inside the landfill collected.
o Methane Collection System
 Bacteria in the landfill break down the trash in the absence of oxygen. The process
produces landfill methane gas. To collect the methane gas series of pipes are
embedded in landfill
o Cover
 Covering is performed in order to isolate the waste from exposure to the air pests and
to control odors. When landfill filled to capacity it is permanently covered
o Groundwater Monitoring Station
 These stations are set up to directly access and test the groundwater around the
landfill.

35
POPULATION PLANNING
“When we set up World Wild Life, our first objective was to save the endangered species from extinction,
but we have failed completely; we haven’t managed to save single one.”
Sir Peter Scott, Founder of WWF
2. Population Planning
“Population is structured way of thinking and taking actions to improve the lives of children, families or
communities as a whole. Population planning control is practice to artificially altering the rate of growth of
human population and it also provides measures to improve the people’s lives by controlling their
reproduction.”
3. Statistics
 World
o The current population of the world is 7.6 billion (2019) which is expected to reach 8.5
billion in 2030, 9.7 billion in 2050 and 11.6 billion in 2100.
UN Report
o The current population of Pakistan is 216.6 million. According to estimates, the growth rate
of population is 2% and it is the sixth populous country of world.
3. Family Planning and Contraception
“Family planning allows the individuals and couple to control the birth time and number of desired
children.”
World Health Organization
Methods of Contraception
 1. Long acting reversible Contraception
o This method is used to stop pregnancy for long time. It has two types
 Intrauterine device that lasts for five or more years
 Implantation in skin that lasts for three or five years
 2. Hormonal Contraception
o Hormonal Contraception prevents pregnancy through pills or injections. If no eggs will
release there is nothing to be fertilized by sperms. It has two types:-
 Combined Oral Contraceptive pills/injections
 It contains Pregestogen and Oestrogen low hormones dose
 Pregestogen-only Contraceptive pills/injections
 It contains Pregestogen only
 3. Emergency Contraception
o Emergency Contraception method is used to prevent the unwanted pregnancy. The earlier the
pills are taken the more chances of effectiveness. There are two types of pills are available:-
 Oral Contraceptive pills
 It contains only Pregestogen
 Oral Contraceptive pills
 It contains only Pregestogen and Oestrogen
 4. Barrier Methods
o Barrier methods stop the sperm from entering the vagina. It has three types:-
 1. Condoms
 It is made of latex rubber. Condoms protects from infection as well as
unwanted pregnancies.
 2. Female Condoms
 It is made of Poly urethane. It has ring at the end and entered into deep vagina.

36
  3. Diaphragm
 It is cup shaped and made up of latex. It is inserted into vagina of woman
before intercourse.
 5. Fertility Awareness
o Awareness about the Fertility signs in a woman menstrual cycle. It can be used to get
pregnant or to avoid pregnancy
 6. Permanent Contraception
o Permanent contraception is sterilization that permanently avoids pregnancy. There are two
ways of Permanent contraception:-
 Vasectomy
 Sperm are made in testicles and travel up to tubes to mix up with semen.
These tubes are cut and tied when someone has a vasectomy.
 Tubal Ligation
 A tubal ligation is a procedure to cut or clip a woman’s tubes to avoid sperms
to enter in.
4. Benefits of Pouplation (Family) Planning
It is essential for the health of woman and also benefits the man to support its family. It has following
benefits:-
 1. Preventing pregnancy-related health risks in women
o 1. Reduces the need for unsafe abortion
o 2. Delay in pregnancy
o 3. Limit the size of family
 2. Reducing infant mortality
o 1. Prevents closely space pregnancies
o 2. Reduce death of infants
 3. Reducing adolescent pregnancies
o 1. Reduction in school drops
o 2. High death rate of babies from Adolescents
 4. Empowering people and enhancing education
o 1. Stable financial health of families
o 2. More investment in children education
o 3. Woman also has opportunity to pursue their education
 5. Slowing population growth
o Reduces negative impact on Economy, environment, national and regional development
 7. Helping to prevent HIV/AIDS
o 1. Reduces unintended pregnancies in woman living with HIV
o 2. Few infected babies or orphans
5. Global unmet need for Contraception
According to estimates 222 million women in developing countries, particularly 25% in Pakistan, would like
to delay pregnancy but are not using contraception method due to the following reasons:-
 1. Limited choice of methods
 2. Limited access to contraception
 3. Poor quality of available services.
 4. Fear of side effects
 5. Cultural or religious opposition

37
CLIMATE CHANGE
Chapter 4
Book: JWT

Add pics, diagrams and quotations

CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING
1. INTRODUCTION
“Climate change does not respect borders; it does not respect who you are rich and poor, small and big.
Therefore, it is what we call “Global Challenges” which require global solidarity.”
Ban Ki Moon
2. Definitions
1. Climate Change
 “Climate Change is a change attributed by directly or indirectly to human activities that alter the
composition of global atmosphere”
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
2. Global Warming
 “Global warming is recent and ongoing rise in average global temperature near Earth’s surface.”
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
 Global warming causes the climate patterns to change.
Causes of Climate Change
 1. Change in Sun
o Changes in Sun affect the intensity of sunlight that reaches Earth’s Surface. The intensity of
sunlight cause either warming or cooling.
 2. Change in Earth’s Reflectivity
o When the sun light reaches earth, it can be absorbed or reflected. Light-Colored objectives
and surfaces i.e. snow and clouds reflect the most sunlight while Dark-Colored objectives and
surfaces i.e. forest, soil and ocean absorb more sunlight.
o Human also change the earth’s reflectivity by changes in land use and coverage area of land
by urbanization and deforestation.
 3. Tectonics Plate
o Over the course of millions of years, the motion of tectonic plates reconfigures global land
and ocean areas. The locations of seas are important in controlling the transfer of heat and
moisture across the globe; therefore, it is important in determining the global climate.
 4. Volcanic Activity
o The eruptions is considered one of the most important factor of Climate Change because they
inject over 0.1 million ton of SO2 into atmosphere.
 5. Greenhouse Effect
o Greenhouse gases (GHGs) like water vapor, carbon dioxide and methane absorb energy or
preventing the loss of heat to space. In this way, Greenhouse gases (GHGs) act like a blanket
meaning the earth warmer. Due to Industrial revolution around 1750, human activity
significantly adds the CO2 in the atmosphere that rises the earth’s surface temperature
ADD A PICTURE
 6. Anthropogenic Factors
o Humans are increasingly influencing the climate and the earth's temperature by burning fossil
fuels, cutting down forests and farming livestock. This adds enormous amounts of
greenhouse gases to those naturally occurring in the atmosphere, increasing the greenhouse
effect and global warming.
Chain: - Change in sun ultimately change in earth’s reflectivity AND tectonic plates consequently volcanic
activity leads to greenhouse effect and anthropogenic factors.

Evidence of Climate Change

 1. Ice Cores
o Antarctic ice sheet can be used to show a link between temperature and global sea level
variations.
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  2. Arctic Sea Ice Loss
o The decline in Arctic sea ice, both in extent and thickness, over the last several decades is an
evidence of rapid Climate Change
 3. Change in Sea Level
o Last century, Global sea level changes. Recently, changes in sea level is measured by
altimeter
 4. Vegetation
o Vegetation can affect climate and weather patterns due to the release of water vapor during
photosynthesis
 5. Dendroclimatology
o Because trees are sensitive to local climate conditions, such as rain and temperature, they
give scientists some information about that area's local climate in the past.
Dendroclimatology is analysis of tree ring growth patterns. Wide and thick rings indicate a
fertile, well-watered growing period and vise-versa
 6. Pollen Analysis
o Palynology is the analysis of fossil pollen and is used to reconstruct long run changes in
vegetation and climate. Palynology is used to refer the geographical distribution of plant
species, which vary under different climate conditions
 7. Animals
o Different species of animals trend to be found under different climatic conditions. Many
species are not present at this time due to difference in Climate conditions.
Chain: - Ice Cores leads to Arctic sea ice loss leads to changes in sea level AND Vegetation to
Dendroclimatology to Pollen Analysis AND Animals

Consequences of Climate Change

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) which includes more than 1300 Scientists from all
over the world forecasts rise in temperature of 2.5 to 10 degrees.
 1. Effect on Weather
o There are harmful effects of global warming on weather which causes extreme weather
events i.e. storms, tornadoes, floods and droughts etc.
o Today world is suffering around 400-500 natural disasters on average in a year
Disaster Risk Reduction: Global Review 2007
 2. Effect on Crops
o Crop yield growth rates are declining in most parts of the world
 3. Recession of Glaciers
o There is evidence of recession of most glaciers on Earth, rainfall variability changes in
marine ecosystems.
 4. Threat to Freshwater
o Climate Change has serious to fresh water availability. Fresh water is declining in rivers
 5. Impact on Human Health
o Increase in heat waves expected to increase mortality rates as people are not equipped to deal
with warmer temperatures

 6. Increase in Diseases
o Climate Change is also increases diseases like malaria, dengue and yellow fever.
 7. Threat to Humankind
o Harmful impacts on Socio-Economic Sectors such as health, food production, energy
consumption & security and natural resources management.
Chain: - Effect on Weather leads to effect on crops; Effect on Weather also leads to effect on glaciers which
is a threat to fresh water which is ultimately a threat for human health and it leads to diseases which is a
major threat to humankind.

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Observed Effects of Global Warming
 1. Worldwide retreats/recession of glaciers
 2. Decrease in snow cover
 3. Increase in global sea level
 4. Increase in global temperature
 5. Loss of biodiversity
 6. Shift in vegetation
 7. Shift of plants and animals ranges
 8. Birds breeding season and emergence of insects
 9. Earlier flowering of plants
Chain: - Recession of glaciers leads to decrease in snow leads to increase in sea level AND increase in
temperature leads to loss of biodiversity due to we shift vegetation which leads to shift of plants and animals
ranges which effect the birds breeding season and emergence of insets which leads to earlier flowering of
plants.

How Pakistan affected by Climate Change

 1. Glacier melt in Himalayas is projected to increase flooding.
 2. Great risk of flood at Coastal areas bordering in south of Pakistan
 3. Decrease in river flow
 4. Decrease in fresh water availability
 5. Decrease in crops yields which ultimately effect the food production
Chain: - Glacier melt leads to increasing flooding leads to risk of flooding at coastal increase and it is a
reason of decrease in river flow which leads to decrease in fresh water hence no fresh water leads to
decrease in crops yield which ultimately effect the food production.

How to Control Climate Change

 Purchase of Efficient Energy Appliances
 Adoption of 3 “Rs” Strategy Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
 Use of renewable Energy
 Production of clean energy
 Reducing deforestation and promoting afforestation
 Making wise use of transport
 Control of population which resultantly decrease the wastage of resources
 Creating awareness among public about the gravity of the issues.
 Implementation of International Environmental treaties such as Kyoto protocol and Montreal
protocol
 Replacement of home appliances with high-efficiency models
 Buy food and other products with reusable or recyclable packaging
Chain: - Recession of glaciers leads to decrease in snow leads to increase in sea level AND increase in
temperature leads to loss of biodiversity due to we shift vegetation which leads to shift of plants and animals
ranges which effect the birds breeding season and emergence of insets which leads to earlier flowering of
plants.

40
 KOYOTO PROTOCOL
1. INTRODUCTION
History
 The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997 and entered into force on
February 16, 2005. To date, 192 parties have ratified the Protocol.
What is Kyoto Protocol?
 The Kyoto Protocol is an
o International agreement
o Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
o That commits its parties by international binding to reduce emission of Greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere So,
 The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits its parties by international binding to reduce emission
of Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Countries under Convention
 The Convention has two Annexures and it divides countries into three main groups according to
differing commitments:-
 Annexure-I
o Group A
 Industrialized countries that were members of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 1992.
o Group B
 Economies in Transition (EIT) parties including the Russian Federation, the Baltic
States and European states.
o Group C
 Non-Binding countries such as developing countries i.e. China, India and Pakistan
etc.
 Annexure-II
o Only member of Organization of Economic Corporation and Development, but not
Economies in Transition parties are required to provide financial resources to enable
developing countries to undertake emissions reduction activities under the convention.
Chain: - History AND what is Kyoto Protocol AND Countries under Convention
2. Objectives
The main goal of Kyoto Protocol is to control emissions of the main greenhouse gases.
 1. The main goal of Kyoto Protocol is to establish legal bindings/commitments to reduce emissions
of greenhouse gases for parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate: The Berlin
Mandate established a process that would enable countries to take appropriate action to strengthen
the developed country commitments, through the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which was
a part of UNFCCC negotiations.
 2. Parties of Kyoto Protocol are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of
greenhouse gases
 3. Parties of Kyoto Protocol are required to provide funds to developing countries
 4. Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity/truthiness/honesty/exact
objective of the Protocol
 5. Establishment of compliance committee to enforce compliance/obedience/implementation of
commitments under the Protocol
Chain: - History AND what is Kyoto Protocol AND Countries under Convention

3. Kyoto Mechanisms
 1. International Emissions Trading (IET)
 2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

41
  3. Joint implementation (JI)
Kyoto Mechanisms Chart

Flexibility
Mechanisms

International
Clean Development Joint
Emissions Trading
Mechanisim (CDM) Implementation (JI)
(IET)

 International Emissions Trading or Carbon Trading

o 1. Parties with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol have accepted targets for reduction in
emissions of Greenhouse Gases.
o 2. These targets are expressed as levels of allowed emissions during commitment period.
o According to Article 17 of Kyoto Protocol, it allows countries that have emission units with
spare capacity: emissions permitted them but not used by them, can sell this excessive
units/capacity to countries that are over their targets.
o Hence, carbon is traded like other commodities and this is known as carbon trading.
 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
o Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under Article 12 of Kyoto Protocol allows country
with an emission-reduction commitment to implement emission–reduction project in
developing country.
o This project can earn saleable certified emission reduction credits, each is equivalent to one
tone of CO2
o It has two main goals:
 I) to assist developing countries in achieving sustainable development.
 II) to help developing countries to achieve their emission reduction targets under
Kyoto protocol
 Joint Implementation (JI)
o Joint Implementation (JI) under Article 6 of Kyoto Protocol allows country with an emission-
reduction commitment to implement emission–reduction project in another developed
country.
o This project can earn saleable certified emission reduction credits, each is equivalent to one
tone of CO2
4. First Commitment Period (2008-2012)
 Under Kyoto Protocol member of Organization of Economic Corporation & Development and
Economies in Transition committed to reduce the emission of Greenhouse Gases at least 5%
compared to 1990.
 There are six greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (N2O),
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6), Hydrofluoroacarbons (HFCs) and Perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
 During this commitment period European Environment Agency decrease by an average 12.2% while
other countries had risen by around 24%.

5. First Commitment Period (2012-2020)

 In Doha, Qatar, on December 8, 2012, the “Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol” was adopted.
The amendment includes new commitments for member of Organization of Economic Corporation
& Development to reduce the emission of Greenhouse Gases at least 18% compared to 1990.
However, the commitments for Economies in Transition were different.
6. Failaure of Kyoto Protocol
 1. Controversial Flaws

42
 o There were several controversial flaws that impede the implementation of the Protocol
 2. Exclusion of Developing Countries
o India and China together represent one-third of the world’s population and rapidly growing in
Industrial Development. Kyoto Protocol ignores these countries and failed in achieving its
target.
 3. Non-Ratification by United States
o In 2001, the biggest emitter, 25% of emission dropped out the Kyoto Agreement. The reasons
for dropped was restrictions of Kyoto Protocol which harm the economy of its country.
 4. Costs and Economic Implications
o The cost of Project was enormous costs in return for very scarce/minor positive results.
Exports think that there are many other projects such as clean water to world’s population,
which would save millions of live annually.
 5. Kyoto Protocol Success or Failure
o The Kyoto Protocol has been failed but it was an important step for global climate change.
The protocol laid base for future strategies to curb global warming by increasing awareness
of the issue and providing an opportunity for development of science and technology.
Chain: - History AND what is Kyoto Protocol AND Countries under Convention

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 OZONE DEPLETION
1. INTRODUCTION
 Ozone is a gas made up of three oxygen atoms.
 It naturally occurs in the stratosphere and protects our life from Ultraviolet Rays of sun.
2. Ozone Formation
 Ninety percent of Ozone is present in the stratosphere. The natural level of ozone is maintained by
sunlight, which breaks the oxygen atoms which again rejoin and make breathable oxygen O 2, and
chemical reactions that destroy it.
3. Importance of Ozone
 Ozone absorbs and blocks the major part of Ultraviolet Rays of Sun and protects the earth from these
harmful rays, without it the surface of the earth damage/sterilize. Exposure of intense Ultraviolet
Rays could have the following impacts:-
o 1. Damage immune system of human
o 2. Damage DNA
o 3. Reduce the growth of major crops i.e. rice, wheat, peas, tomatoes, cucumber and carrots
etc.
o 4. Harmful for the fresh and salt water species
o 5. Loss of biodiversity in oceans, rivers and lakes could lead to reduction in fishes.
Chain: - Ultraviolet Rays harm the Human beings by damaging immune system and DNA AND also
damage agriculture by reducing the growth of crops AND also attack the aquatic life which causes loss of
biodiversity
4. Ozone Depletion
 In 1970s scientists discovered that chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs posed very serious
threat to Ozone. Sunlight broke these chlorofluorocarbons and chlorine reacts with and damages the
ozone molecules.
5. How to Control Ozone Depletion
 1. Avoid the consumption/use of gases in manufacturing process that are dangerous to the ozone
layer
 2. Do not use cleaning products that are harmful to the environment
 3. Buy recyclable products.
 4. Minimize the use of cars that produce chlorofluorocarbons gases
Chain: -

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 MONTREAL PROTOCOL
1. INTRODUCTION
 Ozone is a gas made up of three oxygen atoms.
 It naturally occurs in the stratosphere and protects our life from Ultraviolet Rays of sun.
2. Ozone Formation
 Ninety percent of Ozone is present in the stratosphere. The natural level of ozone is maintained by
sunlight, which breaks the oxygen atoms which again rejoin and make breathable oxygen O 2, and
chemical reactions that destroy it.
3. Importance of Ozone
 Ozone absorbs and blocks the major part of Ultraviolet Rays of Sun and protects the earth from these
harmful rays, without it the surface of the earth damage/sterilize. Exposure of intense Ultraviolet
Rays could have the following impacts:-
o 1. Damage immune system of human
o 2. Damage DNA
o 3. Reduce the growth of major crops i.e. rice, wheat, peas, tomatoes, cucumber and carrots
etc.
o 4. Harmful for the fresh and salt water species
o 5. Loss of biodiversity in oceans, rivers and lakes could lead to reduction in fishes.
Chain: - Ultraviolet Rays harm the Human beings by damaging immune system and DNA AND also
damage agriculture by reducing the growth of crops AND also attack the aquatic life which causes loss of
biodiversity

The Montreal Protocol, finalized in 1987, is a global agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone layer by
phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The Montreal Protocol has
proven to be innovative and successful, and is the first treaty to achieve universal ratification by all countries in
the world. Leveraging this worldwide participation, the Montreal Protocol has spurred global investment in
alternative technologies, many developed by U.S. companies, and placed the ozone layer, which was in peril, on
a path to repair.

The ozone layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, which is associated with an increased prevalence of skin
cancer and cataracts, reduced agricultural productivity, and disruption of marine ecosystems. The United States
ratified the Montreal Protocol in 1988 and has joined four subsequent amendments. The United States has been a
leader within the Protocol throughout its existence, and has taken strong domestic action to phase out the
production and consumption of ODS such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons.  With full implementation
of the Montreal Protocol, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that Americans born
between 1890 and 2100 are expected to avoid 443 million cases of skin cancer, approximately 2.3 million skin
cancer deaths, and more than 63 million cases of cataracts, with even greater benefits worldwide. The Montreal
Protocol’s Scientific Assessment Panel estimates that with implementation of the Montreal Protocol we can
expect near complete recovery of the ozone layer by the middle of the 21st century.

The United States was instrumental in negotiating the Montreal Protocol. In the 1970s, evidence began to surface
that CFCs, which were used in everyday household products such as air conditioners and refrigerators, were
depleting the Earth’s protective ozone layer and increasing the level of ultraviolet radiation reaching our planet’s
surface.  The United States, along with allies and stakeholders, advocated for strong controls on the production
and consumption of ODS, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons; promoting international cooperation;
and building consensus to phase out ODS.  The U.S. Senate unanimously approved U.S. ratification of the
Montreal Protocol in 1988, and the treaty has continued to receive bipartisan support over the past thirty years.
Over its history, the Montreal Protocol has received support from the vast majority of U.S. industry as well as
environmental advocates

45
 ACID RAIN
1. INTRODUCTION
 Acid rain is a broad term referring to mixture of wet and dries rain from the atmosphere containing
higher than normal amount of nitric and sulfuric acids.
2. Wet Rain
 In the areas, where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the ground in the form of rain, snow or
fog etc.
3. Dry Rain
 In the areas, where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals incorporated/mixed into dust and fall to the
ground through dry rain which stick to the ground, buildings, homes, cars and trees.
4. Measurement of Acid Rain
 Acid Rain is measured using a scale called pH scale. The lower the pH, the more acidic it is. Pure
water has a pH of 7.0. However, normal rain is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide (CO 2) mixed
in it resulting pH of 5.6.
5. Effects of Acid Rain
Effect on Soil
 1. In soil, acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients needed by plants.
 2. Acid Rain dissolve aluminum and mercury, which naturally present in soil, freeing to pollute
water
Effect on Water
 3. When Acid Rain fall on river and lakes it mixed with water making it acidic
Effect on Plants
 4. The acid rain has far-reaching effect on wildlife. When plants suffer, the animals that rely on them
for food also suffers.
Effect on Human Being
 5. In the air, acids join with other chemical to produce urban smog, which can irritate the lungs and
making breathing difficult.
 6. Smog in the atmosphere from the Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) contribute to
visibility impairment.
Effect on Infrastructure
 7. When acidic rain fall on buildings, cars and bridges, it deteriorates the paint
Chain: -
5. Efforts to Control Acid Rain
 Less use of power plants, motor vehicles and other things that release acidic chemicals
 Use renewable energy sources
 Less use of energy from fossil fuels.
 Less use of cleaner-burning fuels.
 Buy energy-efficient appliances

46