Chapter Two – PART II

Analysis of earthquake loads

Earthquake or seismic load on a building depends upon its geographical location, lateral stiffness
and mass, and is reversible. Its effect should be considered along both axes of a building taken
one at a time. A force is defined as the product of mass and acceleration. During an earthquake,
the mass is imparted by the building whereas the acceleration is imparted by the ground
disturbance. In order to have a minimum force, the mass of the building should be as low as
possible. There can be no control on the ground acceleration being an act of the Nature! The point
of application of this internal force is the center of gravity of the mass on each floor of the building.
Once there is a force, there has to be an equal and opposite reaction to balance this force. The
internal force is resisted by the building and the resisting force acts at the center of rigidity at each
floor of the building or shear center of the building at each story.

The return period of earthquake in a given region depends up on its seismicity. Depending upon
the probability of occurrence of an earthquake in a given region, it is desirable to design the
building for a specified force (as specified in the design codes). As per ES EN 1998:2015, there
are four methods of analysis to determine earthquake forces acting over buildings:

1. Lateral force method of analysis /Equivalent Static analysis/

This type of analysis can be applied to buildings whose response is not significantly affected by
contributions from higher modes of vibration. These requirements are deemed to be satisfied by
buildings which meet the criteria for regularity in elevation as given in ES EN 1998:2015, and
have fundamental period of vibration T1 in the two main directions less than 2 sec or 4*Tc.

2. Modal Response spectrum method:

This type of analysis shall be applied to buildings which do not satisfy the conditions given in
equivalent static analysis.

The seismic forces strikes the foundation of a structure will move with the ground motion. It shows
that structure movement is generally more than the ground motion. The movement of the structure
as compared to the ground is refused as the dynamic amplification. It depends on the natural

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frequency of vibration, damping, type of foundation, method of detailing of the structure. The
response “design acceleration spectrum” which refers to the max acceleration called spectral
acceleration coefficient Se/g, as a function of the structure for a specified damping ratio for
earthquake excitation at the base for a single degree freedom system.

3. Non-linear static (pushover) analysis:

Pushover analysis is a non-linear static analysis carried out under conditions of constant gravity
loads and monotonically increasing horizontal loads. It may be applied to verify the structural
performance of newly designed and of existing buildings for the following purposes:

 to estimate the expected plastic mechanisms and the distribution of damage

 to assess the structural performance of existing buildings

4. Non-linear time-history analysis:

It is an analysis of the dynamic response of the structure at each increment of time, when its base
is subjected to a specific ground motion time history. Alternatively, recorded ground motions
database from past natural events can be a reliable source for time histories but they are not
recorded in any given site to include all seismological characteristics suitable for that site.

The time-dependent response of the structure may be obtained through direct numerical integration
of its differential equations of motion, using the accelero-grams to represent the ground motions.

 Natural accelerograms

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  Artificial accelerograms

*** In this course we will deal only equivalent static analysis

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 Lateral force method of analysis /Equivalent Static analysis/

Parameters

Ground Type:

ES EN 1998:2015 uses standard penetration test blow-count and unconfined compression strength
in addition to a representative average shear wave velocity to classify the ground type.

The influence of local ground conditions on the seismic action shall be accounted for by
considering the five subsoil classes.

Parameters
Ground type Description of stratigraphic profile NSPT
vs,30 (m/s) (blows/30cm)
cu (kPa)
Rock or other rock-like geological
A formation, including at most 5 m of weaker > 800 _ _
material at the surface.
Deposits of very dense sand, gravel, or very
stiff clay, at least several tens of meters in
B 360 – 800 > 50 > 250
thickness, characterized by a gradual
increase of mechanical properties with depth.
Deep deposits of dense or medium-dense
C sand, gravel or stiff clay with thickness from 180 – 360 15 - 50 70 – 250
several tens to many hundreds of meters.
Deposits of loose-to-medium cohesionless
soil (with or without some soft cohesive
D < 180 < 15 < 70
layers), or of predominantly soft-to-firm
cohesive soil.
A soil profile consisting of a surface
alluvium layer with vs values of type C or D
E and thickness varying between about 5 m
and 20 m, underlain by stiffer material with
vs > 800 m/s.
Deposits consisting, or containing a layer at
least 10 m thick, of soft clays/silts with a < 100
S1 _ 10 – 20
high plasticity index (PI > 40) and high (indicative)
water content
Deposits of liquefiable soils, of sensitive
S2 clays, or any other soil profile not included
in types A – E or S1

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Horizontal elastic response spectrum

Response spectrum is depending on peak ground acceleration, ground types and damping
correction factor with a reference value of viscous damping.

For the horizontal components of the seismic action, the elastic response spectrum Se(T) is defined
by the following expressions

Values of the parameters describing the recommended Type 1 elastic response spectra

Ground type S TB(s) TC(s) TD(s)

A 1.0 0.15 0.4 2.0
B 1.2 0.15 0.5 2.0
C 1.15 0.20 0.6 2.0
D 1.35 0.20 0.8 2.0
E 1.4 0.15 0.5 2.0

Values of the parameters describing the recommended Type 2 elastic response spectra

Ground type S TB(s) TC(s) TD(s)

A 1.0 0.05 0.25 1.2
B 1.35 0.05 0.25 1.2
C 1.5 0.10 0.25 1.2
D 1.8 0.10 0.30 1.2
E 1.6 0.05 0.25 1.2

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Se(T) is the elastic response spectrum;

T - is the vibration period of a linear single-degree-of-freedom system;

ag - is the design ground acceleration on type A ground (ag = γIag);

TB - is the lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch;

TC - is the upper limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch;

TD - is the value defining the beginning of the constant displacement response range of the
spectrum;

S - is the soil factor;

 - is the damping correction factor with a reference value of η = 1 for 5% viscous damping

The value of the damping correction factor η may be determined by the expression:

  10  5     0.55

𝜉 is the viscous damping ratio of the structure, expressed as a percentage. (recommended value
5%)

Vertical elastic response spectrum

If avg is greater than 0.25 g (2.5 m/s2), the vertical component of the seismic action, should be
taken into account in the cases listed below:
− for horizontal or nearly horizontal structural members spanning 20 m or more;
− for horizontal or nearly horizontal cantilever components longer than 5 m;
− for horizontal or nearly horizontal pre-stressed components;
− for beams supporting columns;
− in base-isolated structures.

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 Recommended values of parameters describing the vertical elastic response spectra

Spectrum avg/ag TB (s) TC (s) TD (s)

Type 1 0.90 0.05 0.15 1.0
Type 2 0.45 0.05 0.15 1.0

Peak ground acceleration

For structural design, the intensity of earthquake is usually described in terms of the ground
acceleration as a fraction of the acceleration due to gravity, i.e. 0.1g, 0.2g, 0.3g etc. The static
analysis procedure provides for the calculation of the total lateral force, defined as the design base
shear which is then distributed over height of the building.

Probabilistic seismic hazard zonation of Ethiopia was classified into five zone based on ES EN
1998:2015. Peak ground acceleration is depends on the zone type (location) and return period.

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Importance Category and Importance Factor

Buildings are classified in two codes in 4 importance classes, depending on the -consequences of
collapse for human life, on their importance for public safety and civil protection in the immediate
post-earthquake period, and on the social and economic consequences of collapse.

Important category classification and Impotence factor (γI) value according to ES EN 1998:2015

Importance
Building Importance Factor (γI)
category

Buildings of minor importance for public safety,

I 0.8
e.g. agricultural buildings, etc.
Ordinary buildings, not belonging in the other
II 1.0
categories.

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 Buildings whose seismic resistance is of
importance in view of the consequences associated
III 1.2
with a collapse, e.g. schools, assembly halls,
cultural institutions etc.
Buildings whose integrity during earthquakes is of
vital importance for civil protection, e.g. hospitals, IV 1.4
fire stations, power plants, etc.

Base shear force

Earthquakes produce lateral forces proportional to the weight of the structure and its fixed contents;
the resultant of seismic force is known as ‘base shear’

The seismic base shear force F , for each horizontal direction in which the building is analysed,
b

shall be determined using the following expression:

F = S (T ) m 
b d 1

S (T ) is the ordinate of the design spectrum at period T ;

d 1 1

T is the fundamental period of vibration of the building for lateral motion in the direction
1
considered;
m is the total mass of the building, above the foundation or above the top of a rigid basement.
λ is the correction factor, the value of which is equal to: λ= 0.85 if T < 2 T and the building
1 C
has more than two storeys, or λ = 1.0 otherwise.

Fundamental period of vibration (T1)

For buildings with heights of up to 40 m the value of T1 (in s) may be approximated by the
following expression:

T1 = Ct ⋅H ¾

where

Ct - is 0.085 for moment resistant space steel frames, 0.075 for moment resistant space concrete
frames and for eccentrically braced steel frames and 0.050 for all other structures;

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H - is the height of the building, in m, from the foundation or from the top of a rigid basement.

Alternatively, for structures with concrete or masonry shear walls the value Ct may be taken as being

Ct  0.075 / Ac

  
Ac    Ai  0.2   lwi H  
2


and
Ac is the total effective area of the shear walls in the first storey of the building, in m 2;
Ai is the effective cross-sectional area of the shear wall i in the first storey of the building, in
m2;
lwi is the length of the shear wall i in the first storey in the direction parallel to the applied forces,
in m, with the restriction that lwi/H should not exceed 0.9.

Design spectrum (Sd(T)),

For the horizontal components of the seismic action the design spectrum, Sd(T), shall be defined
by the following expressions.

where
Sd(T) is the design spectrum;
q is the behaviour factor;
β is the lower bound factor for the horizontal design spectrum.

NOTE The value to be ascribed to β for use is found in the National Annex. The
recommended value for β is 0.2.

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Behaviour factors for horizontal seismic actions
q= qo kw ≥ 1.5

where

qo is the basic value of the behaviour factor, dependent on the type of the structural system
and on its regularity in elevation

kw is the factor reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems with walls

Basic value of the behaviour factor, qo, for systems regular in elevation

STRUCTURAL TYPE DCM DCH

Frame system, dual system, coupled wall system 3.0αu/α1 4.5αu/α1
Uncoupled wall system 3.0 4.0αu/α1
Torsionally flexible system 2.0 3.0
Inverted pendulum system 1.5 2.0
***For buildings which are not regular in elevation, the value of qo should be reduced by 20%

α1 is the value by which the horizontal seismic design action is multiplied in order to first
reach the flexural resistance in any member in the structure, while all other design actions remain
constant;

αu is the value by which the horizontal seismic design action is multiplied, in order to form
plastic hinges in a number of sections sufficient for the development of overall structural
instability, while all other design actions remain constant.

When the multiplication factor αu/α1 has not been evaluated through an explicit calculation, for
buildings which are regular in plan the following approximate values of αu/α1 may be used.

a) Frames or frame-equivalent dual systems.

− One-storey buildings: αu/α1=1.1;
− multistorey, one-bay frames: αu/α1=1.2;
− multistorey, multi-bay frames or frame-equivalent dual structures: αu/α1=1.3.
b) Wall- or wall-equivalent dual systems.
− wall systems with only two uncoupled walls per horizontal direction: αu/αl =1.0;
− other uncoupled wall systems: αu/α1=1.1;
- wall-equivalent dual, or coupled wall systems: αu/α1=1.2.

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For buildings which are not regular in plan, the approximate value of αu/α1 that may be used when
calculations are not performed for its evaluation are equal to the average of (a) 1,0 and of (b) the
value given in above.

The factor kw reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems with walls shall be taken as
follows:

1.00, for frame and frame-equivalentdual systems 

 
kw   (1   0 ) / 3  1, but not less than 0.5, for wall-equivalent and torsionally 
 flexible systems 
 

Where αo is the prevailing aspect ratio of the walls of the structural system.

If the aspect ratios hwi/lwi of all walls i of a structural system do not significantly
differ, the prevailing aspect ratio αo may be determined from the following expression:

o   hwi /  lwi

where
hwi is the height of wall i; and
lwi is the length of the section of wall i.

Seismic mass (m): ES EN 1998:2015 considered seismic mass as total permanent load and some
factors of live load.

W = ∑ GK, + ∑ ψE,i . Q K

The coefficient ψE,i is used to estimate a likely value of service loads and to take into account that some
masses do not follow perfectly the moves of the structure, because they are not rigidly connected to the
structure. ψE,i is computed as:
ΨE = φ. ψ2,i
Values of  for calculating 2i
Type of variable action Storey 
Categories A-C* Roof 1.0
Storeys with correlated occupancies 0.8
Independently occupied storeys 0.5
Categories D-F* and
Archives 1.0

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Distribution of the horizontal seismic forces

When the fundamental mode shape is approximated by horizontal displacements increasing linearly
along the height, the horizontal forces Fi should be taken as being given by:

z i  mi
Fi  Fb 
z j mj
Where
Fi is the horizontal force acting on storey i;
Fb is the seismic base shear
mi, mj are the storey masses
zi , zj are the heights of the masses mi,mj above the level of application of the seismic action
(foundation or top of a rigid basement).

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Accidental torsional effects

In order to account for uncertainties in the location of masses and in the spatial variation of the
seismic motion, the calculated centre of mass at each floor i shall be considered as being displaced
from its nominal location in each direction by an accidental eccentricity:

eai= 0.05.Li

Where
eai is the accidental eccentricity of storey mass i from its nominal location, applied in the
same direction at all floors;
Li is the floor-dimension perpendicular to the direction of the seismic action.

Combinations of actions for seismic design situations

The combination of the horizontal components of the seismic action may be accounted for as
follows.

AEd = EEdx “+” 0.30 EEdy

AEd = 0.30EEdx “+” EEdy

P- Relevant representative value of a prestressing action(Zero for non prestressing structure)

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