CHAPTER SIX

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Introduction

A model is a theoretical and simplified representation of the real world.Models should not be
confused with theories. A model is not an explanatory device by itself, but it helps to
formulate/make/ theory. It suggests relationships, and it is often confused with theory because
the relationship between a model and a theory is so close. Models are indispensable for
understanding the more complex processes.

6.1Functions of Models

A model is a detail simplified description in graphic form of an element of reality. A model

attempts/ሙከራ/ to display the main components of any structure or process and the relationships
between these components. A model is "a structure of symbols and operating rules which is
supposed to match set of relevant policies in an existing structure or process. The main
advantages of models in social sciences, according to Deutsch, are:

a) They perform an organizing function by bringing some order and relating system each other
and by offering linkages of wholes that are otherwise difficult to perceive;

b) They provide explanations, by simplifying' complex or ambiguous information; this is also

referred to as the heuristic reflection of models by which one's attention is drawn to key
elements of a system or process;

c) They also have a predictive function, i.e. models make it possible to predict outcomes or the
direction of events. Models could- fit the basis for identifying probable outcomes of research and
assist researchers in formulating hypotheses;

d) They enable measurement of phenomena, allowing even for completely quantitative

predictions with a degree of precision.

6.2 Some Basic Concepts

Communication implies a sender, a channel, a message; a receiver, a relationship between sender

and receiver, an effect and all of this combining within 'a context. Sometimes intention to send or
receive is communication is also a factor .in the process.Concepts that come up in these models
are 'encoding' and 'decoding'. Encoding refers to the preparation of a message into an appropriate
code or language for transmission to intended receivers. Decoding refers to the re-translation of
the message in order to secure its meaning at the receiver's end of the communication process.In
a typical conversation between two persons, the encoding' is performed by' 'speech or non-:

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verbal gestures and the decoding function is performed by the consensus/agreement/ of hearing
and sight/view/.

Feedback is another key component of the' Communication process and. of

incorporated/included in/ in models. The term 'feedback' refers to, a process by which the
communicator obtains information about whether and how a particular message has been
received. Such information helps the 'sender of the message to' modify ongoing or
communication messages. Questions in face-to-face situations, gestures~ other verbal responses,
etc., are some examples of feedback. In mass communication feedback appears in the form of
audience research, sales figures, letters, and phone calls.

Mass Communication as a special kind of communication process needs to be rarified as well.

According to one definition: Mass communications comprise the institutions and techniques by
which specialized groups employ technological devices (press, radio, is, etc) to disseminate
symbolic content to large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed audiences.

6.3 Lasswell's Basic Communication Model

The American political scientist Harold Lasswell verbalized communication as a process 'that
deals with ''who says what in what channel, to whom, 'with what effect".

Fig.. Dance's helical model

Dance's model takes communication from the earlier static image and gives it a dynamic form.
'The communication process contains components, relationships, and contexts that are
continuously changing. In a conversation, for example, the cognitive field is constantly widening
for the individuals involved - they continuously get more and more information about the topic
of -conversation, about the other person's point of view, ,etc.

6.4 Newcomb’s Symmetry Model

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Theodore Newcomb's model, based in social psychology, is an extension of earlier work by
Heider. Heider was concerned about the degree of consistency that might exist between two
individuals in relation to third object or person. His theory was that in situations where two
people who have an attitude of like or dislike towards each other and towards' an external object,
some patterns, of relationship will be balanced (as when two persons like each other and also
both like the third object) and Some will be unbalanced (as when two persons like each other, hut
one likes the object and the other does no etc.)

In this simplest form, the, Newcomb model represents a person, A, who transmits information to
another person, B, about something, X.

1. A's orientation toward X, including both attitude toward X as an object to be approached or

avoided... and cognitive attributes (beliefs and cognitive structuring).

2. A's orientation towards, in exactly the same sense (Newcomb speaks of positive and negative
attraction toward A or B as persons and of favorable. and unfavorable attitudes toward X).

3. B's orientation toward X.

4. B's orientation toward A.

This is a model for intentional, two-personcommunicative'8CtS. Newcomb derives the following

postulates from his model:

1. The stronger the forces towards A's co-orientation with respect to B and X; (a) the greater

A's stain toward symmetry with B with respect to X and (b) the greater the likelihood' of
increased symmetry as a consequence of one or more communicative acts.

2. The less the attraction between A and B, the more nearly stmin toward symmetry is to the
particular Xs toward which co-orientation 'is required by conditions of association. Symmetry,
bas the advantage of a person (A) being readily able to calculate the behavior of another person
(B). Symmetry also validates one's orientation toward X. This, is another way of saying we have
social and. psychological supping for the orientations we hold. When Bs' we hold in esteem
share our evaluations of Xs, we tend to be more confident of our orientations. It follows,
therefore, that we communicate with individuals we hold in esteem about objects, events, people
and ideas (Xs) that are important to us to try to reach- consensus or co-orientation or, in
Newcomb's term, symmetry.

6.5: Westley And' Maclean's 'Model

This, model was developed in 1957, in modification of Newcomb-'s ABX model, for providing a
more systematic treatment of mass communication. There are two stages of the adaptation, based
on received difference between mass communication and interpersonal communication. These
differences are:
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a) The fact, that ill mass communication the possibilities for feedback are minimal or delayed;

b) The larger number of As (alternative media sources and Xs (objects in, the environment) to
which a given individual B (as an audience member) must be oriented and amongst which he has
select.

The model represents the activity of A, a source of information selecting from a range of Xs to
communicate with B. In addition, B can have some direct perception of an X (Xlb) and CCW
respond through the feedback link, fBA. This would capture the most common interpersonal
communication context where an individual is seeking information of another, expert source.

The second adaptation of the Newcomb model by Westley and Maclean involves the Additional
element, the channel, C, which stands for the mass communicator. C acts as the 'gatekeeper' for
messages being transmitted between A and B. In the model, A stands for a source in society and
B for a member of society. The channel is conceived as playing an impartial role in interpreting
the needs of B and then satisfying them by misfiring meaning into a shared symbol system and
transmitting messages to B by way of a channel.

Chapter seven

Effects of communication

Introduction

Communication is specific to the process of mass-media communication. Intentional, persuasive,

interpersonal communication, as you have seen, has both anticipated and unanticipated effects,
including attitude and behavioral changes.Economy, trade and business are increasingly run
globally through the exchange of information with large number of people with the aid of mass
media. Advertising, public relations and other forms of corporate communication activities rely
heavily on mass media to inform the public, persuade them to buy products or services, or, more
generally, to develop corporate loyalties among the public.

7.1 Effects, Effectiveness, and Consequences

Effects can be defined as any change or reinforcement produced in the psychological framework
of the individual. When this change or reinforcement occurs among a sufficiently large number
of individuals, it is manifest as change at the societal level. What is clear is that mass
communication media makes an impact on society in many ways -Item changing lifestyles,
behavior and attitudes? These are 'effects' and are visible over a long period of time. However,
there has been recognition that communicators must create effective messages.

Effectiveness is a product of goal fulfillment, i.e., that the intended objectives of the messages
have been achieved and are measurable through various methods of gaining inferred feedback.
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When one assesses the success or failure of any communication message, we must look at short-
term effectiveness that is intended, long-term effects that may be either intentional or
unintentional and consequences, which is a spillover resulting item some activity other than the
communication effort. It is necessary to identify and recognize the difference between outcomes
resulting Item the communication effort and outcomes resulting Item some other aspects of the
campaigning activity.

7.2 The Effects of Communication

There are four key dimensions to the idea of communication effects:

A.The nature or size of the stimulus (this could be just the existence of the mass medium, special
characteristics. of the medium or its content);

B.The social dimension of the effects (the nature and size of the social unit involved, individual
or social);

C.The temporal dimension of the effects (whether the effects are short term 'or long term);

D.The nature of the effects (whether cognitive, i.e. at a mental or informational level resulting in
learning or .understanding new information; affective, i.e. arousing emotion, identification with
content; or as behavioral, in observable change or reinforcement of behavior).

Various forces are at play in the relationship between mass-mediated communication and
individuals:m

i. the changes in the capabilities, needs and interests of the user;

ii. Changes in the medium;

iii. The close interdependence of the media and the competition of each medium to survive;

iv. Changes in the availability and attractiveness of the accessible alternatives.

Three different types of communication effects are often mentioned 'in the literature: medium or
displacement effects,' content effects, and audience effects.

Medium Effects: These effects refer tobe reorganization of activities that takes place with the
introduction of new media - for example, television. In other words, this' refers to the
reallocation of time given to media and other activities. As media use depends to a large extent
on the availability of leisure time, time spent with the media may be a reduction in time spent on
schoolwork, reading, play, conversations, and outdoor activity. Variations inmedia access are
likely to be the single most important predictor of media exposure, use, and effect, leading to the
'knowledge gap' as posited by Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien (1970). The implication here is that
people Item more economically advantaged families will have a better exposure to mass media,

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will be able to absorb more1han their less 'advantaged peers, and will derive different
gratifications Item the same media, if exposure is held constant. It is, therefore, all the more
necessary to match access and content to audience needs, if there is to be greater effectiveness in
a desired direction.

Content Effects: These effects refer to the impact of the actual content of communication on the
receivers of the communication. While it is now known widely that the effects of media content
are not uniformly felt,' it is socio-economic position of the individual or the group that provides
the most confident predictor of media content preference and effect. All learning Item
mass media content need not be negative, although the wider society seems to be obsessed only
with negative influences. For instance, in those states in India where the literacy campaign
has been areasonable success, the print media have played a significant role in sustaining
the literacy.

7.3. Mass society and the Origins of the Effects Approach,

Each of the major approaches to the study of mass communication and their theoretical
perspectives are based firmly on theoretical and methodological assumptions of the contributory
disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and political science, and have varied
with new developments in these parent disciplines. The various theories of mass communication
have as their origins the basic conceptions of the human individual or the social order that have
been supplied by the social sciences. During the initial decades of the twentieth century, the mass
media were yet to develop roots in public life, but were conspicuous enough to have aroused the'
fears of many people about their possible effects on children, morality and decency. It was also
about this time that sociological theories were emphasizing the 'mass society'" a concept used to
describe the impersonal human relationships that characterized the emerging urban-industrial
social order. Let us, therefore, understand the origins and nature of this important concept.

The concept of mass society emerged item the study of fundamental social changes that took
place over the last two centuries. Auguste Comte often credited with founding the field of
sociology, viewed society as a collective organism in which specialized parts functioned
together.Comte emphasized the role of specialization in the stable and harmonious functioning of
human society.

Herbert Spencer, another founding father of sociology, also provided an organic theory of
society, developing ail elaborate analogy between society and an individual organism (The
division of labor was a significant part of his analysis and was regarded as the fundamental factor
in the stability of society. But Spencer did not explore the consequences of overspecialization for
society. Neither Comte nor Spencer, the former theorizing on the eve of the industrial revolution
and the latter writing during its early phases, could foresee the fundamental changes in society
brought about by the' industrial order.

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The German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies described the nature of this new order by contrasting
two types of societal organization - one pre-industrial and the other industrial. In 1887,
Tonnieswrote his famous Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, explaining the kind of social ties that
exist between members of groups in two distinct types of social organization. The Gemeinschaft
(community) organization is one in which people have strong ties between them through
tradition, kinship, friendship, or some other socially cohesive factor. Gemeinschaft refers to a
community characterized by a reciprocal, binding sentiment that keeps human beings together.

Gesellschaft, on the other hand, is a social organization characterized by contractual

relationships. It is the Gesellschaft type of relationship that exists between members of a society
marked by finance and trade, market mechanisms, division of labor, and large formal
organizations, in the Gesellschaft. Everybody is by himself and isolated, and there exists a
condition of tension against all others. Such a negative attitude toward one another becomes the
normal and always underlying relation of those power-endowed individuals, and it characterizes
the Gesellschaft in the condition of the rest.

7.4 The Maximum Effects Approach

The nature of mass society was such that urban-industrial populations were seen as diverse,
differentiated, and free from binding social ties. People were said to act less on the basis of
reason and rationality and more on impulse, sentiment, and emotion. Early mass communication
scholars viewed 'such a population as being particularly vulnerable to propaganda and well-
designed messages "of mass communication.

The theory of uniform and maximum effects can be summarized in the following terms:

a. The media present messages to the members of the mass society who perceive them more or
less uniformly. .

b. Such messages are stimuli that influence the individual's emotions and sentiments strongly.

c. The stimuli lead individuals to respond in a somewhat uniform manner, creating changes in
thought and action that are like those changes in other persons.

d. Because individuals are not held back by strong social controls from others, such as shared
customs and traditions, the effects of mass communication are powerful, uniform, and direct:

7.5 The Limited Effects View

The magic bullet theory that viewed the mass media as having immediate, direct, arid uniform
effects on their audiences began to lose its attractiveness to mass communication scholars as
accumulating empirical evidence presented a contradictory picture, and as new concepts were
developed by psychologists and sociologists.

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Social scientists developed three significant concepts regarding human life and social order to
led mass communication scholars to new conclusions about the effects of communication. These
are the individual differences theory, the social differentiation or social categories theory, and the
social relationships theory.

The central postulates of the limited effects paradigm can be summarized as follows:

a. The media present messages to the members of mass society, but those messages are received
and interpreted selectively. .

b. The basis of this selectivity lies in variations in habits of perception among members of the
society.

c. Variations in habits of perception occur because each individual has a unique personal
organization of beliefs, attitudes, values, needs, and modes of experiencing gratification that has
been acquired through learning.

d. Because perception is selective" interpretation, retention, and response to media messages are
also selective and variable.

7.6. Moderate and Powerful Communication Effects of Mass Communication

Since 1970 when research on television violence began, mass communication scholars have been
moving away from the limited effects view.

Knowledge Gaps as Effects

Increased quantities of information from the mass media area normally thought of as
contributing factors to fostering a better and more democratic society. But an understand
possibility is that mass communication might actually have the effect of increasing the difference
or gap in knowledge between members of different social classes.

The knowledge gap hypothesis can be stated in the following two ways:

a. Over time, acquisition of knowledge of a heavenly publicized topic will proceed at a faster rate
among better-educated persons than among those with less education.

b. At a given point -in time, there should be a higher correlation between acquisition of
knowledge and education for topics highly publicized in the media than for topics less highly
publicized. .

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