1.

What things appear on the Sun to increase solar output and cause the solar constant
to not be constant?
a. Sunspots appear on the Sun to increase solar output and cause the solar constant
to not be constant.
2. What objects/surfaces have the highest albedos?
a. Albedo is a measure of reflectivity. Fresh snow reflects approximately 95 percent
of the sun's rays so it has one of the highest albedos.
3. What surfaces have the lowest albedo?
a. Generally, dark surfaces have a low albedo for example, a dark roof and asphalt.
4. What type of feedback mechanism involves the melting of sea ice, which then results
in more absorption of solar radiation than the ice did and thus results in the further
melting of ice? Hint: Watch the video.
a.
5. What type of radiation is absorbed and emitted by gases as part of the greenhouse
effect?
a. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and other trace gases in Earth's atmosphere
absorb the longer wavelengths of outgoing infrared radiation from Earth's surface.
These gases then emit the infrared radiation in all directions, both outward,
toward space, and downward toward Earth.
6. Which greenhouse gas had the largest radiative forcing from 1750 to 2011?
a. CO2 - Carbon dioxide
7. What is the source of the 341 W m-2 of radiation that is entering the Earth-atmosphere
system?
8. What gas is responsible for much of the 78 W m-2 that is absorbed by the atmosphere?
9. Approximately what percent of the incoming solar radiation at the top of Earth’s
atmosphere that reaches Earth’s surface is absorbed by Earth’s surface and what surface
is responsible for most of the absorption?
10. What percent of the incoming solar radiation is reflected/scattered to space by the
atmosphere and the Earth’s surface combined?
11. What gases cause the “back radiation” and what type of radiation is it?
12. What is the solar constant for Earth that is used throughout this exercise? Please provide
the units.
13. What is Earth’s albedo when Earth is portrayed as a black body without an atmosphere?
14. What is the only control of Earth’s surface temperature when Earth is portrayed as a
black body without an atmosphere?
15. What is the actual albedo of Earth’s surface?
16. How do you think adding a surface albedo to Earth will affect the global surface
temperature (i.e., how will the temperature change when going from a black body to
Earth with surface features)?
17. How and why did Earth’s surface temperature change when going from being a black
body to being a planet with surface features (e.g., water, forest, deserts, and snow & ice)?
18. Why is it impossible to have surface features, such as water, forests, and snow & ice, and
not have an atmosphere? Think of the hydrologic cycle (Lab 3) and the carbon cycle
(Lab 4).
19. What is Earth’s albedo (i.e., what proportion of the incoming solar radiation is reflected

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 by Earth’s atmosphere and surface)?
20. Taking into account both the change in albedo and the addition of the greenhouse effect,
what effect do you think adding an atmosphere to Earth will have on its surface
temperature?
21. Even with a large increase in albedo, why is current Earth nearly 20° C warmer than
Earth with only surface features?
22. How did land cover during the Last Glacial Maximum differ from the current land cover?
23. What was your estimate of Earth’s albedo during the Last Glacial Maximum? Why
should it be larger than the Earth’s current albedo of 0.30?
24. How much cooler do you think Earth was during the Last Glacial Maximum compared to
the current temperature?
25. How much colder was Earth’s surface temperature during the Last Glacial Maximum
compared to the current temperature?
26. Why did the lower temperatures result in lower atmospheric CO2 concentrations? Think
back to Lab 4 about the carbon cycle and what component of the cycle was taking in
more CO2 during the Last Glacial Maximum.
27. What impact did a lower CO2 concentration have on the greenhouse effect and
ultimately Earth’s surface temperature?
a. When the CO2 concentration is lower there’s not a lot of gas being trapped inside
causing the Earth's surface to be warmer.
28. What is the projected atmospheric CO2 concentration in 2050 and why are CO2
concentrations projected to increase?
a. The projected CO2 concentration in 2050 will be about 550ppm due to additional
population growth.
29. What do you expect the global surface temperature to be in 2050 and how much
different will it be from the current temperature?
a. With the CO2 concentration increases in 2050 this will also cause an increase in
temperature by 4.9 degrees Fahrenheit. For example, the average summer high for
today is 103.5 degrees Fahrenheit. In 2050 it will be around 108 degrees
Fahrenheit.
30. How much global warming is expected between now and 2050 and what is the major
factor behind the warming?
a.
31. List two assumptions you made when modeling Earth’s surface temperature?
a.

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