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Overview of Electric Turbocharger and Supercharger for Downsized Internal

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Article  in  IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification · March 2017

DOI: 10.1109/TTE.2016.2620172

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 Overview of Electric Turbocharger and Supercharger
for Downsized Internal Combustion Engines
Woongkul Lee, Student Member, IEEE, Erik Schubert, Yingjie Li, Student Member, IEEE,
Silong Li, Student Member, IEEE, Dheeraj Bobba, Student Member, IEEE, and
Bulent Sarlioglu1, Senior Member, IEEE
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Wisconsin Electric Machines and Power Electronics Consortium (WEMPEC)
University of Wisconsin – Madison
Madison, WI, USA
1
sarlioglu@wisc.edu
Abstract—Forced induction uses otherwise wasted CO2 emission standards. For instance, the U.S. and
exhaust gases to improve the volumetric efficiency of an Canada are targeting 56.2 miles per gallon (mpg) by 2025,
engine allowing for higher thermodynamic efficiency. As the which is 50% higher than that of 2015. The EU
fuel economy and greenhouse gas emission standards are introduced the 56.9 mpg target by 2020 as well as South
projected to be much more stringent globally, the use of a
Korea. Japan has already exceeded its 2020 statutory
forced induction engine in passenger cars and light duty
trucks has become a new trend in automotive industry. The target as of 2013 and achieved 45.9 mpg, which is the
aerodynamic matching of an exhaust driven turbocharger is highest among other countries [3]. China, India, Mexico,
a compromise of transient response at low exhaust energy and Brazil also proposed or established new fuel
levels and power targets on the high. The trend towards economy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission standards.
highly boosted downsized engines results in larger Over the past few years, the automotive industry has
aerodynamic matches compromising responsiveness on the introduced a number of new technologies to meet these
low side, known as turbo lag. The electrification of forced new regulations such as integration of light-weight
induction system (electric forced induction system (EFIS)) material, idle stop and go, energy regenerative braking
has emerged as a feasible solution and it also possesses
systems, engine downsizing with a forced induction
numerous benefits depending on its topologies. This paper
provides a comprehensive study on EFIS by investigating system (FIS) and hybrid or battery electric vehicles [4-5].
system level topologies, performance, various types of high- Amongst these recent technologies, the engine
speed machines, power electronics, and control techniques. downsizing with a FIS is gaining popularity as a viable
The advantages and disadvantages of existing electric forced solution. Compared to a conventional non-electric forced
induction system are summarized and the new challenges induction system (NFIS), the newly introduced electric
and opportunities are also introduced. forced induction system (EFIS) has several benefits
including
Index Terms— electrically assisted turbocharger; forced
induction system; high-speed machine; hybrid electric • improved transient response (reduced turbo lag),
vehicles; turbocharger;
• improved engine output power,
I. INTRODUCTION • energy regenerative capability,
The use of an internal combustion engine (ICE) using
• applicable to fuel cell vehicles.
liquid-transportation fuel will presumably continue to
hold a major role over the next few decades [1]. However,
there are still significant challenges of improving fuel This paper reviews NFIS and EFIS in terms of power
efficiency and reducing emissions considering the rapid level, operating speed range, performance, types of high-
growth of environmental concerns. According to the most speed machines, topologies, mechanical and electrical
recent research report from the U.S. Environmental issues. It begins with the overview of the fundamental
Protection Agency (EPA), transportation is the second NFIS and EFIS followed by the investigation and
largest source (34%) of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission in comparison of various high-speed machines. As high-
the U.S. followed by the electricity generation (40%). Out speed electric machine technologies are becoming more
of the transportation sector, light duty vehicles (passenger mature than ever, there are new techniques applicable to
cars and light duty trucks) are responsible for almost 60% EFIS that have not yet been discussed in the previous
and medium and heavy duty vehicles take up 23% [2]. It EFIS research papers. This paper also introduces
clearly indicates that the improvement of fuel economy challenges and opportunities in EFIS technology from
and the reduction of CO2 emission in road vehicles can both electrical and mechanical engineering perspectives.
have a significant impact on the conservation of the
global environment.

Recently, the regulatory authorities around the world

have established unprecedentedly high fuel economy and
II. OVERVIEW OF NON-ELECTRIC AND ELECTRIC FORCED
INDUCTION SYSTEM
A. The Advantages of Air Pressure Boosting
The internal combustion engine indicated power can
be estimated by
m˙ f
Pengine = ρim ηv ηth ηcomb   Qfuel_LHV N   (1)
Ve
 a
m˙  nR
the air density is
pim
ρim = (2)
RspecificTa
and the engine swept volume can be calculated by
Ve = n Ac L (3)
Fig. 1. Torque restoration with turbocharging for downsized engine
where (NA-naturally aspirated) [9].
Pengine engine indicated power,
𝜌im air density in the intake manifold, increased by 70% (23 bar) using FIS [9].
𝜂v volumetric efficiency, Turbocharger market has been growing rapidly and
𝜂 th thermal efficiency sales of turbocharged vehicles are expected to grow up to
𝜂 comb combustion efficiency, 47% by 2020 [10]. Ford Motor Company has been
m˙ f fuel mass flow rate, investing in the development of Gasoline Turbocharged
Direct Injection (GTDI) engine technology with
m˙a air mass flow rate,
Department of Energy (DOE) since 2010 [11]. The new
Qfuel_LHV mass specific lower heating value of the fuel, type of engine marketed as EcoBoost achieves 25% total
N crankshaft rotational speed, fuel economy improvement while satisfying the GHG
Ve engine swept volume, emission standard. General Motors has also been
nR number of crank revolution per power stroke, developing a downsized engine with turbocharger called
N number of cylinders, ECOTEC since 2000 [12]. Nissan Motor unveiled a 3-
Ac cylinder area, cylinder 1.2-liter engine with a supercharger, which can
L stroke length, deliver the output power equivalent to that of a 1.5-liter
pim intake manifold air pressure, engine [13]. Volkswagen released a 4-cylinder 1.4-liter
Rspecific specific gas constant for dry air, turbocharged engine to replace its conventional 4-
Ta absolute air temperature. cylinder 2.0-liter naturally aspirated engine and improved
fuel economy by 13% [14].
In the past, FIS was mainly utilized in high- B. Non-Electric Forced Induction System (NFIS)
performance gasoline engine or diesel engine vehicles for In general, an NFIS can be classified into two types
the purpose of boosting the engine power in (1) by depending on the energy source for driving a compressor:
compressing inlet air to increase air pressure and density an exhaust driven turbocharger and a crank driven
in (2). More recently, automotive manufacturers are supercharger. A conventional single stage turbocharger
paying more attention to the use of FIS with a downsized consists of a turbine and a compressor directly coupled
engine or a hybrid electric vehicle for improving the fuel together through a shaft as shown in Fig. 2 (a). Since
economy while reducing the GHG emission. In general, exhaust gas from an ICE is the only energy source to
the downsized ICE with a turbocharger performs more drive the turbine and the coupled compressor, this
efficiently with lower fuel consumption and emission [6- topology suffers from the slow mechanical response and
8]. low efficiency especially when the engine speed is low
A turbocharger compresses the inlet air charge (which [4]. Also, a wastegate valve must be employed to prevent
increases air pressure and volumetric efficiency in (2)) by turbine over-speed, which results in a potential waste of
deriving energy from the exhaust gas, which is otherwise energy. To solve these issues, several different
wasted. It helps to downsize ICE by reducing the cylinder approaches have been introduced such as multiple staged
area, Ac and stroke length, L or the number of cylinders, n turbochargers (regulated two-stage turbocharger in Fig. 2
in (3), while producing engine output power similar to (c)), twin charger (combination of a turbocharger and a
that of a higher displacement naturally aspirated (NA) supercharger in Fig. 2 (d)), sequential turbocharger (in
engine. Fig. 2 (e)), low inertia rotating components, variable
A typical family car engine with 2.0-liter displacement geometry turbine (VGT), active control turbocharger
volume has the peak engine torque of 220 Nm and brake (ACT), control of valve timings and fuel injection and
mean effective pressure (BMEP) value of 13.5 bar as adopting external energy sources to enhance air supply
shown in Fig. 1. If the swept volume of this engine is [5].
reduced by 40% (1.2-liter), the engine will deliver the A supercharger is directly connected to a crankshaft of
torque of 132 Nm at the similar BMEP of 13.5 bar. To an ICE with a belt or chain so that the engine becomes
restore the initial torque of 220 Nm, the BMEP should be the energy source for driving the compressor as shown in
 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
Fig. 2. Schematic layout of the non-electric forced induction system (NFIS) topologies (black line – air flow path with valve, blue line – engine inlet
air flow, red line – exhaust gas flow). (a) Single-stage turbocharger. (b) Mechanical supercharger. (c) Regulated two-stage turbocharger (d) Low-
pressure turbocharger with high-pressure mechanically driven supercharger with bypass (twincharger-Volkswagen). (e) Parallel sequential
turbocharging.

Fig. 2 (b). Typically, the supercharger can be classified electrified and the topology is equivalent to the electric
into three different types depending on the methods of compressor as illustrated in Fig. 3 (b). The characteristics,
gas transfer or compression: Roots, twin screw, and advantages, and disadvantages are summarized in Table
centrifugal. Roots and twin screw superchargers are II. In order to improve the transient response of the
positive displacement compressors and tend to have conventional turbocharger using an electric machine, the
better volumetric efficiency at lower speeds compared to torque/inertia ratio (or angular acceleration, ) of EFIS
centrifugal compressors which rely on mass flow must be higher than that of the conventional NFIS as
acceleration. The advantages and disadvantages of NFIS shown in (4)
are summarized and compared in Table I.
TEFIS_net TNFIS_net
C. Electric Forced Induction System (EFIS) > (4)
JEFIS JNFIS
The electrification of NFIS can be realized in 5 different where
topologies as shown in Fig. 3 (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e). EFIS net torque,
TEFIS_net
Since the main advantages of EFIS are to improve
transient performance and minimize the lagging effect, TNFIS_net NFIS net torque,
there is no practical reason to electrify roots and twin JEFIS EFIS total inertia,
screw superchargers, which have relatively high boost JNFIS NFIS total inertia.
performance in low engine RPM as shown in Table I.
Nevertheless, the centrifugal supercharger can be

TABLE I
THE C OMPARISON OF NON -E LECTRIC FORCED INDUCTION SYSTEM TOPOLOGIES
Regulated Parallel
Single-stage
Mechanical Supercharger Two-stage Twincharger Sequential
Turbocharger
Turbocharger Turbocharger
Type Centrifugal Roots Twin screw Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal
Exhaust gas /
Energy source Exhaust gas Engine Exhaust gas Exhaust gas
Engine
Power boost with RPM Non-linear Linear Linear Non-linear Linear Linear Linear
Response time Slow (turbo lag) Fast Fast Slow Fast Fast Fast
Low RPM boost Low High High Low High High High
High RPM boost High Low Low High High High High
Internal compression Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Efficiency High Low Low Low High Medium High
Cost Lowest Low High Medium High High High
Electrification Fig. 3 (a), (b), (c) N/A N/A Fig. 3 (b) Fig. 3 (d), (e) Fig. 3 (d), (e) Fig. 3 (d), (e)
 (a) (b)
(d) (e)
Fig. 3. Schematic layout of electric forced induction system (EFIS) topologies (black line (thin) – power flow, black line (thick) – air flow path with
valve, blue line – engine inlet air flow, red line – exhaust gas flow). (a) Electrically assisted turbocharger (EAT). (b) Electric compressor (EC). (c)
Electrically split turbocharger (EST). (d) Turbocharger with an additional electrically driven compressor - upstream (TEDC). (e) Turbocharger with
an additional electrically driven compressor - downstream (TEDC).
Minimizing the inertia of the overall system and
maximizing output torque are the challenges in EFIS and
5 different topologies are characterized based on this
equation.
1. Electrically assisted turbocharger (EAT)
The electrically assisted turbocharger (EAT) is shown
in Fig. 3 (a). A high-speed electric machine is
interconnected between the turbine and the compressor.
When the engine speed is low, the electric machine
functions as a motor providing additional torque to the
compressor generating higher boost pressure with a faster
transient response. When the engine speed is high, the
electric machine generates power, which can be
transmitted to energy storage. It can also prevent the
turbine to exceed its speed limitation. However, this
might also cause high backpressure effect to the ICE,
which can negate the energy recovered from exhaust gas
[15].
In this topology, the characteristics of the electric
machine are important especially inertia and output
torque since the electric motor is directly coupled with
the turbine and the compressor. The increased output
torque from the electric motor, TEM_EAT should exceed the
additional inertia of the electric motor, JEM to the system
[5] as below
TT_EAT + TEM_EAT – TC_EAT – TMech_load_EAT
> turbocharger. Induction machines, switched reluctance
JTC+EM
TT_conv – TC_conv – TMech_load_conv
(5)
JTC_conv
where
TT_EAT EAT turbine output torque,
TEM_EAT EAT electric machine output torque,
(c)
TC_EAT EAT compressor load torque,
TMech_load_EAT EAT mechanical load torque,
JTC+EM turbine, compressor and electric
machine inertia,
TT_conv conventional turbocharger turbine
output torque,
TC_ conv conventional turbocharger compressor
load torque,
TMech_load_onv conventional turbocharger mechanical
load torque,
JTC_conv conventional turbocharger inertia.
Typically, the additional rotor inertia of the electric
machine should be limited from 1/3 to a maximum 1/2 of
the mass moment inertia of the turbocharger to efficiently
assist the turbocharger [16]. The angular acceleration of
the free electric machine should be an order of magnitude
larger than that of the baseline turbocharger to
significantly improve the transient response [16]. The
advantages of this topology are improved low RPM
boosting, electric machine rotor position self-sensing
capability [17], motoring and generating capabilities, and
the necessity of electric components with relatively low
power output which, in turn, means low cost.
The main challenge of this topology is to minimize the
high-temperature effect on the electric machine,
especially when the machine is placed inside the
machines, or flux-switching permanent magnet machines
can be used for this topology since they are more
advantageous than surface permanent magnet machines
in terms of high-temperature operation and thermal
management. There are some other topological
approaches to mitigate this issue as well.
For instance, BMW utilized clutches to connect and
disconnect the electric machine to the shaft of the
turbocharger so that the machine can be placed outside of TC_EC ET compressor load torque,
the turbocharger [18]. G+L innotec introduced large TMech_load_EC ET mechanical load torque,
airgap permanent magnet machine, which can also be JC+EM compressor and electric machine inertia.
placed outside of the turbocharger [19]. The inner
diameter of the stator is equivalent to the outer diameter
of the compressor and the outer diameter of the rotor is 3. Electrically split turbocharger (EST)
equivalent to the output diameter of the shaft. The airgap The third topology is called electrically split
is also used as inlet air path so that it has multiple turbocharger (EST) as shown in Fig. 3 (c). In this
benefits in cooling, low inertia, and less temperature topology, the mechanical energy from exhaust gas is not
effect. directly delivered to the compressor but converted to
2. Electric compressor(EC) electrical energy initially using a generator. The stored
The electric compressor (EC) is illustrated in Fig. 3 (b). energy is utilized to drive the compressor for boosting.
The energy for driving the compressor is solely provided The advantages of this topology is the ability to drive the
from electric energy storage so that it has more flexibility compressor at a different speed than the turbine. The
in terms of control. In addition, the compressor can be other advantages of this topology are less temperature
driven at its optimal operating point ensuring high effect due to the separation of the turbine and the
efficiency. The electric components are required to have compressor and no additional inertia from the turbine and
high power output compared to other topologies. This the turbine shaft as shown below
topology does not have the capability of energy TEM_EST – TC_EST – TMech_load_EST
generation itself but the regenerative braking system or >
JC+EM
integrated starter generator (ISG) can be combined to
provide electrical energy to the energy storage [5]. The TT_conv – TC_conv – TMech_load_conv
torque/inertia ratio can be fulfilled if an electric machine (7)
with high power density and low inertia is utilized as JTC_conv
shown below where
TEM_EC – TC_EC – TMech_load_EC TEM_EST EST electric machine output torque,
> TC_EST EST compressor load torque,
JC+EM
TMech_load_EST EST mechanical load torque,
TT_conv – TC_conv – TMech_load_conv JC+EM compressor and electric machine inertia.
(6)
JTC_conv
Splitting the turbine and the compressor is also beneficial
where in terms of installation so that the airflow path can be
TEM_EC ET electric machine output torque, optimized. However, this topology requires high power
TABLE II
THE C OMPARISON OF E LECTRIC FORCED INDUCTION SYSTEM T OPOLOGIES
Type EAT EC EST TEDC (up and downstream)
Energy source Exhaust gas / Energy storage Exhaust gas / Exhaust gas /
Energy storage Energy storage Energy storage
Motor / inverter rating Low High High Low
Temperature effect High Low Low Low
Size Medium Small Large Large
Electric turbo Yes No Yes No
compounding
Turbine and electrically- Yes No No No
driven compressor
coupling
Advantages - Compact size - Compact size - No additional Upstream Downstream
- Low rating motor - No additional inertia - Easy installation - Fastest transient
and inverter inertia - Control flexibility - No additional response
- No wastegate valve - Control flexibility - Installation inertia - Easy installation
- Installation flexibility - Low power motor - Low power motor
flexibility - No wastegate valve and inverter and inverter
- No backpressure - Steady-state - Steady-state
performance performance
improvement improvement
Disadvantages - Additional cooling - High rating motor - High rating motor - Not the fastest - Extra space
- Additional shaft and inverter and inverter transient response required
inertia - Low system - Extra space - Extra space - Low system
- Backpressure efficiency required required efficiency
(surge limit) - Backpressure - Backpressure - Low system
(surge limit) (surge limit) efficiency
- Extra energy
conversion loss
electric motor, generator, and inverters to satisfy
torque/inertia ratio in (7), which will increase the overall
system cost.
4. Turbocharger with an additional electrically driven
compressor (TEDC) – upstream and downstream
The last topology is the turbocharger with an
additional electrically driven compressor (TEDC) as
shown in Fig. 3 (d) and (e). Depending on the location of
the electrically driven compressor, TEDC can be
classified into upstream and downstream TEDCs. In this
topology, the electric machine operates independently
from the exhaust gas driven turbine and the electrically
driven compressor is designed to increase air pressure at
low engine speed. Therefore, this topology significantly
improves the transient response when the engine speed is
low since the electric motor operation is not affected by
the inertia of the turbine nor the shaft. However, the
electric energy needs to be produced from an ISG
powered by the engine shaft or regenerative braking
system [5].
The main advantage of this topology is the fastest
transient response when the ICE speed is low [5]. In
general, downstream TEDC has a faster transient
response than upstream TEDC since the latter has a larger
volume to pressurize. The other advantage is that this
topology requires minimal modifications to the
conventional NFIS for the electrification.
III. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF ELECTRIC FORCED
INDUCTION SYSTEM
The improvements of transient response, steady-state
performance, and fuel efficiency are the prime
advantages of EFIS. Investigating these characteristics is
one way of evaluating the performance of EFIS in
comparison with the conventional NFIS. It is also
important to consider the characteristics of ICEs such as
fuel type (diesel or gasoline), size, number of cylinders,
fuel injection systems and engine control techniques.
In general, a diesel engine tends to burn leaner (high
air-to-fuel ratio, ) than its stoichiometric ratio (diesel =
14.5), since it becomes more fuel-efficient and generates
higher power with fewer pollutants. Since compression-
ignition (CI) provides high combustion pressure, the
boost pressure from the FIS is relatively low. Therefore,
the FIS for a diesel engine is generally larger than the
counterpart of a gasoline engine to increase the intake
TABLE III
THE C OMPARISON OF D IESEL AND GASOLINE E NGINES WITH
FORCED INDUCTION SYSTEMS
Diesel Gasoline
Ignition Compression Spark
Engine speed [rpm] 2000 – 4000 3000 – 7000
Compression ratio 15 – 20 8 – 10
Exhaust gas
400 – 600 500 – 800
temperature [C]
Air-to-fuel ratio 20 – 60 12 – 13
Boost pressure [psi] 5–8 10 – 15
- High boost pressure
- High airflow
FIS Design - Surge limit
- Surge limit
considerations - High temperature
- Back pressure
- Detonation (knock)
airflow.
On the other hand, gasoline engine generally operates
near or lower than its stoichiometric ratio (gasoline =
14.7). Therefore, the high boost pressure is more
important than high intake air flow to improve the
efficiency and performance of the engine. Nevertheless,
the surge limit and detonation (pre-ignition) are potential
issues with the FIS for the gasoline engine. The general
characteristics of diesel and gasoline engines are
summarized in Table III.
The transient response analysis is a typical figure-of-
merit for assessing the performance of NFIS and EFIS,
which can be conducted by measuring and comparing
turbo lag. The definition of turbo lag is the amount of
time delay required to reach the commanded engine
output power or torque due to the insufficient exhaust gas
at low engine speed. For the conventional NFIS, it takes a
few seconds to accelerate the turbine and the compressor,
and the acceleration time from angular velocity 1 to 2
is given by
1  d
tacceleration = JTC  (8)
 T C – PMech_load
2
P – P
where
JTC turbocharger inertia,
 angular velocity,
PT turbocharger turbine power,
PC turbocharger compressor power,
PMech_load turbocharger mechanical load power,
tacceleration acceleration time.
The acceleration time determines how fast the engine
intake manifold pressure can be built up and the shorter
acceleration time helps to minimize the turbo lag.
Typically, the transient response can be significantly
improved in EFIS, but it primarily depends on the amount
of electrical power available in the vehicle electrical
system and the electric machine. It also varies with the
topology of NFIS and EFIS.
The fast transient response and high low engine speed
torque are highly preferable in downsized ICEs [20], and
some recent development efforts of EFIS revealed the
superior performance of EFIS over the conventional
NFIS.
Extensive modeling and design validations were
conducted in [21-23] to quantify the temporary turbo
boost that can be obtained with EFIS. The time to boost,
defined as the time taken by the engine/turbo system to
reach desired boost level with reference to the steady
state torque at a given speed is studied and shown to be
reduced by up to 90% compared to NFIS [21]. Studies
comparing NFIS and EFIS by Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries showed that the e-assisted EFIS can improve
the transient response time by 33% as well as the steady
state torque by 17% at low engine speeds [22]. In [16],
the transient response of a baseline diesel engine is
improved by up to 26% using EAT. The comprehensive
comparison of transient responses with baseline
turbocharger, EAT, EST, and TEDC showed that TEDC
has the fastest boost pressure build-up with 67% transient
response improvement [5]. EAT and EST feature the
similar transient improvement, which is about 20%. In
[23], the utilization of EAT in hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV) is simulated and it shows 4% reduction in
acceleration time compared with HEV with a
conventional turbocharger. Reducing the turbo lag with
EFIS does not improve the overall fuel economy
significantly in both ICE and HEV but the energy
regeneration with EAT can potentially provide fuel
saving in HEV [23]. The use of EFIS in HEVs can be
more advantageous since some of the HEVs are equipped
with the higher than the typical battery voltage of 12V.
The use of 24V or 48V battery can significantly reduce
the current rating of the electric motor, which improves
the overall efficiency of the motor and the motor drive
system.
IV. HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC MACHINES
A high-speed electric machine technology simplifies a
machine drive system by eliminating essential
mechanical components required in a conventional
electro-mechanical drive system [24] and also reduces the
dimension of the machines [25]. Fewer mechanical
components improve the system reliability and the
reduction of size and weight is valued in numerous
applications such as aerospace, aircraft, and hybrid or
purely electric vehicles. In these applications, space is
limited and weight is highly related to the performance
and efficiency. The turbocharger/supercharger systems
benefit from having high-speed electric machines.
Nevertheless, designing and manufacturing of high-
speed machines are challenging and there are several
constraints that need to be carefully considered. In this
chapter, 4 different machine types that can be utilized in
the EFIS with the target output power from 0.5 kW to 30
kW and the minimum speed of 50 krpm are introduced.
Figure 4 shows high-speed machine types plotted
nominal power against speed. Permanent magnet,
switched reluctance, and induction machine are in the
target range and flux-switching machine, which is not
included in Fig. 4, will also be discussed. It needs to be
mentioned that the interior permanent magnet (IPM)
machine is not discussed in the high-speed electric
Fig. 4. High-speed machines nominal power vs. speed for different machine types (highlighted region – EFIS operating range) [24].
machine realm, because their mechanical integrity is not
high enough for very high speed conditions. The cavity
and bridges in the rotor laminations of an IPM machine
have tendencies to deform under high centrifugal forces
and mechanical stress. As a result, IPM machine is not
popular in high-speed machine application. The
characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of
aforementioned four machines are compared and
summarized in Table IV. The machine types, ratings,
topologies and manufacturers of EFIS, which have been
reported in previous literature are summarized in Table V.
A. Induction Machine (IM)
The induction machine is one of the most mature
electric machine topologies, and it has been widely used
in the high-speed operation. The rotor of a high-speed
induction machine can be either laminated or solid
construction, depending on the operating speed. When the
tip speed is lower than a threshold speed, laminated rotor
is used which has the benefits of reduced eddy current
loss and improved efficiency compared to solid rotor
design [26]. The bar shape design in the rotor lamination
is critical to the rotor dynamic response, which influences
the performance of the turbocharger. For very high-speed
conditions, the rotor of an induction machine can be
designed as solid rotor instead of the caged rotor as
presented in [27]. One of the challenges is to design the
appropriate stator leakage reactance which influences the
peak torque and efficiency of the induction machine.
Design and analysis of induction machine are well
understood. However, due to the eddy current loss in the
rotor conductor, the induction machine has generally
lower efficiency than other electric machines especially
the PM machines. It should also be noted that the
manufacturing cost of the rotor for ultra-high-speed
induction machine is extremely expensive (possibly
higher than SPM and SRM). Induction machine is
generally considered to have lower torque ripple and less
vibration, which is good for turbocharger applications.
B. Surface Permanent Magnet Machine (SPM) /
Brushless DC Machine (BLDC)
The surface permanent magnet (SPM) and brushless
DC (BLDC) machines are good candidates for high-speed
operations. Both machines have permanent magnets
mounted on the surface of the rotor. The SPM machine
uses sinusoidal current excitation, while the BLDC
machine uses rectangular current excitation. Typically,
these two machines have high torque density and high
efficiency due the utilization of strong permanent
magnets. There are many turbocharger applications that
implement high-speed SPM and BLDC machines as
presented in [22], [28-31] due to the benefits of high
torque density, small size and weight.
One of the main challenges in the design process is the
thermal regulation of the machine, particularly for the
rotor part. This is because the permanent magnets
generate eddy current loss that increases the operating
temperature, which brings thermal demagnetization risks
to the permanent magnets. The other challenge is the
magnet containment issue at very high-speed conditions.
The permanent magnets are subject to large centrifugal
forces, and retaining sleeves are needed to protect the
magnets.
C. Switched Reluctance Machine (SRM)
The machines with passive rotor geometry, such as
switched reluctance machine (SRM), have an inherent
advantage for high speed operation due to their ability to
withstand higher centrifugal forces [32-34]. Due to the
absence of permanent magnets, the high temperature
operation capability and performance stability of SRM is
superior to PM machines. The SRM has inherent fault
tolerant capability because each of the phases can be
operated separately, this means that the machine can still
produce partial torque even if some of the phases are at
failure. There are a number of industrial
turbochargers/superchargers that implement SRM as
reported in [34-36].
The power electronic drives for SRM is different than
the conventional sinusoidal inverter. The performance of
SRM is sensitive to the variation of airgap length. Torque
ripple for SRM is usually very large, so the induced
vibration and noise are also much higher than induction
TABLE IV
THE C OMPARISON OF E LECTRIC M ACHINES FOR E LECTRIC FORCED INDUCTION SYSTEM
Type Induction machine Surface permanent magnet
machine / Brushless DC
machine
Machine design
and PM machines at high-speed conditions. However, the
high torque ripple property of SRM may not be a
particular concern for turbocharger application due to its
high rotational speed which smooths out the ripple
torque. SRM machine has very good temperature
variation withstand capability because the absence of
permanent magnet materials, so it is suitable for high
temperature environment of the turbocharger application.
D. Flux-Switching Permanent Magnet Machine
(FSPM)
The flux-switching permanent magnet machine has
been developed rapidly over the past decades, and there
are many suitable applications including those for high-
speed operations. The FSPM machine has robust rotor as
that of the switched reluctance machine. The permanent
magnets are in the stator instead of in the rotor.
Therefore, permanent magnet containment issue does not
exist at high-speed condition. The cooling of the
permanent magnets is much easier since they are closer to
the cooling surface. Conventional sinusoidal inverter is
used for the FSPM machine, and the control is almost the
same as a SPM machine [37]. Conventional FSPM
machines are focused primarily on topologies with
number of poles equal or larger than 10 [38]. Novel low-
pole FSPM machine with only 4 rotor poles is recently
developed that is amenable for high-speed operation, due
to the notable reduction of high frequency losses such as
iron loss and magnet eddy current loss as shown in Fig. 5
[39-40].
The construction of FSPM machine is more
complicated than other electric machines due to the
highly segmented stator structure. Because of the doubly
salient structure, the torque ripple could be higher than
that of the SPM/BLDC machine. The efficiency of FSPM
machine can be higher than IM and SRM under high-
speed conditions. The FSPM machine is suitable for
turbocharger application in the aspects of high torque
density enabled by the permanent magnets in the
Switched reluctance Flux-switching
machine permanent magnet
machine

Temperature effect - Copper or aluminum loss - Hot shutdown issue - High copper loss - Hot shutdown issue
in rotor - Demagnetization - High core losses - Demagnetization
- Torque reduction - Torque reduction
Advantages - No permanent magnet - High power density - No permanent magnet - Robust and simple rotor
- Robust - High efficiency - Robust and simple rotor structure
- Inexpensive structure - Easier magnet cooling
- Low rotor inertia - Low rotor inertia
- Fault tolerance
Disadvantages - High rotor loss - Magnet retention - High inverter rating - May require high
- Rotor cooling required - High rotor inertia - Control complexity fundamental frequency
- Lower power factor - High magnet eddy - High torque ripple - Medium torque ripple
- Lower efficiency current loss - High acoustic noise - Medium acoustic noise
(if concentrated winding
is used)
machine, and high temperature withstand capability due fsamp
to easier dissipation of heat generated by the stator fratio =
ffund (12)
windings and permanent magnets, which are directly in In (12), fswitch and ffund are the sampling frequency and the
contact with the cooling surface such as water jackets. fundamental frequency of an electric motor respectively.
fratio ³ 10.31 (13)
With a conventional PI controller, the minimum
frequency ratio, fratio is about 10.31 considering current
regulation performance, transient response and digital
execution time delay as shown in (13) [17], [49-50].
It indicates that the switching frequency of a motor
drive can exceed 20 kHz, which imposes various issues in
power switching devices and motor drives such as high
switching loss, heat dissipation, and electromagnetic
interference (EMI). The state-of-the-art power switching
devices such as gallium nitride (GaN) and silicon carbide
Fig. 5. Novel 6/4 flux-switching permanent magnet machine with dual
stator structure [39]. (SiC) can shed light on these issues due to their superior
device characteristics compared to conventional silicon
TABLE V MOSFET or IGBT [51-54].
SUMMARY OF H IGH -S PEED M ACHINES FOR E LECTRIC FORCED The use of position sensor is avoided in high-speed
INDUCTION SYSTEMS [19], [22], [28], [41-48] SPM and BLDC machine drives since it tends to increase
Power Speed Voltage the failure probability and an axial extension of the
Machine Topology Manufacturer
[kW] [krpm] [V]
1.4 250 12 EAT Honeywell
machine [55]. Instead, self-sensing (sensorless) control
IM 2.8 120 48 EAT Honeywell technique is widely used to detect a rotor position and it
2.5 120 280 EAT EcoMotor is also applicable for an electrically assisted turbocharger
2 140 12 EAT MHI [17], [55]. In the case of IM and SRM, since there is
2 140 12 EC MHI almost no back-EMF, a sensor feedback is required to
2 150 12 EAT IHI
close the loop on speed. In addition, time delay
1.5 160 12 EAT G+L innotec
SPM 2 280 12 EAT EcoMotor compensation control is essential in high-speed machine
5 150 48 EAT EcoMotor operation especially when high switching frequency
15 150 300 EAT EcoMotor PWM based full-digital current regulator is used [49],
2 150 12 EST Aeristech [55]. When fratio is lower than 10.31, the minimum time
14 150 48 EST Aeristech delay of one-and-a-half cycle from space-vector PWM
- - 24 EAT Turbodyne
2.5 60 12 TEDC BorgWarner
updated at each sampling point can have a critical impact
BLDC 5 70 48 TEDC BorgWarner on the operating performance [49].
2 80 48 TEDC MMT
7 - 12/24 EC Duryea
B. Mechanical Issues
SRM
2 70 12 TEDC Valeo / CPT 1. Rotor mechanical stress
7 70 48 TEDC Valeo / CPT
Rotor mechanical stress is a major design constraint for
the high-speed electric machines in EFIS. For SPM
V. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
machines, the stress is highest in the pre-stressed
A. Electrical Issues constraining sleeve, which holds the magnets in place.
The fundamental frequency of an electric machine For IM, SRM, and FSPM machines, their rotors tend to
used in the electric turbocharger ranges from 1 to 8 kHz be more compliant than sleeved PM rotors and the base
depending on the rated speed and the number of the pole. of the rotor teeth has the maximum mechanical stress [56].
The fundamental frequency of surface permanent magnet Therefore, the proper analysis should be done through
(SPM) or brushless DC (BLDC) motor can be estimated FEA or analytical methods to ensure the stress is
from (9). In the case of the induction machine, the acceptable at maximum operating speed.
fundamental frequency can be calculated from (10) and 2. Bearings
that of the flux-switching permanent magnet (FSPM) Bearings are a fundamental mechanical component of
from (11) where n and s are the speed of motor and slip high-speed electric machines in EFIS. The choice of the
respectively and P is a number of poles. bearing can affect the mean time before failure of the
nP system as the bearings are often the first parts of the
f fund =
120 (9) system to wear out. Ball bearings rated for high-speed are
a common and practical choice for high-speed electric
nP(1- s)
f fund _ ind = machine design. The lifetime of ball bearings depends on
120 (10) the lubrication and the load [57]. Other more advanced
nP bearings are oil film, airfoil/gas, and magnetic bearings.
f fund _ FSPM = These advanced types of bearings have very low
60 (11) frictional losses when operating correctly. Magnetic
bearings have been used often in high-speed electric
machine research in recent years [58-60]. Magnetic
bearings offer the possibility of no friction losses except
for windage, but the magnetic control system must have
the correct gains and control strategy to avoid unwanted
vibration effects.
3. Temperature effect
Thermal issues are another important challenge for the
high-speed electric machines. In general, the size of an
electric machine operating at high-speed is smaller than a
low-speed electric machine with the same power rating
[57]. The small size has numerous benefits in EFIS, but it
also poses several thermal management issues. In general,
high-speed electric machines need to have lower losses
than low-speed machines with equivalent power ratings,
or alternatively, they should be equipped with a more
effective cooling system. High-speed electric machines
often run at temperatures near the critical temperatures
for some of the components [4]. High-speed permanent
magnet machines also have thermally sensitive parts
including permanent magnets and/or a carbon fiber rotor
sleeve.
In addition to the heat generation from losses of the
electric machines, a significant heat source is the hot
turbine of the turbocharger. Especially in EAT, the
electric machine is directly connected to the electric
machine via the shaft and typically placed between the
turbine and compressor. The electric machine can be
cooled by oil or water from the engine cooling system [4],
[61]. However, during hot shutdown of the engine, the
flow of coolant will cease and the temperature of the
electric machine can rise as the heat from the turbine is
gradually dissipated and partly transferred to the electric
machine. The electric machine and overall system should
be designed in such a way that the electric machine
components do not reach a critical temperature during hot
shutdown where the components could be damaged.
When the electric machines operate at very high
temperature, the characteristics and performance will
vary. The resistivity of conductors such as copper and
aluminum will increase with temperature. As a
consequence, the losses in the rotor-bars of IMs and the
stator winding are higher compared to low temperature.
The rotor-bars of IMs are usually made of aluminum
instead of copper for weight reduction. However, the
temperature coefficient of resistivity of aluminum is
higher than copper, which makes the high-temperature
loss more challenging. In addition, the rotor-bars of high-
speed IMs are usually buried in the rotor surface.
Therefore, the cooling of rotor-bars becomes challenging
as well.
The property of magnet materials changes significantly
during temperature variation. The remanence of magnet
materials decreases with increasing temperature [62-64].
Therefore, the torque production capability of both SPM
machines and FSPM machines decreases with increasing
temperature. Selection of the magnet material type is also
important. If the machine is designed to operate at very
high temperature, SmCo magnet is a better choice
compared to NdFeB magnet, since it not only has higher
Curie temperature, but is also less sensitive to
temperature variation.
As temperature increases, both the eddy current loss
and the hysteresis loss in the core materials will decrease,
which make the total core losses in all types of high-
speed electric machines lower at higher temperature [65-
69]. However, the saturation magnetization of electrical
steels typically slightly decreases with increasing
temperature, which means that the maximum flux density
in the core material will reduce with an increasing
temperature. As a result, the maximum output torque of
the machine at a constant current will slightly reduce.
Fortunately, this reduction is typically small in the
normal operating temperature range of electric machines
[65-66].
VI. CONCLUSIONS
This paper reviews non-electric and electric forced
induction system (NFIS and EFIS) with regard to
topologies, performance, electric machines. The existing
NFIS and EFIS topologies are analyzed and compared in
terms of their advantages and disadvantages. To better
understand the performance of each EFIS topology
compared to NFIS, transient response and steady-state
performance are investigated in detail. As the high-speed
machine technology improves, new types of machine
designs, inverter topologies, power devices, and control
techniques applicable for EFIS are introduced and studied.
In addition to the conventional high-speed machine
designs (IM, SPM, BLDC, and SRM), the newly
introduced FSPM machine is presented as a viable option
for EFIS application. The pros and cons of each machine
design are summarized and possible electrical and
mechanical issues are introduced.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the motivation
provided by Wisconsin Electric Machines and Power
Electronics Consortium (WEMPEC) of University of
Wisconsin - Madison.
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