Fluid Mechanics With Lab Flumec1: School of Engineering and Architecture

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
FLUMEC1 FLUID MECHANICS WITH LAB
A Self-regulated Learning Module

Prepared by:
ENGR. REYMORE A. INSAS
A Self-regulated Learning Module 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course Description …………………………………………………………………………… 3
Requirement of the Course ………………………………………………………………….. 3
Learning Outcomes …………………………………………………………………………… 3
Consultation …………………………………………………………………………………… 3
Activities/Rubrics and Format ……………………………………………………………….. 3
Submission of Activities ……………………………………………………………………… 4
Study Schedule ……………………………………………………………………………….. 5
Lesson 1: Introduction on Fluid Mechanics ………….…………………………………….. 6
Lesson 2: Properties of Fluid..………..……………………………………………………… 15
Lesson 3: Principle of Hydrostatics …….…………………………………………………... 24
Lesson 4: Manometer ……………………… ……………………………………………….. 33
Lesson 5: Hydrostatic Force (Plane Surfaces) ……………………………………………. 39
Lesson 6: Hydrostatic Force (Curved Surfaces) …………………………………………. 50
Lesson 7: Dams ……..………………...…………………………………………………….. 57
Lesson 8: Buoyancy …….………………………………………………………………….... 67
Lesson 9: Stability of Floating Bodies …………………………………………..………….. 75
Lesson 10: Hoop Tension …………………………………..………………………………. 82
Laboratory Activities and Experiments ……………………………………………………... 88
Evaluation of the course ……………………………………………………………………… 134
References ……………………………………………………………………....................... 134

FLUMEC1 – FLUID MECHANICS WITH LAB
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This course deals with properties of fluids; fluid static, hydrokinetics and hydrodynamics; ideal
fluid flow for past external and internal boundaries; flow similitude; laboratory fluid experiments.
REQUIREMENT OF THE COURSE:
The student is expected to punctually comply with class participation and submission of activities
per grading period. At the end of the semester, the students are expected to submit the following
requirements;
a. Compiled activities of the course
b. Evaluation of the course
c. Evaluation of the course module
d. Personal e-portfolio using google site with narrative report
e. Final Requirement
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the student shall be able to:

1. Apply the different formulas to determine the different properties of fluids and relate these
properties.
2. Determine the pressure coming from the different types of fluid using different types of manometer
3. Determine the forces applied by fluids on the surface of structures.
4. Determine the stability of a floating body wherein external forces are applied
5. Determine and understand the purposes of the dam and to apply different formulas to design a
dam
CONSULTATION:
For questions and clarifications, please feel free to message the instructor through the
following:
Email Account: reymore.insas@e.ubaguio.edu
Messenger Account: Reymore Alfredo Insas
Cellphone Number: 09512454318
ACTIVITIES/RUBRICS AND FORMAT:
Activities and rubrics are given every after the lesson. Please use SHORT BOND PAPER for all
the activities and individual instructions are also given for your reference. Instructions regarding
the examination will be announced soon.
Please refer to the given format below. Please use ½ inch margin on all sides.

SUBMISSION OF ACTIVITIES:
A. ONLINE
For online students, you are required to submit your activities on the specified dates given by the
study schedule or by the instructor. Upload your activities in the google classroom. Activities are
given per lesson and please use SHORT BOND PAPER.
B. OFFLINE
For offline students who are not based in Baguio City and nearby municipalities, you are required
to submit your activities through courier monthly. On the other hand, those students based in
Baguio City and nearby municipalities can submit their activities in the University of Baguio.
Furthermore, Activities and exams are already given in this module and please use SHORT BOND
PAPER. For courier purposes only, you can send your documents to the University of Baguio or
please refer to the information of the instructor below.
Name: Reymore A. Insas

Address: AU106 Upper Ambiong, La Trinidad, Benguet
CP No.: 09512454318

STUDY SCHEDULE:
FLUID MECHANICS WITH LAB (FLUMEC1)

FIRST GRADING
Wee Lesson Teaching Resources Assessmen Submission of Task
k No. Learning t Tasks Deadline Online
activities
1 VMO, N/A N/A N/A
Course Module,
SyllabusGr Recorded/ Google
ading Online meet,
System Lecture- Google
2 1 Discussion Forms,
3 Google Google
4 Classroom Activity, Classroo
5 2-3 Quiz m
6 First Grading Examination
MIDTERMS
7 4-6
8 Module,
9 Recorded/ Google Activity, Google
10 6-7 Online meet, Quiz Classroo
11 Lecture- Google m
Discussion Forms,
Google
Classroom
12 Midterm Examination
FINALS
13 8
14 Recorded/ Module,
15 9-10 Online Google Google
16 Lecture- meet, Activity, Classroo
17 Discussion Google Quiz m
Forms,
Google
Classroom
18 Final Examination

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS
TOPICS:
1. Concept of Fluid Mechanics
2. Application of Fluid Mechanics
3. A brief history of Fluid Mechanics
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand the history,
application and concept fluid mechanics
DISCUSSION:
I. INTRODUCTION
Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving
bodies under the influence of forces. The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at
rest is called statics, while the branch that deals with bodies in motion is called dynamics.
The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior
of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with
solids or other fluids at the boundaries. Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid
dynamics by considering fluids at rest as a special case of motion with zero velocity.
Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories. The study of the motion of
fluids that are practically incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and gases at
low speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics. A subcategory of hydrodynamics
is hydraulics, which deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels. Gas dynamics
deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as the flow of
gases through nozzles at high speeds. The category aerodynamics deals with the flow
of gases (especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or
low speeds. Some other specialized categories such as meteorology, oceanography,
and hydrology deal with naturally occurring flows.
II. FLUID
You will recall from physics that a substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid,
and gas. (At very high temperatures, it also exists as plasma.) A substance in the liquid
or gas phase is referred to as a fluid. Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on
the basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that
tends to change its shape. A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming,
whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence of shear stress, no matter how
small. In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress is proportional to strain
rate. When a constant shear force is applied, a solid eventually stops deforming, at some
fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid never stops deforming and approaches a certain rate
of strain.

Consider a rectangular rubber block tightly placed between two plates. As the upper plate
is pulled with a force F while the lower plate is held fixed, the rubber block deforms, as
shown in Fig. 1–2. The angle of deformation a (called the shear strain or angular
displacement) increases in proportion to the applied force F. Assuming there is no slip
between the rubber and the plates, the upper surface of the rubber is displaced by an
amount equal to the displacement of the upper plate while the lower surface remains
stationary. In equilibrium, the net force acting on the plate in the horizontal direction must
be zero, and thus a force equal and opposite to F must be acting on the plate. This
opposing force that develops at the plate–rubber interface due to friction is expressed as
𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴, where t is the shear stress and A is the contact area between the upper plate and
the rubber. When the force is removed, the rubber returns to its original position. This
phenomenon would also be observed with other solids such as a steel block provided that
the applied force does not exceed the elastic range. If this experiment were repeated with
a fluid (with two large parallel plates placed in a large body of water, for example), the
fluid layer in contact with the upper plate would move with the plate continuously at the
velocity of the plate no matter how small the force F is. The fluid velocity decreases with
depth because of friction between fluid layers, reaching zero at the lower plate.
You will recall from statics that stress is defined as force per unit area and is determined
by dividing the force by the area upon which it acts. The normal component of the force
acting on a surface per unit area is called the normal stress, and the tangential
component of a force acting on a surface per unit area is called shear stress (Fig. 1–3).
In a fluid at rest, the normal stress is called pressure. The supporting walls of a fluid
eliminate shear stress, and thus a fluid at rest is at a state of zero shear stress. When the
walls are removed or a liquid container is tilted, a shear develops and the liquid splashes
or moves to attain a horizontal free surface.

In a liquid, chunks of molecules can move relative to each other, but the volume remains
relatively constant because of the strong cohesive forces between the molecules. As a
result, a liquid takes the shape of the container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a
larger container in a gravitational field. A gas, on the other hand, expands until it
encounters the walls of the container and fills the entire available space. This is because
the gas molecules are widely spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very
small. Unlike liquids, gases cannot form a free surface (Fig. 1–4).
Although solids and fluids are easily distinguished in most cases, this distinction is not so
clear in some borderline cases. For example, asphalt appears and behaves as a solid
since it resists shear stress for short periods of time. But it deforms slowly and behaves
like a fluid when these forces are exerted for extended periods of time. Some plastics,
lead, and slurry mixtures exhibit similar behavior. Such borderline cases are beyond the
scope of this text. The fluids we will deal with in this text will be clearly recognizable as
fluids.
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases. One reason is that
molecules in solids are closely packed together, whereas in gases they are separated by
relatively large distances (Fig. 1–5).

The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated throughout. Because
of the small distances between molecules in a solid, the attractive forces of molecules on
each other are large and keep the molecules at fixed positions. The molecular spacing in
the liquid phase is not much different from that of the solid phase, except the molecules
are no longer at fixed positions relative to each other and they can rotate and translate
freely. In a liquid, the intermolecular forces are weaker relative to solids, but still strong
compared with gases. The distances between molecules generally increase slightly as a
solid turns liquid, with water being a notable exception.
In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and a molecular order is
nonexistent. Gas molecules move about at random, continually colliding with each other
and the walls of the container in which they are contained. Particularly at low densities,
the intermolecular forces are very small, and collisions are the only mode of interaction
between the molecules. Molecules in the gas phase are at a considerably higher energy
level than they are in the liquid or solid phase. Therefore, the gas must release a large
amount of its energy before it can condense or freeze.
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words. The vapor phase of a substance is
customarily called a gas when it is above the critical temperature. Vapor usually implies
a gas that is not far from a state of condensation.
Any practical fluid system consists of a large number of molecules, and the properties of
the system naturally depend on the behavior of these molecules. For example, the
pressure of a gas in a container is the result of momentum transfer between the molecules
and the walls of the container. However, one does not need to know the behavior of the
gas molecules to determine the pressure in the container. It would be sufficient to attach
a pressure gage to the container (Fig. 1–6). This macroscopic or classical approach does
not require a knowledge of the behavior of individual molecules and provides a direct and
easy way to the solution of engineering problems. The more elaborate microscopic or
statistical approach, based on the average behavior of large groups of individual
molecules, is rather involved and is used in this text only in the supporting role.

III. APPLICATION AREAS OF FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities and in the design of modern
engineering systems from vacuum cleaners to supersonic aircraft. Therefore, it is
important to develop a good understanding of the basic principles of fluid mechanics.
To begin with, fluid mechanics plays a vital role in the human body. The heart is constantly
pumping blood to all parts of the human body through the arteries and veins, and the lungs
are the sites of airflow in alternating directions. Needless to say, all artificial hearts,
breathing machines, and dialysis systems are designed using fluid dynamics.
An ordinary house is, in some respects, an exhibition hall filled with applications of fluid
mechanics. The piping systems for cold water, natural gas, and sewage for an individual
house and the entire city are designed primarily on the basis of fluid mechanics. The same
is also true for the piping and ducting network of heating and air-conditioning systems. A
refrigerator involves tubes through which the refrigerant flows, a compressor that
pressurizes the refrigerant, and two heat exchangers where the refrigerant absorbs and
rejects heat. Fluid mechanics plays a major role in the design of all these components.
Even the operation of ordinary faucets is based on fluid mechanics.
We can also see numerous applications of fluid mechanics in an automobile. All

components associated with the transportation of the fuel from the fuel tank to the
cylinders—the fuel line, fuel pump, fuel injectors, or carburetors—as well as the mixing of
the fuel and the air in the cylinders and the purging of combustion gases in exhaust pipes
are analyzed using fluid mechanics. Fluid mechanics is also used in the design of the
heating and air-conditioning system, the hydraulic brakes, the power steering, automatic
transmission, and lubrication systems, the cooling system of the engine block including the
radiator and the water pump, and even the tires. The sleek streamlined shape of recent
model cars is the result of efforts to minimize drag by using extensive analysis of flow over
surfaces.
On a broader scale, fluid mechanics plays a major part in the design and analysis of
aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind turbines, biomedical devices, the
cooling of electronic components, and the transportation of water, crude oil, and natural
gas. It is also considered in the design of buildings, bridges, and even billboards to make

sure that the structures can withstand wind loading. Numerous natural phenomena such
as the rain cycle, weather patterns, the rise of groundwater to the top of trees, winds, ocean
waves, and currents in large water bodies are also governed by the principles of fluid
mechanics
IV. A BRIEF HISTORY OF FLUID MECHANICS
One of the first engineering problems humankind faced as cities were developed was the
supply of water for domestic use and irrigation of crops. Our urban lifestyles can be
retained only with abundant water, and it is clear from archeology that every successful
civilization of prehistory invested in the construction and maintenance of water systems.
The Roman aqueducts, some of which are still in use, are the best known examples.
However, perhaps the most impressive engineering from a technical viewpoint was done
at the Hellenistic city of Pergamon in present-day Turkey. There, from 283 to 133 BC, they
built a series of pressurized lead and clay pipelines (Fig. 1–11), up to 45 km long that
operated at pressures exceeding 1.7 MPa (180 m of head). Unfortunately, the names of
almost all these early builders are lost to history. The earliest recognized contribution to
fluid mechanics theory was made by the Greek mathematician Archimedes (285–212 BC).
He formulated and applied the buoyancy principle in history’s first nondestructive test to
determine the gold content of the crown of King Hiero I. The Romans built great aqueducts
and educated many conquered people on the benefits of clean water, but overall had a
poor understanding of fluids theory. (Perhaps they shouldn’t have killed Archimedes when
they sacked Syracuse.)
During the Middle Ages the application of fluid machinery slowly but steadily expanded.
Elegant piston pumps were developed for dewatering mines, and the watermill and
windmill were perfected to grind grain, forge metal, and for other tasks. For the first time in
recorded human history significant work was being done without the power of a muscle
supplied by a person or animal, and these inventions are generally credited with enabling
the later industrial revolution. Again the creators of most of the progress are unknown, but
the devices themselves were well documented by several technical writers such as
Georgius Agricola (Fig. 1–12).
The Renaissance brought continued development of fluid systems and machines, but
more importantly, the scientific method was perfected and adopted throughout Europe.
Simon Stevin (1548–1617), Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), Edme Mariotte (1620–1684), and
Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) were among the first to apply the method to fluids as
they investigated hydrostatic pressure distributions and vacuums. That work was
integrated and refined by the brilliant mathematician, Blaise Pascal (1623– 1662). The
Italian monk, Benedetto Castelli (1577–1644) was the first person to publish a statement
of the continuity principle for fluids. Besides formulating his equations of motion for solids,
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727) applied his laws to fluids and explored fluid inertia and
resistance, free jets, and viscosity. That effort was built upon by the Swiss Daniel Bernoulli
(1700–1782) and his associate Leonard Euler (1707–1783). Together, their work defined
the energy and momentum equations. Bernoulli’s 1738 classic treatise Hydrodynamica
may be considered the first fluid mechanics text. Finally, Jean d’Alembert (1717–1789)
developed the idea of velocity and acceleration components, a differential expression of
continuity, and his “paradox” of zero resistance to steady uniform motion.

The development of fluid mechanics theory up through the end of the eighteenth century
had little impact on engineering since fluid properties and parameters were poorly
quantified, and most theories were abstractions that could not be quantified for design
purposes. That was to change with the development of the French school of engineering
led by Riche de Prony (1755–1839). Prony (still known for his brake to measure power)
and his associates in Paris at the Ecole Polytechnic and the Ecole Ponts et Chaussees
were the first to integrate calculus and scientific theory into the engineering curriculum,
which became the model for the rest of the world. (So now you know whom to blame for
your painful freshman year.) Antonie Chezy (1718–1798), Louis Navier (1785–1836),
Gaspard Coriolis (1792–1843), Henry Darcy (1803–1858), and many other contributors to
fluid engineering and theory were students and/or instructors at the schools.
By the mid nineteenth century fundamental advances were coming on several fronts. The
physician Jean Poiseuille (1799–1869) had accurately measured flow in capillary tubes for
multiple fluids, while in Germany Gotthilf Hagen (1797–1884) had differentiated between
laminar and turbulent flow in pipes. In England, Lord Osborn Reynolds (1842–1912)
continued that work and developed the dimensionless number that bears his name.
Similarly, in parallel to the early work of Navier, George Stokes (1819– 1903) completed
the general equations of fluid motion with friction that take their names. William Froude
(1810–1879) almost single-handedly developed the procedures and proved the value of
physical model testing. American expertise had become equal to the Europeans as
demonstrated by James Francis’s (1815–1892) and Lester Pelton’s (1829–1908)
pioneering work in turbines and Clemens Herschel’s (1842–1930) invention of the Venturi
meter.
The late nineteenth century was notable for the expansion of fluid theory by Irish and
English scientists and engineers, including in addition to Reynolds and Stokes, William
Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907), William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919), and Sir
Horace Lamb (1849–1934). These individuals investigated a large number of problems

including dimensional analysis, irrotational flow, vortex motion, cavitation, and waves. In a
broader sense their work also explored the links between fluid mechanics,
thermodynamics, and heat transfer.
The dawn of the twentieth century brought two monumental developments. First in 1903,
the self-taught Wright brothers (Wilbur, 1867–1912; Orville, 1871–1948) through
application of theory and determined experimentation perfected the airplane. Their
primitive invention was complete and contained all the major aspects of modern craft (Fig.
1–13). The Navier–Stokes equations were of little use up to this time because they were
too difficult to solve. In a pioneering paper in 1904, the German Ludwig Prandtl (1875–
1953) showed that fluid flows can be divided into a layer near the walls, the boundary layer,
where the friction effects are significant and an outer layer where such effects are
negligible and the simplified Euler and Bernoulli equations are applicable. His students,
Theodore von Kármán (1881–1963), Paul Blasius (1883–1970), Johann Nikuradse (1894–
1979), and others, built on that theory in both hydraulic and aerodynamic applications.
(During World War II, both sides benefited from the theory as Prandtl remained in Germany
while his best student, the Hungarian born Theodore von Kármán, worked in America.)
The mid twentieth century could be considered a golden age of fluid mechanics
applications. Existing theories were adequate for the tasks at hand, and fluid properties
and parameters were well defined. These supported a huge expansion of the
aeronautical, chemical, industrial, and water resources sectors; each of which pushed fluid
mechanics in new directions. Fluid mechanics research and work in the late twentieth
century were dominated by the development of the digital computer in America. The ability
to solve large complex problems, such as global climate modeling or to optimize the design
of a turbine blade, has provided a benefit to our society that the eighteenth-century
developers of fluid mechanics could never have imagined (Fig. 1–14). The principles
presented in the following pages have been applied to flows ranging from a moment at the
microscopic scale to 50 years of simulation for an entire river basin. It is truly mind-
boggling.
Where will fluid mechanics go in the twenty-first century? Frankly, even a limited
extrapolation beyond the present would be sheer folly. However, if history tells us anything,
it is that engineers will be applying what they know to benefit society, researching what
they don’t know, and having a great time in the process.

LEARNING ACTIVITY NO. 1:
ESSAY: Answer each item below comprehensively and neatly. Please refer to the rubrics below. Use
capital letters only. Use a separate sheet of paper for your answer.
CRITERIA: DESCRIPTION: POINT:

Organization of In-depth research and understanding of the topic with holistic 5 points
Ideas organization of ideas giving applied examples
Comprehensiveness Comprehensive understanding of the topic with holistic 3 points
discussion of ideas giving applied examples
Presentation Organized , neat, and well prepared output paper 2 points
1. What is a fluid? How does if differ from solid and gas?

2. What is the application of fluid mechanics in the Civil/Sanitary Engineering Field?
3. What is the importance of fluid mechanics in general?
4. Differentiate fluid mechanics from fluid Dynamics.

LESSON 2: PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
TOPICS:
1. Properties of Fluids
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to apply the different formulas to
determine the different properties of fluids and relate these properties.
DISCUSSION:
I. INTRODUCTION
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties are pressure
P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to include less familiar
ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.
Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are

those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and
density. Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of
the system. Total mass, total volume V, and total momentum are some examples of
extensive properties. An easy way to determine whether a property is intensive or
extensive is to divide the system into two equal parts with an imaginary partition, as shown
in Fig. 2–1. Each part will have the same value of intensive properties as the original
system, but half the value of the extensive properties.
Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties (with mass m being
a major exception), and lowercase letters are used for intensive properties (with pressure
P and temperature T being the obvious exceptions).

Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Some examples of
specific properties are specific volume (v=V/m) and specific total energy (e=E/m).
The state of a system is described by its properties. But we know from experience that
we do not need to specify all the properties in order to fix a state. Once the values of a
sufficient number of properties are specified, the rest of the properties assume certain
values. That is, specifying a certain number of properties is sufficient to fix a state. The
number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the state postulate:
The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent,
intensive properties.
Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held
constant. Not all properties are independent, and some are defined in terms of others.
A. UNIT WEIGHT OR SPECIFIC WEIGHT, 𝛾
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝜸=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
Units:
English: 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 !
Metric: 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒/𝑐𝑚!
SI: 𝑁/𝑚! or 𝑘𝑁/𝑚!
B. MASS DENSITY, 𝝆(rho)
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝝆=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
Units:
English: 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 !
Metric: 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚/𝑐𝑚!
SI: 𝑘𝑔/𝑚!
FOR GASES:
𝒑
𝝆=
𝑹𝑻
where:
p - absolute pressure of gas in Pa
R - gas constant Joule/Kg-∘ 𝐾
for air: R= 287 J/kg∙∘ 𝐾 = 1716 lb-ft/slug-∘ 𝐾
T - absolute temperature in degree kelvin
∘ 𝐾 =∘ 𝐶 + 273 ∘ 𝑅 =∘ 𝐹 + 460

C. SPECIFIC VOLUME
1
𝑽𝒔 =
𝜌
D. SPECIFIC GRAVITY, s
The ratio of the unit weight of a fluid to the unit weight of water at 4∘ 𝐶(39.2∘ 𝐹)
𝜸𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝒔=𝜸 𝒔=𝝆
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
For water:
𝛾 = 62.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡3 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
𝜌 = 1.94 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡3 = 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑠 = 1.0
E. VISCOSITY, 𝜇(mu)
The property of fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing forces. A
perfect fluid would have no viscosity.
1. Kinematic Viscosity, 𝜈(nu)
The ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (𝜇)to its mass density (𝜌)
𝜈 = 𝝁𝝆
Other units of viscosity:
1 poise = 1 dyne-sec/𝑐𝑚3 = 0.1 Pa-sec
1 stoke = 1 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠 = 0.0001 𝑚2 /𝑠
F. SURFACE TENSION, 𝛿(sigma)
The surface tension of a fluid is the work that must be done to bring enough molecules from
inside the liquid for the surface to form a new unit area of that surface in 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 −
𝑚/𝑚2 .
Pressure inside a droplet of liquid:

𝟒𝜹
𝒑=
𝒅
where:
𝛿 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
𝑝 = 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙

G. CAPILLARITY
The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube which is caused by surface tension and depends on
the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls
of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion>cohesion) and fall in tubes
they do not wet (cohesion>adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smaller than about
⅜ inch (9.5mm) in diameter.
𝟒𝜹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒉= Use 𝜃 = 140°for mercury on clean glass.
𝒘𝒅
For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 0 ∘. Hence the formula
becomes:
𝟒𝜹
𝒉=
𝒘𝒅
where:
ℎ = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑤 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝛿 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
H. BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E
The bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid expresses the compressibility of the fluid. it is the ratio
of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume:
𝒅𝒑
𝑬= in 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎
.𝒅𝒗/𝒗
where:
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
I. COMPRESSION OF GASSES (Boyle’s Law)
For the same mass of gas subjected to different conditions, the product of absolute
pressure and volume divided by its absolute temperature is constant.
𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝒗𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
where:
𝑝$ = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑝% = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑣$ = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑣% = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝑇$ = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 ∘ 𝐾 (∘ 𝐶 + 273)
𝑇% = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 ∘ 𝐾 (∘ 𝐶 + 273)
for Isothermal Conditions: (constant temperature, 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 )
𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 𝒗𝟐
for Adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions: (no heat exchanged)

𝜸 𝒑
𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝒌𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 𝒗𝒌𝟐 and (𝜸𝟏 )𝒌 = 𝒑𝟏 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
also:
𝑻𝟐 𝒑 (𝒌−𝟏)/𝒌
= (𝒑𝟏 )
𝑻𝟏 𝟐
where:
𝑘 =ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume. Also
known as adiabatic exponent.
J. PRESSURE DISTURBANCES
Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or celerity is expressed
as:
𝑬
𝒄 = ) 𝝆𝑩 in m/s or ft/s
Where:
𝑐 = 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝐸- = 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
𝑑𝑝
𝐸=
𝑑𝑉/𝑉
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑝% − 𝑝$
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉% − 𝑉$
𝜌 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑚! 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 !
II. SOLVED PROBLEMS:

1. A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu.m. Find its
a.) weight b.) unit weight c.) mass density d.) specific gravity.
Solution:

a. 𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈
𝑾 = (𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎)(𝟗. 𝟖𝟏)
𝑾 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟐 𝑵 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟐 𝒌𝑵

𝑾
b. 𝒘 = 𝑽
𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟐
𝒘= = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟔𝟔𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟐
𝒎 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
c. 𝝆 = 𝑽
= 𝟎.𝟗𝟓𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟎. 𝟓𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝜸𝒈𝒍𝒚 𝟏𝟐.𝟑𝟔𝟔
d. 𝒔 = 𝜸 = 𝟗.𝟖𝟏
= 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
2. The specific gravity of a certain oil is 0.82. Calculate its a.) specific weight(𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒃/
𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑 )and b.) mass density (𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈𝒔/𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 ).
Solution:
𝜸𝒐𝒊𝒍
a. 𝒔 =
𝜸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝜸𝒐𝒊𝒍 1 𝟔𝟐.𝟒(𝟎.𝟖𝟐) 1 𝟓𝟏.𝟏𝟔𝟖 𝒍𝒃/𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝜸𝒐𝒊𝒍 1 𝟗.𝟖𝟏(𝟎.𝟖𝟐) 1 𝟖.𝟎𝟒𝟒 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
𝝆𝒐𝒊𝒍
b. 𝒔 =
𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝝆𝒐𝒊𝒍 1 𝟏.𝟗𝟒(𝟎.𝟖𝟐) 1 𝟏.𝟓𝟗 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈𝒔/𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝜸𝒐𝒊𝒍 1 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎(𝟎.𝟖𝟐) 1 𝟖𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
3. A liter of water weighs about 9.75 N. Compute its mass in kilograms.

Solution:
𝑚 = 𝑊/𝑔
𝑚 = 9.75/9.81
𝑚 = 0.994 𝑘𝑔
4. If the specific volume of a certain gas is 0.7848 cu.m/kg, what is its specific
weight?
Solution:
𝟏
𝑽𝒔 =
𝝆
𝟏
𝑽𝒔 = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟒𝟐 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟒𝟖
𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟒𝟐(𝟗. 𝟖𝟏)
𝜸 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝟑
5. What is the specific weight of air at 480 kPa absolute and 21∘ 𝐶?

Solution:
𝜹 = 𝝆𝒈
𝒑
𝜹 = ( )𝒈
𝑹𝑻
𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝜹=( )(𝟗. 𝟖𝟏)
𝟐𝟖𝟕(𝟐𝟏 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑)
𝜹 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟖𝟏 𝑵/𝒎
6. What pressure is required to reduce the volume of water by 0.6%? Bulk modulus
of elasticity of water, E=2.2GPa.
Solution:
𝒅𝒑
𝑬=−
𝒅𝑽/𝑽
𝒅𝒑 = 𝒑𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 ; 𝒑𝟏 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒑 = 𝒑𝟐
𝒅𝑽 = 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝑽
𝒑𝟐
𝑬=− = 𝟐. 𝟐
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝑽/𝑽
𝒑𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝑮𝑷𝒂 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂
7. Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass tube 2mm in diameter. Use
𝛿 = 0.514 𝑁/𝑚and 𝜃 = 140 ∘
Solution:
ℎ = 4𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃/𝛾𝑑
𝟒(𝟎.𝟓𝟏𝟒)𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏𝟒𝟎∘
𝒉 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎(𝟏𝟑.𝟔)(𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟗𝒎
ℎ = −5.9𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑟 5.9𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

PROBLEM SOLVING: Provide a neat, complete, and orderly solution of the following
problems and please refer to the rubrics below. Put your final answers in a box and use a
separate sheet of formatted bond paper. (Note: For offline students, please provide your
solution with complete explanation step by step. Failure to follow such instruction will merit
deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
Complete solution and illustration with correct answer 10
Correct answer with missing solutions 6
Wrong solution or solutions that cannot be understood 1
No solution 0
1. Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a pressure of 116, 280
kPa absolute. Using E=2.5GPa, determine the percentage decrease in the volume of water.
2. If the viscosity of water at 70∘ 𝐶 is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978 determine its
absolute viscosity in Pa-s and its kinematic viscosity in 𝑚0 /𝑠 and in stokes.
3. Distilled water stands in a glass tube of 9mm diameter at a height of 24mm. What is the true
static height? Use 𝛿 = 0.0742 𝑁/𝑚.
4. Water in hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a pressure of 116,280
kPa absolute. Using E=2.5 GPa, determine the percentage decrease in the volume of water.
5. An object has a specific weight of 2.23 kN/𝑚1 . Compute the a.) Mass density b.) Mass if the
volume is 0.001𝑚1 and c.) Specific volume.

SCORE:
50
QUIZ NO. 1 – FIRST GRADING PERIOD
NAME: ______________________________________ DATE: ______________________________

SCHEDULE: _________________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ENGR. REYMORE A. INSAS
deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. if 9𝑚1 of an ideal gas at 24℃ and 150 kPaa is compressed to 2𝑚1 , a.) what is the resulting
pressure assuming isothermal conditions. b.) what would have been the pressure and
temperature if the process is isentropic. use k=1.3.
2. A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 1.02 liter at a pressure of 100 N/m2 and a
volume of 995 cm3 at a pressure of 200 N/m2. What is its bulk modulus of elasticity?
3. At 32∘ 𝐶and 205 kPa gage, the specific weight of a certain gas was 13.7 N/𝑚1 . Determine the
gas constant of this gas.
4. A container has 6 m3 volume capacity and weights 1500N when empty and 56,000 N when
filled with a liquid. What is the density of the liquid?
5. A cylindrical tank with a diameter of 80cm is partially filled with oil with specific gravity of 0.87.
if the oil in the tank is 340 kg, determine the depth of oil in the tank.

LESSON 3: PRINCIPLE OF HYDROSTATICS
TOPICS:
1. Pressure
2. Pascal’s Law
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand and analyze the
concept of pressure and manometers.
DISCUSSION:
I. INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with forces applied by fluids at rest or in rigid-body motion. The fluid property
responsible for those forces is pressure, which is a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
We start this chapter with a detailed discussion of pressure, including absolute and gage
pressures, the pressure at a point, the variation of pressure with depth in a gravitational field, the
manometer, the barometer, and pressure measurement devices. This is followed by a discussion
of the hydrostatic forces applied on submerged bodies with plane or curved surfaces. We then
consider the buoyant force applied by fluids on submerged or floating bodies, and discuss the
stability of such bodies. Finally, we apply Newton’s second law of motion to a body of fluid in
motion that acts as a rigid body and analyze the variation of pressure in fluids that undergo linear
acceleration and in rotating containers. This chapter makes extensive use of force balances for
bodies in static equilibrium, and it will be helpful if the relevant topics from statics are first
reviewed.
II. PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure
only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭
𝒑=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂, 𝑨
where:
English : 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 (𝑝𝑠𝑖)
Metric : 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2
SI : 𝑁/𝑚2 (𝑃𝑎) 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 (𝑘𝑃𝑎)
Note: The resultant pressure on any plane in a fluid at rest is always normal to the plane.
Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square meter
(N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa). That is,
1 Pa = 1 N/𝑚2

Pascal’s Law
“At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all directions.”
The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices,
however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference
between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the
gage pressure. Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and are
measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and
the absolute pressure. Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities and are
related to each other by
𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 − 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎

𝑷𝒗𝒂𝒄 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 − 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔
Note:
● Absolute zero is attained if all air is removed. It is the lowest possible pressure
attainable.
● Absolute pressure can never be negative.
● The smallest gage pressure is equal to the negative of the prevailing atmospheric
pressure.
● Unless otherwise stated, the term pressure signifies gage pressure.
VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE
The difference in pressure between any two points in a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal
to the product of the unit weight of the fluid (𝛾) to the vertical distance (ℎ)between the
points.
𝒑𝟐 = 𝒑𝟏 + 𝜸𝒉
Meaning any change in pressure at point 1 would cause an equal chance at point 2.
Therefore, a pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally and
undiminished to every other point in the liquid.

𝒑 = 𝜸𝒉
Therefore, the pressure at any point “h” below a free liquid surface is equal to the product of the
unit weight of the fluid “𝜸” and h.
Note: a free liquid surface (FLS) is the surface which is subject to the atmospheric
pressure (no gage pressure).
Consider points 1 and 2 lies on the same elevation so that h=0; then:
𝒑𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐
Therefore, the pressure along the same horizontal plane in a homogeneous fluid at rest
is equal.
PRESSURE HEAD:
The height “h” of a column of homogeneous fluid of unit weight “w” that will produce an
intensity of pressure p.
𝒑
𝒉=
𝜸
To convert height of liquid A to liquid B:
𝑺𝑨 𝜸𝑨 𝝆𝑨
𝒉𝑩 = 𝒉𝑨 = 𝒉𝑨 = 𝒉𝑨
𝑺𝑩 𝜸𝑩 𝝆𝑩
To convert any fluid to water, just multiply its height by its specific gravity:
𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝒉𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒔𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. If the pressure in a tank of oil (s=0.80) is 410 kPa, what is the equivalent head in:
a. Meter of oil
b. Meter of water
c. Mm of mercury
Solution:
a. For oil:
𝑝 410𝑥101
ℎ234 = =
𝛾234 9810(0.80)
𝒉𝒐𝒊𝒍 = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟐𝟒 𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍
b. For water:
𝑝 410𝑥101
ℎ6789: = =
𝛾234 9810(1)
𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟕𝟗 𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

c. For mercury:
𝑝 410𝑥10!
ℎDEFGHFI = =
𝛾JKL 9810(13.6)
𝒉𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟑, 𝟎𝟕𝟑. 𝟎𝟗𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
2. The absolute pressure in a gas tank is 280 kPa. Compute the gage pressure and the pressure
head in meters of water.
Solution:
a. Gage Pressure
𝑃O-P = 𝑃OQD + 𝑃RORE
280 = 101.3 + 𝑃RORE
𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟏𝟕𝟖. 𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂
b. Pressure head
𝑝 178.7 𝑘𝑃𝑎
ℎTOQEF = =
𝛾TOQEF 9.81 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟐𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
3. If the pressure 3m below the free surface of a liquid is 140 kPa, calculate its specific weight and
specific gravity.
Solution:
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
140 = 𝛾(3)
𝜸 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝑵f 𝟑
𝒎
𝛾;4<3= 46.67 𝑘𝑁f 1
𝑠= = 𝑚
𝛾6789: 9.81
𝒔 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟔
4. If a depth of liquid of 1m causes a pressure of 7kPa, what is the specific gravity of the
liquid?
Solution:
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
7 = 9.81(𝑠)(1)
𝑠 = 0.714
5. What is the pressure 12.5m below the ocean? use sp.gr.=1.03 for salt water.
Solution:

𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
𝑝 = 9.81(1.03)(12.5)
𝑝 = 126.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎
6. If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 60kPa, what is the pressure 27m below this point?
Solution:
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾ℎ
𝑝2 = 60 + 9.81(1.03)(27)
𝑝2 = 332.82 𝑘𝑃𝑎
7. In the figure shown, if the atmospheric pressure is 101.03 kPa and the absolute pressure
at the bottom of the tank is 231.3 kPa, what is the specific gravity of olive oil?
Solution:
𝑝O-P = 𝑝OQD + 𝑝RORE
231.3 = 101.03 + 𝑝RORE
𝑝RORE = 130.27𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑝RORE = 𝛾D ℎD + 𝛾JLKUE ℎJLKUE + 𝛾JKL ℎJKL
130.27 = 9.81(13.6)(0.4) + 9.81(𝑠JLKUE )(2.9)
+ 9.81(2.5) + 9.81(0.89)(1.5)
𝑠JLKUE = 1.38
8. The figure shown shows a set-up with a vessel containing a plunger and a cylinder. What
force F is required to balance the weight of the cylinder if the weight of the plunger is
negligible?
Solution:

𝑭 𝑭
𝒑𝟏 = 𝒂 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟑 = 𝟑𝟎𝟗. 𝟔𝑭
𝑾 𝟒𝟒
𝒑𝟐 = = = 𝟏𝟑𝟔. 𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑨 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟑
𝑝% − 𝑝$ = 𝛾ℎ
𝑝$ = 𝑝% − 𝛾ℎ
𝐹
= 136.22 − 9.81(0.78)(4.6)
0.00323
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟔𝒌𝑵 = 𝟑𝟐𝟔𝑵
9. In the figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber?
sum-up pressure head from 1-3 in meters of water.

𝑝1 𝑝OKF
+ 2 − 4(0.8) = ; 𝑝1 = 0
𝛾 𝛾
𝑝OKF
= −1.2𝑚
9.81
𝒑𝒂𝒊𝒓 = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂

LEARNING ACTIVITY No. 3:
deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. If atmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa and the gage attached to the tank reads 188mmHg
vacuum, find the absolute pressure within the tank.
2. In the figure shown, if the figure shown, if the atmospheric pressure is 101.03 kPa and
the absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank is 231.3 kPa, what is the specific gravity
of the olive oil?
3. In the figure shown, if the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa and the absolute pressure at the
bottom of the tank is 237 kPa, what is the specific gravity of fluid X?

4. In the figure shown, determine the weight W that can be carried by the 1.5 kN force acting
on the piston.

SCORE:
QUIZ NO. 2 – FIRST GRADING PERIOD 40

NAME: ______________________________________ DATE: ______________________________
PROBLEM SOLVING: Provide a neat, complete, and orderly solution of the following problems and
please refer to the rubrics below. Put your final answers in a box and use a separate sheet of formatted
bond paper. (Note: For offline students, please provide your solution with complete explanation step
by step. Failure to follow such instruction will merit deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12𝑁/𝑚1 , what is the approximate height of mt.
banahaw if a mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads 654mm and at the same time
another barometer at the top of the mountain reads 480mm.
2. The hydraulic press shown is filled with oil with sp.gr. of 0.82. Neglecting the weight of the two pistons,
what force F on the handle is required to support the 10kN weight?
3. The fuel for gage for a gasoline (sp.gr.=0.68) tank in a car reads proportional to its bottom gage. If
the tank is 30cm deep and accidentally contaminated with 2cm of water, how many centimeters
of gasoline does the tank actually contain when the gage erroneously reads “full”?
4. In the figure shown, determine the height h of water reading at A when the absolute pressure at B
is 290 kpa.

LESSON 4: MANOMETER
TOPICS:
1. Types of Manometer
2. Steps in the solution of Manometer
OBJECTIVES:
DISCUSSION:
I. MANOMETER
A tube, usually bent in the form of a U, containing a liquid of known specific gravity, the
surface of which moves proportionally to changes of pressure. It is used to measure
pressure.
TYPES OF MANOMETER:
1. Open Type - has an atmospheric surface in one leg and is capable of measuring gage
pressures.
2. Differential Type - without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only
differences of pressure.
3. Piezometer - The simplest form of manometer. It is a tube tapped into a wall of a container
or conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure. The fluid in the container or conduit
rises in this tube to form a free surface.
Limitations of Piezometer:
● Large pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes.
● Gas pressures cannot be measured because gas can’t form a free surface.
Steps in the solution of manometer problems:
1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter of which the heads are to be expressed, (water is most
advisable)
2. Starting from an endpoint, number in order, the interface of different fluids,
3. Identify points of equal pressure (taking into account that for a homogeneous fluid at rest,
the pressure along the same horizontal plane are equal). Label these points with the same
number.

4. Proceed from level to level, adding (if going down) or subtracting (if going up) pressure
heads as the elevation decreases or increases, respectively with due regard for the
specific gravity of the fluids.
III. SOLVED PROBLEMS:
1. For the manometer shown, determine the pressure at the center of the pipe.
𝑃$ 𝑃!
+ 1(13.55) + 1.5(0.8) =
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃$ = 0
𝑃!
= 14.75 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝛾
𝑃! = 14.75(9.81) = 𝟏𝟒𝟒. 𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂
2. An open manometer attached to a pipe shows a deflection of 150mmHg with the lower level of
mercury 450mm below the centerline of the pipe carrying water. Calculate the pressure at the
centerline of the pipe.
sum-up pressure head from 1 to 3 in meters of
water
𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟑
= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓(𝟏𝟑. 𝟔) = =𝟎
𝜸 𝜸
𝑝1
= 0.15(13.6) − 0.45 = 1.59𝑚
𝛾
𝒑𝟏 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏(𝟏. 𝟓𝟗) = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟔 𝒌𝑷𝒂
3. For the manometer set-up shown, determine the difference in pressure between A and B.

Solution:
sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water
𝒑𝑨 𝒑𝑩
− 𝒙 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟖(𝟎. 𝟖𝟓) + 𝒚 =
𝜸 𝜸
𝒑𝑨 𝒑𝑩
− = 𝒙 − 𝒚 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟖 − 𝒆𝒒. 𝟏
𝜸 𝜸
𝑥 + 0.68 = 𝑦 + 1.7
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1.02𝑚 − 𝑒𝑞. 2
In equation 1:
𝒑𝑨 𝒑𝑩
− = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟖 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗𝟖
𝜸 𝜸
𝒑𝑨 − 𝒑𝑩 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏(𝟏. 𝟓𝟗𝟖)
𝒑𝑨 − 𝒑𝑩 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟔𝟖 𝒌𝑷𝒂
4. For the configuration shown, calculate the weight of the piston if the pressure gage reading is
70kPa.
sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of

water.
𝒑𝑨 𝒑𝑩 𝟕𝟎
𝜸
− 𝟏(𝟎. 𝟖𝟔) = 𝜸
= 𝟗.𝟖𝟏 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟑𝟔
𝒑𝑨
= 𝟕. 𝟏𝟑𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟗𝟔
𝜸
𝑝# = 9.81(7.996) = 78.441 𝑘𝑃𝑎
WEKRXQ
but: 𝑝V = VFEO
𝜋
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 78.441( ∗ (1)2 )
4
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟔𝟏 𝒌𝑵

deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. A differential manometer is attached to a pipe as shown. Calculate the pressure difference

between points A and B.
100mm
2. A manometer is attached to a water tank shown in the figure (a.) find the height of the free
water surface above the bottom of the tank; (b.) Find the pressure at the interface of the water
and the mercury.

SCORE:
QUIZ NO. 3 – FIRST GRADING PERIOD

40
NAME: ______________________________________ DATE: ______________________________
deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. In the figure shown, the atmospheric pressure is 101kPa, the gage reading at A is 40kPa, and
the vapor pressure of alcohol is 12 kPa absolute. Compute x+y.
2. In the figure shown, when the funnel is empty, the water surface is at point A and the mercury of
sp.gr. 13.55 shows a deflection of 15 cm. Determine the new deflection of mercury when the
funnel is filled with water to B.

3. In a figure shown, determine the difference in pressure between points A and B.
4. Two vessels are connected to a differential manometer using mercury, the connecting tubing
being filled with water. The higher pressure vessel is 1.5m lower in elevation than the other. (a)
if the mercury reading is 100mm, what is the pressure head difference in meters of water?

LESSON 5: TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON SURFACE
(PLANE SURFACES)
TOPICS:
1. Plane Surface
2. Curved Surface
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand, analyze and apply the
concept of plane and curved surfaces.
DISCUSSION:
I. Plane Surface
The differential force dF acting on the element dA is

𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ 𝑑𝐴
From the figure ℎ = 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐹 = 𝛾(𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝐴
Integrate both sides and note that 𝛾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃are constants,
𝐹 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ‹ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
Recall from calculus that ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴𝑦

𝐹 = (𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝐴 𝑦
From the figure, 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ℎ, thus,

𝑭 = 𝜸𝒉𝑨
The product 𝛾ℎis a unit pressure at the centroid at the plane area, thus, the formula can be
expressed in a more general term below.
𝑭 = 𝒑𝒄𝒈 𝑨
Location of Total Hydrostatic Force (Eccentricity)

From the figure above, S is the intersection of the prolongation of the submerged area to the
free liquid surface. Taking a moment about point S.
𝐹𝑦Y = ‹ 𝑦 𝑑𝐹
where:
𝑑𝐹 = 𝛾(𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝐴
𝐹 = 𝛾(𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝐴
(𝛾 (𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝐴) 𝑦Y = ‹ 𝑦 (𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝐴
𝐴𝑦 𝑦Y = ‹ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
Again from calculus, ∫ 𝑦 % 𝑑𝐴is called moment of inertia denoted by I since our reference point is
S,
𝐴𝑦 𝑦Y = 𝐼Z
Thus,
𝑰𝑺
𝒚𝒑 =
𝑨 𝒚
$G %&' 2
%
By transfer formula for moment of inertia 𝐼P = 𝐼R + 𝐴𝑦 the formula for 𝑦Y will become 𝑦# =
&𝑦
or
𝑰𝒈
𝒚𝒑 = 𝒚 +
𝑨 𝒚
From the figure above, 𝑦Y = 𝑦 + 𝑒, thus, the distance between cg and cp is:
𝑰𝒈
𝑬𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒆 =
𝑨𝒚

Value of 𝑰𝒈 for common shapes:

SOLVED PROBLEMS:
1. A vertical rectangular plane of height d and base b is submerged in a liquid with its top
edge at the liquid surface. Determine the total force P acting on one side and its location
from the liquid surface.
Solution:
𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
ℎ = 𝑑/2 = 𝑦
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑
𝑃 = 𝛾(𝑑/2)(𝑏𝑑)
𝑃 = 𝛾𝑏𝑑2 /2
𝐼,
𝑒=
𝐴𝑦
𝒃𝒅𝟑 /𝟏𝟐
𝒆= = 𝒅/𝟔
𝒃𝒅(𝒅/𝟐)
𝑦$ = 𝑑/2 + 𝑒 = 𝑑/2 + 𝑑/6
𝒚𝒑 = 𝟐𝒅/𝟑
Note: for a rectangular surface submerged in a fluid with top edge flushed on the liquid surface,
the center of pressure from the bottom ⅓ of its height.
2. A vertical triangular surface of height d and horizontal base width b is submerged in a

liquid with its vertex at the liquid surface. Determine the total force P acting on one side
and its location from the liquid surface.
Solution:
𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
ℎ = 2𝑑/3 = 𝑦
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑/2
𝑃 = 𝛾(2𝑑/3)(𝑏𝑑/2)
𝑃 = 𝛾𝑏𝑑2 /2
𝐼&
𝑒=
𝐴𝑦
𝒃𝒅𝟑 /𝟑𝟔
𝒆= = 𝒅/𝟏𝟐
(𝒃𝒅/𝟐)(𝟐𝒅/𝟑)
𝑦Y = 2𝑑/3 + 𝑒 = 2𝑑/2 + 𝑑/12
𝑦Y = 2𝑑/3 + 𝑒 = 2𝑑/3 + 𝑑/12
𝟑
𝒚𝒑 = 𝒅
𝟒

3. A vertical rectangular gate 1.5m wide and 3m high is submerged in water with its top edge
2m below the water surface. Find the total pressure acting on one side of the gate and its
location from the bottom.
Solution:
𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
ℎ = 1.5 + 2 = 3.5
𝑃 = 9.81(3.5)(1.5)(3)
𝑃 = 154.51 𝑘𝑁
𝐼R
𝑒=
𝐴𝑦
(𝟏. 𝟓)(𝟑)𝟑 /𝟏𝟐

𝒆= = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟒𝒎
𝟏. 𝟓(𝟑)(𝟑. 𝟓)
𝑦Y = 1.5 − 𝑒 = 1.5 − 0.214
𝒚𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝟔𝒎
4. In the figure, stop B will break if the force on it
reaches 40kN. Find the critical water depth. The
length of the gate perpendicular to the sketch is 1.5m.
Solution:
𝛴 𝑀XK]RE = 0
𝑃𝑧 = 40(1)
𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
𝑃 = 9.81(ℎ)(1)(1.5)
𝑃 = 14.715(ℎ)
𝐼R
𝑒= ; 𝑦 = ℎ
𝐴𝑦

(𝟏. 𝟓)(𝟏)𝟑 /𝟏𝟐 𝟏
𝒆= =
𝟏. 𝟓(𝟏)(𝒉) 𝟏𝟐𝒉
𝑧 = 0.5 + 𝑒
14.715ℎ(0.5 + 1/12ℎ) = 40
7.3575ℎ + 1.226 = 40
ℎ = 5.27𝑚
ℎ = ℎ + 0.5
𝒉 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟕𝒎
5. The gate shown in the figure is hinged at A and rests o a smooth floor at B. The gate is
3m square and oil of having sp.gr. of 0.82 stands to a height of 1.5 m above the hinge A.
The air above the oil surface is under a pressure of 7 kPa above atmosphere. If the gate
weighs 5kN, determine the vertical force F required to open it.
Solution:
𝑑 2 = 32 + 22 = 3.6𝑚
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 2/3
𝜃 = 33.69 ∘
ℎ 4
𝑦= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 33.69 ∘
𝑦 = 7.21𝑚
a. 𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
𝑃 = 9.81(1.03)(4)(1.5)(3.6)
𝑃 = 218.25 𝑘𝑁
^-
b. 𝑒 = VI
(𝟏. 𝟓)(𝟑. 𝟔)𝟑 /𝟏𝟐

𝒆= = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎
𝟏. 𝟓(𝟑. 𝟔)(𝟕. 𝟐𝟏)
𝑥 = 1.8 − 0.15 = 1.65𝑚
𝛴 𝑀V = 0
𝑃(𝑥) − 𝑅_ (2) = 2𝑅_
218.25(1.65) = 𝑅_

𝑹𝑩 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑵
c. 𝛴 𝐹` = 0
𝑅V` + 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑅_ = 0
𝑅V` = 180 − 218.25 𝑠𝑖𝑛 33.69 ∘
𝑹𝑨𝑯 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟗𝟒 𝒌𝑵
𝛴 𝐹U = 0
𝑅Vb − 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 0
𝑅Vb = 218.25 𝑐𝑜𝑠 33.69 ∘
𝑹𝑨𝑽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟏. 𝟔 𝒌𝑵

deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. A vertical circular gate or radius r is submerged in a liquid with its top edged flushed on
the liquid surface. Determine the magnitude and location of the total force acting on one
side of the gate.
2. A vertical triangular gate with top base horizontal and 1.5 wide is 3m high. It is submerged
in oil having sp.gr. of 0.82 with its top base submerged to a depth of 2m. Determine the
magnitude and location of the total hydrostatic pressure acting on one side of the gate.
3. A vertical rectangular plate is submerged half in oil (sp.gr.=0.8) and half in water such that
its top edge is flushed with the oil surface. What is the ratio of the force exerted by water
acting on the lower half to that by oil acting on the upper half.

4. A vertical circular gate in a tunnel 8m in diameter has oil (sp.gr. 0.8) on one side and air
on the other side. If oil is 12m above the invert and the air pressure is 40kPa, where will
a single support be located (located the invert of the tunnel) to hold the gate in position.

SCORE:
QUIZ NO. 4 45
NAME: ______________________________________ DATE: ______________________________
solution with complete explanation step by step. Failure to follow such instruction will
merit deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
Complete solution with correct answer 15
No solution 0
1. A vertical circular gate is submerged in a liquid so that its top edge is flushed with the
liquid surface. Find the ratio of the total force acting on the lower half to that acting on the
upper half.
2. A cubical box, 1.5m on each edge, has its base horizontal and is half-filled with water. The
remainder of the box is filled with air under a gage pressure of 82 kPa. One of the vertical sides
is hinged at the top and is free to swing inward. To what depth can the top of this box be
submerged in an open body of fresh water without allowing any water to enter?

3. The gate in the figure shown weighs 5 kN for each meter normal to the paper. Its center
of gravity is 0.6m from the left face and 0.6m above the lower face. Find h for the gate
just to come up to the vertical position.

LESSON 6: TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON SURFACE
(CURVED SURFACES)
TOPICS:
1. Plane Surface
2. Curved Surface
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand, analyze and apply the
concept of plane and curved surfaces.
DISCUSSION:
I. CURVED SURFACES
CASE I: Fluid is above the curved surface
CASE II: Fluid is below the curved surface
SOLVED PROBLEMS:
1. A sluice gate is in the form of a circular arc of radius 6m as shown in the figure.
a. Compute the horizontal force acting on the gate.
b. Compute the vertical force acting on the gate
c. Compute the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the gate.

Solution:
a. Horizotal force on the gate:
Consider 1m length
𝑃X = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
𝑃X = 9.81(3)(6)(1)
𝑷𝒉 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔. 𝟓𝟖 𝒌𝑵
b. Vertical Force acting on the gate:
Pv=weight of water displaced by segment ABC

𝑃U = 𝐴(1)(9.81)
𝐴$ = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑂𝐵𝐶
𝐴$ 𝜋(6)%
=
60° 360°
𝐴$ = 18.85 𝑚%
6(6)𝐶𝑜𝑠(30°)
𝐴% =
2
𝐴% = 15.59 𝑚%
𝐴 = 𝐴$ − 𝐴%
𝐴 = 3.26 𝑚%
𝑃U = 𝐴(1)(9.81)
𝑃U = 3.26 (1)(9.81)
𝑷𝒗 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟗𝟖 𝒌𝑵
c.Magnitude of the resultant force acting on the gate:
𝑅 = ™(𝑃X )% + (𝑃U )%
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟕𝟗. 𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑵
3. From the figure shown:

a. Compute the horizontal component of the hydrostatic force.
b. Compute the vertical component of the hydrostatic force
c. Compute the location of the vertical component horizontally from B
Solution:
a. Horizontal Component of the hydrostatic force:

𝑃X = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
𝑃X = 62.4(3)(6)(1)
𝑷𝒉 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟑 𝒍𝒃
b. Vertical Component of the hydrostatic force:

(𝜋)(6)%
𝑃U = 62.4 (1)
4
𝑷𝒗 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟒 𝒍𝒃
c. Location of the vertical component horizontally from B:
4𝑟
𝑥=
3𝜋
4(6)
𝑥=
3𝜋
𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 𝒇𝒕. 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑩
4. The submerged curve AB is one quarter of a circle of radius 2m and is located on the lower corner
of a tank as shown. The length of the tank perpendicular to the sketch is 4m. Find the magnitude
and location of the horizontal and vertical components of the total force acting on AB.

𝑃` = 𝛾ℎ𝐴 = 9.81(5)((4)(2)) = 392.4 𝑘𝑁
𝑦 =1+𝑒
𝐼R
𝑒=
𝐴𝑦
(𝟒)(𝟐)𝟑 /𝟏𝟐
𝒆= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝒎
𝟒(𝟐)(𝟓)
𝑦Y = 1 − 0.067
𝑦Y = 1.067𝑚
Therefore, 𝑃` is acting 1.067m below B.
𝑃b = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡V_ef = 𝛾𝑉V_ef
𝑉V_ef = 4(𝐴)
𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
𝐴1 = (4)(2) = 8𝑚2
1
𝐴2 = 𝜋(2)2 = 3.14𝑚2
4
𝐴 = 8 + 3.14 = 11.14𝑚2
𝑉V_ef = 4(11.14) = 44.56𝑚2
𝑃b = 9.81(44.56) = 437.13 𝑘𝑁
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴1 𝑥1 + 𝐴2 𝑥2
𝑥1 = 1𝑚
4𝑟 4(2)
𝑥2 = = = 0.849𝑚
3𝜋 3𝜋
11.14𝑥 = 8(1) + 3.14(0.849)
𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟕𝒎
Therefore, 𝑷𝒗 is acting 0.957 to the right of A.
Another way of getting 𝑥:

Since the unit pressure is always normal to the surface and a normal to the circle
passes through its center, the total force P should also pass through the center of the
circle O, therefore, the moment about O due to P or due to 𝑃` and 𝑃b is zero.
𝛴 𝑀J = 0
𝑃U 𝑥 − 𝑃` 𝑦 = 0
437.13 𝑥 = 392.4(1.067)
𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟕𝟖𝒎
Note: This is true for all cylindrical or spherical surfaces.

deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. The crest gate shown consist of a cylindrical surface of which AB is the base supported by a
structural frame hinged at O. The length of the gate is 10m. Compute the magnitude and location
of the horizontal and vertical components of the total pressure on AB.
2. In the figure shown, the 1.20m diameter cylinder, 1.20m long is acted upon by water on the left
and oil having sp.gr. of 0.80 on the right. Determine the components of the reaction at B if the
cylinder weighs 19.62 kN.

SCORE:
QUIZ NO. 5 – 40
NAME: ______________________________________ DATE: ______________________________
deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. In the figure shown, determine the horizontal and vertical components of the total force
acting on the cylinder per m of its length.
3. The gate shown is a quarter circle 2.5m wide perpendicular to the sketch. Find the force
F just sufficient to prevent rotation about hinge B. Neglect the weight of the gate.

LESSON 7: DAMS
TOPICS:
1. Types of Dams
2. Analysis of Gravity Dams
OBJECTIVES:
DISCUSSION:
DAMS
Are structures built for the purpose of impounding water.
The dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces due to water which is raised on its upstream
side. This causes the dam to slide horizontally on its foundation and overturn it about its
downstream edge or toe. These tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of the dam
and gravitational forces which causes a moment opposite to the overturning moment. The
dam may also be prevented from sliding by keying its base.
A. Purpose of Dam:
Water Supply, Irrigation, Power supply, Navigation, Flood control, recreation, land
reclamation, water diversion, etc.
B. TYPES OF DAMS
1. ARCH DAM
- A concrete or masonry dam, which is curved upstream so as to transmit the
major part of the water load to the abutments. Double curvature arch dam.
An arch dam, which is curved vertically as well as horizontally.
2. BUTTRESS DAM
- A dam consisting of a watertight part supported at intervals on the
downstream side by a series of buttresses. A buttress dam can take many
forms, such as a flat slab or a massive head buttress. Ambursen dam. A

buttress dam in which the upstream part is a relatively thin flat slab usually
made of reinforced concrete. Multiple arch dam. A buttress dam composed
of a series of arches for the upstream face.
3. GRAVITY DAM
- A dam constructed of concrete and/or masonry, which relies on its weight
and internal strength for stability. Hollow gravity dam. A dam constructed of
concrete and/or masonry on the outside but having a hollow interior relying
on its weight for stability. Crib dam. A gravity dam built up of boxes, crossed
timbers, or gabions filled with earth or rock. Roller-compacted concrete
dam. A concrete gravity dam constructed by the use of a dry mix concrete
transported by conventional construction equipment and compacted by
rolling, usually with vibratory rollers.
4. COFFER DAM
- A temporary structure enclosing all or part of the construction area so that
construction can proceed in the dry. A diversion cofferdam diverts a stream into
a pipe, channel, tunnel, or other watercourse.

5. EARTHFILL DAM
- are made up mostly of compacted earth. Most embankment dams have a
zone in the middle, called the core, made of low permeability material, a
permeable part growing gradually outward called a filter on the two sides
covering the core, and the shell on the upstream and downstream heels.
The core is usually made of clayey soils to stop water passing through the
dam.
C. ANALYSIS OF GRAVITY DAM

D. STEPS OF SOLUTION:
1. Consider 1m length of dam (perpendicular to the sketch)

2. Determine all the forces acting:
● Vertical Forces
2.1. Weight of the Dam:
𝑊1 = 𝑤H 𝑉1
𝑊2 = 𝑤H 𝑉2
𝑊3 = 𝑤H 𝑉3
2.2. Weight of Water:
𝑊4 = 𝑤6 𝑉4
2.3. Weight or permanent structures on the dam
2.4. Hydrostatic Uplift
𝑈1 = 𝑤6 𝑉<1
𝑈2 = 𝑤6 𝑉<2
● Horizontal Force
3.1. Total Hydrostatic force acting at the vertical projection of the
submerged portion of the dam
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
3.2. Wind Pressure
3.3. Wave action
3.4. Floating bodies
3.5. Earthquake load
3. Solve for the reaction
a. Vertical Reaction, 𝑅I
𝑅I = 𝛴 𝐹I
𝑅I = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 + 𝑊4 − 𝑈1 − 𝑈2
b. Horizontal Reaction, 𝑅g
𝑅X = 𝛴 𝐹X
𝑅g = 𝑃
4. Moment about the Toe
a. Righting Moment, RM (rotation towards the upstream side)
𝑅𝑀 = 𝑊1 𝑥1 + 𝑊2 𝑥2 + 𝑊3 𝑥3 + 𝑊4 𝑥4
b. Overturning Moment, OM (rotation towards the downstream side)
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑃I + 𝑈1 𝑧1 + 𝑈2 𝑧2
5. Location of 𝑅I
𝑅I 𝑥 = 𝑅𝑀 − 𝑂𝑀
𝑹𝑴 − 𝑶𝑴
𝒙=
𝑹𝒚
where:
𝑤 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚!
𝑤G = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑠G = 2.4 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑤G = 2.4𝑤

E. FACTORS OF SAFETY
1. Against Sliding, 𝐹𝑆P
𝝁𝑹𝒚
𝑭𝑺𝒔 =
𝑹𝒙
2. Against Overturning, 𝐹𝑆J
𝑹𝑴
𝑭𝑺𝒐 =
𝑶𝑴
F. FOUNDATION PRESSURE:
From combined axial and bending stress

formula:
𝑅I 6𝑒
𝑓= (1 ± )
𝐵 𝐵
𝐵
𝑒= −𝑥
2
𝑈𝑠𝑒 (+) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓1
𝑈𝑠𝑒 (−) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓'
SOLVED PROBLEMS:
1. A 30m long dam retains 9m of water as shown in the figure. Find the total resultant force acting on
the dam and the location of the center of pressure from the bottom.

Solution:
𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
𝑃 = (9.81)(4.5)((30)(10.392))
𝑃 = 13763 𝑘𝑁
𝐼R
𝑒=
𝐴𝑦
(𝟑𝟎)(𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟐)𝟑 /𝟏𝟐

𝒆= = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐𝒎
𝟑𝟎(𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟐)(𝟒. 𝟓/𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝟎 ∘)
10.392
𝑦= − 1.732 = 3.464𝑚
2
𝟏
𝒚 = (𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟐) = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟒𝒎
𝟑
3. In the figure shown, find the width b of the concrete dam necessary to prevent the dam from sliding.
The specific gravity of concrete is 2.4 and the coefficient of friction between the base of the dam
and the foundation is 0.4. Use 1.5 as the factor of safety against sliding. Is the dam also safe from
overturning?
Solution:
𝑊G = 𝑤G 𝑉G = 𝑤(2.4)(2.4)((𝑏)(6)(1))
𝑊G = 14.4 𝑏𝑤
𝑃 = 𝑤ℎ𝐴 = 𝑤(2.25)((4.5)(1))
𝑃 = 10.125𝑤
𝑅g = 𝑃 = 10.125𝑤
𝑅I = 𝑊G = 14.4𝑏𝑤
𝜇𝑅I
𝐹𝑆P =
𝑅g
0.4(14.4 𝑏𝑤)
𝐹𝑆P = = 1.5
10.125𝑤
𝑏 = 2.637𝑚

𝑅𝑀 14.4(2.637)𝑤(2.637/2)
𝐹𝑆0 = =
𝑂𝑀 10.125𝑤(1.5)
𝐹𝑆0 = 3.3 (𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒)
4. A dam is triangular in cross-section with the upstream with the upstream face vertical.
Water is flushed with the top. The dam is 8m high and 6m wide at the base and weighs
2.4 tons per cubic meter. The coefficient of friction between the base and the foundation
is 0.8. Determine
a. The maximum and minimum unit pressure on the foundation
b. Factors of safety against overturning and against sliding.
Solution:
2.4(1000)
𝑠GJ]G = = 2.4
1000
Consider 1m length of dam:
1
𝑊 = 𝑤G 𝑉 = 𝑤(2.4) ∗ ( (6)(8)(1))
2
𝑊 = 57.6𝑤; 𝑤 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑃 = 𝑤ℎ𝐴
𝑃 = 𝑤(4)((8)(1)) = 32𝑤
𝑅g = 𝑃 = 32𝑤
𝑅I = 𝑊 = 57.6𝑤
𝑅𝑀 = 𝑊(4) = 57.6𝑤(4) = 230.4𝑤
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑃(8/3) = 32𝑤 (8/3) = 85.33𝑤
𝑹𝑴 − 𝑶𝑴 𝟐𝟑𝟎. 𝟒𝒘 − 𝟖𝟓. 𝟑𝟑𝒘

𝒙= = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏𝟗𝒎
𝑹𝒚 𝟓𝟕. 𝟔𝒘
𝐵
𝑒= − 𝑥 = 3 − 2.519 = 0.481𝑚
2
𝑅I 6𝑒
𝐹- = (1 + )
𝐵 𝐵
57.6(9.81) 6(0.481)
𝐹- = (1 ± )
6 6
(+) 𝐹- = 139.47 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑒)

(−) 𝐹` − 48.88 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙)
𝜇𝑅I
𝐹𝑆J =
𝑅g
0.8(57.6𝑤)
𝐹𝑆J = = 1.44
32𝑤
𝑅𝑀 230.4𝑤
𝐹𝑆P = = = 2.7
𝑂𝑀 85.33𝑤

deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. A gravity dam of trapezoidal cross-section with one face vertical and horizontal base is 22m high
and has a thickness of 4m at the top. Water upstream stands 2m below the crest of the dam.
The specific gravity of masonry is 2.4.
a. Neglecting Hydrostatic uplift:

● Find the base width B of the dam so that the resultant force will cut the
extreme edge of the middle third near the toe.
● Compute the factors of safety against sliding and overturning. use 𝜇 = 0.5
b. Considering uplift pressure to vary uniformly from full hydrostatic pressure at the heel to
zero at the toe:
● Find the base width B of the dam so that the resultant force will act at the
extremity of the middle third near the toe.
● Compute the maximum and minimum compressive stresses acting against
the base of the dam.

SCORE:
QUIZ NO. 6 –
NAME: ______________________________________ DATE: ______________________________

deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. Given the section of the masonry dam as shown. The specific weight of water is
9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 and that of concrete is 23. 54𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 . Assuming uplift pressure varies linearly
from maximum hydrostatic pressure at the heel to zero at the location of the drain,
determine
a. location of the resultant force
b. Factor of safety against sliding if coefficient of friction is 0.75
c. Factor of safety against overturning
d. The stress at the heel and at the toe
e. The unit horizontal shearing stress at the base.

LESSON 8: BUOYANCY
TOPICS:
1. Archimedes’ Principle
OBJECTIVES:
concept of Buoyancy.
DISCUSSION:
Archimedes’ Principle
“Any body immersed in a fluid is acted upon by an upward force (buoyant force) whic is equal to
the weight of the displaced fluid.”
Proof
Consider the body ABCD immersed in a fluid. The horizontal components of the force acting on
the body are all in equilibrium since the vertical projection of the body in opposite sides is the
same. The upper face of the body is subject to a vertical downward force which is equal to the
weight of the fluid above it, and the lower face is subject to an
upward force equal to the weight of real or imaginary liquid above
it.
𝐵𝐹 = 𝑃𝑣2 − 𝑃𝑣1
𝐵𝐹 = 𝛾𝑉Vfehi − 𝛾𝑉Vfehi
𝐵𝐹 = 𝛾𝑉V_ef
𝑭𝒃 = 𝜸𝑽𝑫
where:
𝑤 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑉f = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
Note:
a. Actual weight of a body (weight of body in air)
𝑾 𝑩 = 𝜸𝑩 𝑽𝑩
Where:
𝑊L = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦, 𝑁
𝑉L = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦, 𝑚1
𝛾L = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦, 𝑁f𝑚1
b. Apparent weight of a body (weight in liquid)

𝑾>𝑩 = 𝑾𝑩 − 𝑭𝒃
Where:
𝑊_j = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦, 𝑁
𝑊L = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦, 𝑁
𝐹L = 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑁
To solve problems in buoyancy, identify the forces acting and apply conditions of static
equilibrium:
𝜮 𝑭𝒉 = 𝟎 𝜮 𝑭𝒗 = 𝟎 𝜮 𝑴 = 𝟎
c. For homogenous solid bodies of volume V floating in a homogeneous fluid at rest:
𝑺𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
𝑽𝑫 = 𝑽
𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
If the body of height H has a constant horizontal cross-sectional

area such as vertical cylinders, blocks, etc.
𝑫𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒕, 𝑫 = 𝑯
If the body is of uniform vertical cross sectional area A, the area

submerged 𝐴P is:
𝑨𝒔 = 𝑨
SOLVED PROBLEMS:
1. A piece of metal weighs 350 N in air and when it is submerged completely in water it weighs
240N. (a.) Find the volume of the metal (b.) Find the specific weight of the metal and (c.) Find
the specific gravity of the metal.
Solution:
a. Volume of metal
𝑊 = 350 − 240
𝑊 = 110 𝑁
110 = 𝑉(9810)
𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝟑
b. Specific weight
350
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
0.0112
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑵¢ 𝟑
𝒎
c. Specific gravity

𝑊𝑡. 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑆𝑝. 𝑔𝑟. =
𝑊𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
350
9810(0.0112)
𝑺𝒑. 𝒈𝒓. = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟗
Another solution:
31.25
9.81
𝑺𝒑. 𝒈𝒓. = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟗
2. The weight of a certain crown in air is 14N and its weight in water is 12.7 N. Assuming that the
crown is an alloy of gold (sp.gr.=19.3) and silver (sp.gr.=10.5). Assume unit wt. of water=9.79
kN/m3. (a.) compute the volume of the crown. (b.) Compute the specific gravity of the crown. (c.)
Compute the fraction of silver in the crown.
Solution:
a. Volume of the crown
𝐵𝐹 = 14 − 12.7 = 1.3 𝑁
𝑉(9790) = 1.3
𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟖 𝒎𝟑
b. Specific gravity of the crown

14
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛 =
0.0001328
𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓, 𝟒𝟐𝟐 𝑵¢ 𝟑
𝒎
105.422
𝑆𝑝. 𝑔𝑟. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛 =
9.79
𝑺𝒑. 𝒈𝒓. 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟕
c. Fraction of silver in the crown

Let x= fraction of silver in crown
10.5𝑥 + (1 − 𝑥)(19.3) = 10.77

𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟗
3. (a.) What fraction of the volume of a solid object of sp.gr. 7.3 floats above the surface of a
container of mercury? (b.) If the volume of the object below the liquid surface is 0.014 m3, what
is the wt. of the object. (c.) What load applied vertically that would cause the object to be fully
submerged.

a. Fraction of volume of a solid object above the mercury:
𝑊 = 𝐵𝐹
(7.3)(𝑉)(9.81) = 𝑉$ (9.81)(13.6)
𝑉 = 1.863𝑉$
𝑉$ = 0.536𝑉
𝑉% = 𝑉 − 0.536𝑉
𝑉% = 0.464𝑉
𝑽𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟒𝑽
𝑽
b. Weight of object:
𝑉$ = 0.014
𝑉 = 1.863(0.014)
𝑉 = 0.026 𝑚!
𝑊 = 0.026(9.81)(7.3)
𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔 𝒌𝑵
c. Load to cause the object to submerged:

𝑃 = 𝑉% (9.81)(13.6)
𝑃 = 0.464(0.026)(9.81)(13.6)
𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏 𝒌𝑵
4. A block of wood 0.6m x 0.6m x “h” meters in dimension was thrown into the water, it floats with
0.18m. projecting above the water surface. The same block was thrown into a container of a
liquid having a sp.gr. of 0.90 and it floats with 0.14cm, projecting above the liquid surface. (a.)
Determine the value of “h”. (b.) Determine the specific gravity of the block. (c.) Determine the
weight of the block.

a. Value of “h”
𝑊 = 9.81(0.6)(0.6)(ℎ − 0.18)
𝑆(ℎ)(0.6)(0.6)(9.81) = 9.81(0.6)(0.6)(ℎ − 0.18)
𝑆ℎ = ℎ − 0.18
𝑊 = 9.81(0.9)(0.6)(0.6)(ℎ − 0.14)
𝑆(ℎ)(0.6)(0.6)(0.91) = 9.81(0.9)(0.6)(0.6)(ℎ − 0.14)
𝑆ℎ = 0.9(ℎ − 0.14)
ℎ − 0.18 = 0.9(ℎ − 0.18)

ℎ − 0.18 = 0.9ℎ − 0.126
0.10ℎ = 0.054
𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒
b. Specific gravity
𝑆ℎ = ℎ − 0.18
𝑆(0.54) = 0.54 − 0.18
𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕
c. Weight of block
𝑊 = 0.667(9.81)(0.6)(0.6)(0.5)
𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟐 𝒌𝑵
5. An Iceberg having specific gravity of 0.92 is floating on salt water of sp.gr. is 1.03. If the
volume of ice above the water surface is 1000cu.m., what is the total volume of the ice?
Solution:
Let:
𝑉 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑉f = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑉f = 𝑉 − 1000
𝑊KGE = 𝑤KGE 𝑉 = 9.81(0.92)(𝑉)
= 9.0252𝑉
𝐵𝐹 = 𝑤PEOTOQEF 𝑉f
𝐵𝐹 = 9.81 (1.03)(𝑉 − 1000)
𝐵𝐹 = 10.1043(𝑉 − 1000)
𝛴 𝐹U = 0
𝑊KGE = 𝐵𝐹
9.0252𝑉 = 10.1043 (𝑉 − 1000)
1.0791𝑉 = 10104.3
𝑽 = 𝟗𝟑𝟔𝟒 𝒎𝟑
Another Solution:
For homogeneous solid body floating on a homogeneous liquid:
𝑺𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒘𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
𝑽𝑫 = 𝑽 = 𝑽
𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒘𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
then:

0.92
𝑉 − 1000 − 𝑉
1.03
0.106796𝑉 = 1000
𝑽 = 𝟗𝟑𝟔𝟒 𝒎𝟑
2. A block of wood if placed in water will float with 6” projecting above the water surface and if
placed in alcohol (sp.gr.=0.82) will float with 4” projecting above the alcohol surface. Find the
sp.gr. of the wood.
Solution:
In Water:
𝑽𝑫 = 𝑽
𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌
𝑠5
𝐴(𝐻 − 6) = (𝐴)(𝐻)
1
𝑠5 𝐻 = 𝐻 − 6
In Alcohol:
𝑠5
𝐴(𝐻 − 4) = (𝐴)(𝐻)
0.82
𝑠5 𝐻 = 0.82𝐻 − 3.28
Comparing:
𝑠5 𝐻 = 𝑠5 𝐻
𝐻 − 6 = 0.82𝐻 − 3.28
𝑯 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟏𝟏"
𝑠5 (15.11) = 15.11.6
𝒔𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟑

deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. A block of wood with a horizontal section of 0.40m x 0.40m floats in water with 0.20m projecting
above the water surface. If this block is placed in a body of oil having a sp.gr. of 0.80, it floats
with 0.18m projecting above the oil surface. (a.) Determine the height of the object (b.) Determine
the sp.gr. of the object (c.) Determine the weight of the object.
2. A piece of wood floats in water with 50mm projecting above the water surface. When placed in
glycerin of sp.gr.1.35, the block projects 75mm above the liquid surface. (a.) Find the height of
the piece of wood. (b.) Find the sp.gr. of wood. (c.) Find the weight of the wood if it has a cross
sectional area of 200mm x 200mm.
3. The base of a solid metal cone (s=6.95) is 25 cm in diameter. The altitude of the cone is 30cm.
if placed in a basin containing mercury (s=13.6) with the apex of the cone down, how deep will
the cone float?
4. A stone cube 280mm on each side and weighing 425 N is lowered into a tank containing a layer
of water 1.50m thick over a layer of mercury. Determine the position of the block when it has
reached equilibrium.

SCORE:
QUIZ NO. 7 –
NAME: ______________________________________ DATE: ______________________________

deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. A hollow cylinder 1m in diameter and 2m high weighs 3825 N. (a.) How many kN of lead weighing
110 kN/m3 must be fastened to the outside bottom of the cylinder to make if float with 1.5m
submerged in water? (b.) How many kN of lead if it is placed inside the cylinder.
2. A steel cube 100mm on a side weighs 80N. We want to hold the cube in equilibrium under water
by attracting a light foam buoy to it. If the foam weighs 470 N/m3. What is the minimum required
volume of the buoy?
3. A block of wood if placed in water will float with 6” projecting above the water surface and if placed
in alcohol (sp.gr.=0.82) will float with 4” projecting above the alcohol surface. Find the sp.gr. of the
wood.
4. A spherical balloon, 9m in diameter is filled with helium gas pressurized to 111 kPa at a
temperature of 20 deg. Celcius, and anchored by a rope to the ground. Neglecting the dead weight
of the balloon, determine the tension in the rope. Use R=212 m/°K for helium gas and 𝑊73: =
11.76 𝑁/𝑚1 .

LESSON 9: STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
TOPICS:
1. Statical Stability of Floating Bodies
OBJECTIVES:
concept of Buoyancy.
DISCUSSION:
Statical Stability of Floating Bodies
Any floating body is subjected by two opposing vertical forces. One is the body's weight W
which is downward, and the other is the buoyant force BF which is upward. The weight is
acting at the center of gravity G and the buoyant force is acting at the center of buoyancy
BO. W and BF are always equal and if these forces are collinear, the body will be in upright
position as shown below.
The body may tilt from many causes like wind or wave action causing the center of
buoyancy to shift to a new position BO' as shown below.
Point M is the intersection of the axis of the body and the line of action of the buoyant force,
it is called metacenter. If M is above G, BF and W will produce a righting moment RM which
causes the body to return to its neutral position, thus the body is stable. If M is below G,
the body becomes unstable because of the overturning moment OM made by W and BF.
If M coincides with G, the body is said to be just stable which simply means critical. The
value of righting moment or overturning moment is given by

RM or OM=Wx=W(MGsinθ)
Classification of a Floating Body
1. Stable Equilibrium (mc is above cg)

A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it will restore back to its original position after being
slightly displaced, either linearly or rotationally.
2. Neutral Equilibrium
In particular, a homogenous cylinder or sphere having the center of gravity at its geometrical
centroid will float in a condition of neutral equilibrium. Such a cylinder or sphere will remain in
any given position unless displaced and will not recover from any rotational displacement,
however small. The buoyant force and the weight will always be concurrent and the sum of their
moments is always zero.
3. Unstable Equilibrium (cg is above mc)

A floating body is unstable, or in unstable equilibrium, if it continues moving in the direction of
displaced motion. This condition is a possibility for a floating body where the center of buoyancy
is below the center of gravity, except in the case of a homogenous cylinder or sphere.
The distance MG is called metacentric height.
Metacentric Height, 𝑴𝑮 = 𝑴𝑩𝒐 ± 𝑮𝑩𝒐

𝑈𝑠𝑒 (−) 𝑖𝑓 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐵J
𝑈𝑠𝑒 (+) 𝑖𝑠 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐵J
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑀 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐵J
Value of MBO
The stability of the body depends on the amount of the righting moment which in turn is
dependent on the metacentric height MG. When the body tilts, the center of buoyancy shifts to
a new position (𝐵J ).This shifting also causes the wedge 𝑣′to shift to a new position v. The moment
due to the shifting of the buoyant force 𝐵𝐹(𝑧) is therefore equal to the moment du to wedge shift
𝐹(𝑠).

General Formula:
𝒗𝒔
𝑴𝑩𝒐 =
𝑽𝑫 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
For small values of 𝜃 ( 𝜃 ≈ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = 0)

𝑰
𝑴𝑩𝒐 =
𝑽𝑫
this formula can be applied to any section
Where:
W = weight of the body
BF = buoyant force
M = metacenter
G = center of gravity of the body
BO = center of buoyancy in upright position
BO' = center of buoyancy in tilted position
MG = metacentric height or the distance from M to G
MBO = distance from M to BO
GO = distance from G to BO
v = volume of the wedge either immersion or emersion
s = horizontal distance between the center of gravity of the wedges
θ = angle of tilting
I = moment of inertia of the waterline section of the body
RM = righting moment
OM = overturning moment
Since the metacentric height MG is dependent on 𝑀𝐵J , the stability of a floating body therefore
depends on the moment of inertia of the waterline section. It can also be seen that the body is
more stable in pitching than in rolling due to the fact that the moment of inertia in pitching is
greater than that in rolling.
For Rectangular Section:

𝑩𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝑴𝑩𝒐 = (𝟏 + )
𝟏𝟐𝑫 𝟐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝐵 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑤
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
SOLVED PROBLEMS:
1. A plastic cube of side L and sp.gr. 0.82 is placed vertically in water. Is the cube stable?
Solution:
m.n%
Draft, 𝐷 = $.m 𝐿 = 0.82𝐿
𝐿
𝐺𝐵J = − 0.41𝐿
2
𝐺𝐵J = 0.09𝐿
𝐼
𝑀𝐵J =
𝑉f
I- Moment of inertia of the waterline section about the axis of
tilting
(𝐿)(𝐿! )/12
𝑀𝐵J = = 0.102𝐿
(𝐿)(𝐿)(0.82𝐿)
Since MBo>GBo, the metacenter, M, is above G. Therefore,

the body is STABLE.
2. A crane barge, 20 meters long, 8m wide, and 2m high loaded at its center with a road roller weighing
20 short tons, floats on fresh water with a draft of 1.20m and has its center of gravity located along
its vertical centerline at a point 1.50 m above the bottom. Compute the horizontal distance out to
one side from the centerline of the barge through which the crane could swing the 20 ton load
which it had lifted from the center of the deck and tip the barge with the 20m edge just touching
the water surface.

𝐵𝐹 = 𝑊T 𝑉f = 9.81[(8)(1.2)(20)]
𝐵𝐹 = 1883.52 𝑘𝑁
Weight of the barge:

𝑊 = 1883.52 − 176.58
= 1706.94 𝑘𝑁
Solve for d:
1883.52(0.5) = 1706.94(𝑑)
In the tilted positions:
∑𝑀o = 0
𝐵𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑊p (𝑦 + 𝑧) − − − 𝐸𝑞. 1
𝑥 = 𝑀𝐺𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 0.8/4
𝜃 = 11.31°
𝑀𝐺 = 𝑀𝐵J − 𝐺𝐵J
𝑩𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝑴𝑩𝒐 = (𝟏 + )
𝟏𝟐𝑫 𝟐
𝟖𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 (𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟏°)

𝑴𝑩𝒐 = Œ𝟏 + Ž
𝟏𝟐(𝟏. 𝟐) 𝟐
= 𝟒. 𝟓𝟑𝟑𝒎
𝐺𝐵J = (2 − 0.552) − (1.2/2)
= 0.848𝑚
𝑀𝐺 = 4.533 − 0.848 = 3.685𝑚
𝑥 = 3.685 𝑠𝑖𝑛 11.31° = 0.723𝑚

𝑧 = 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑧 = 0.552 𝑠𝑖𝑛 11.31 = 0.108𝑚
In Eq.1:
1883.52(0.723) = 176.58(𝑦 + 0.108)
𝒚 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟎𝟒𝒎 (𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘)

deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. A solid wood cylinder of sp.gr. of 0.6 is 600mm in diameter and 1200mm high. If placed
vertically in oil (sp.gr.=0.85), would it be stable?
2. A wood cone, 700mm diameter and 1000mm high floats in water with its vertex down. If the
specific gravity of the wood is 0.6, would it be stable? Determine also the metacentric height.
3. The waterline section of a 1500 kN barge is as shown. Its center of gravity is 1.5m above its
center of buoyancy. Compute the initial metacentric height against rolling.

SCORE:
QUIZ NO. 8 –
NAME: ______________________________________ DATE: ______________________________

solution with complete explanation step by step. Failure to follow such instruction will
merit deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. A block of wood (sp.gr.=0.64) is in the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped having a square

base. If the block floats in salt water with its square base horizontal, what is the maximum
height for stable equilibrium in the upright position?
2. A rectangular scow, 9m wide, 15m long, and 3.6m high has a draft of 2.4m in sea water. Its
center of gravity is 2.7m above its bottom. (a.) Determine the initial metacentric height. (b.) if
the scow tilts until one side is just at the point of submergence, determine the righting or
overturning moment.

LESSON 10: HOOP TENSION
TOPICS:
1. Statical Stability of Floating Bodies
OBJECTIVES:
concept of Hoop Tension.
DISCUSSION:
I. STRESSES IN PIPE WALLS (HOOP AND CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS)
This is caused by the static forces that are introduced in pipes and tanks by the relative
pressure of the contained liquid.
A. Circumferential Stress
Consider a pipe of diameter D and thickness to be subject to an internal pressure of p. To
determine the stress in the pipe wall, let us cut a section of length S along the diameter
(see figure B). The forces acting on this section are the total pressure F due to the internal
pressure and this is to be resisted by T which is the total stress of the pipe wall. Applying
equilibrium condition.
Formula:
𝒑𝑫
𝑺𝒕 =
𝟐𝒕
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚
𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑆Q = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Theoretical thickness of a metal pipe under pressure

𝑓P 𝐴X
𝑡=
𝑇

𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙, 𝑚
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑁
𝑓P = 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒, 𝑝𝑎
B. Spacing of Hoops
Consider a wood stave pipe to be bounded together by hoops as shown in figure C. The
spacing S of the hoops can be determined by analyzing the tributary area carried by one
hoop as shown in Figure D. In this analysis, it is assumed that the pipe wall will not carry
any tensile stress and that all of the bursting force is to be resisted by the hoops. Applying
equilibrium condition;
𝟐𝑺𝒕 𝑨𝒉
𝐒=
𝒑𝑫
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚
𝐴X = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑆Q = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Theoretical Spacing of metal hoops in wood-stave pipe under pressure.
𝒇𝒔 𝑨𝒉
𝑺=
𝑻
𝑆 = ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑚
𝑓P = 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑝, 𝑃𝑎
𝐴X = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑝, 𝑚%
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑁
Bursting force, F: (considering 1m length of pipe)

a. Without external pressure:
𝑭𝑩 = 𝜸𝒉𝑫𝒊
b. With external pressure:

𝑭𝑩 = (𝒑𝒊 − 𝒑𝒆 )(𝑫𝒊 )
Tensile force exerted by the wall:

𝑭𝑩 𝜸𝒉𝑫𝒊
𝑻= =
𝟐 𝟐
𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚 =
𝒕𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
Where:
𝐹_ = 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑁
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑁
𝛾 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒, 𝑁/𝑚!

ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒, 𝑚
𝐷K = 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒, 𝑚
SOLVED PROBLEMS:
1. A 300mm diameter steel pipe 12mm thick carries water under a head of 50m of water. Determine
the stress in the steel.
Solution:
𝑝𝐷
𝑆Q =
2𝑡
9.81(50)(300)
𝑆Q = = 6.13 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2(12)
2. A wooden storage vat is 6m in diameter and is filled with 7m of oil, s=0.8. The wood staves are
bound by flat steel bands, 50mm wide by 6mm thick, whose allowable stress is 110 MPa. What is
the required spacing of the bands near the bottom of the vat, neglecting any initial stress?
Solution:
2$M %N
Spacing of hoops, 𝑆 =
&'
𝑆Q = 110 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴X = 50(6) = 300𝑚𝑚2
𝐷 = 6𝑚 = 6000𝑚𝑚
𝑝 = 𝑤JKL ℎ = 9.81 (0.8) (7) = 54.936 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝟐(𝟏𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 )(𝟑𝟎𝟎)
𝑺= = 𝟐𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝒎𝒎 𝒔𝒂𝒚 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝟓𝟒. 𝟗𝟑𝟔 (𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎)
3. A 60cm cast iron main leads from a reservoir whose water surface is at El. 1590m. in the heart of
the city, the main is at El. 1415m. What is the stress in the pipe wall if the thickness of the wall is
12.5mm and external soil pressure is 520 kPa? Assume static conditions.
a. The static pressure in the main at El. 1415m

𝑝K = 𝛾ℎ = 9.81(1590 − 1415)
𝒑𝒊 = 𝟏𝟕𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂
The effective pressure at el. 1415m

𝑝 = 𝑝K − 𝑝E
𝑝 = 1716.75 − 520

𝒑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂
b. Bursting Force
𝐹L = 𝑝3 𝐴 = 𝑝3 𝐷3 (1)
1196.75(0.60)
𝑭𝑩 = 𝟕𝟏𝟖. 𝟎𝟓 𝒌𝑵
c. Tensile force
𝐹L = 2𝑇
718.05 = 2𝑇
𝑻 = 𝟑𝟓𝟗. 𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑵
d. Stress
𝑇
𝑡=
𝑓O
359.03 𝑥 101
12.5𝑥101 =
𝑓O
𝒇𝒔 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟐𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂
4. A vertical cylindrical container, 1.60m in diameter and 4m high, is held together by means of
hoops, one at the top and the other at the bottom. A liquid of specific gravity 1.40 stands 3m in
the container. Calculate the tension in each hoop.
Solution:
𝐹 = 𝐴𝛾ℎ
Where:
𝐴 = 𝐷 𝑥 ℎ
𝐴 = 1.6 𝑥 3
𝐴 = 4.80𝑚%
𝐹 = 4.80[(9.81)(1.40)](3/2)
𝐹 = 98.88 𝑘𝑁
∑𝑀QJY = 0
𝐹(3) = 2𝑇% (4)
98.88(3) = 8𝑇%
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟎𝟖 𝒌𝑵
∑𝑀-JQQJD = 0

𝐹(1) = 2𝑇$ (4)
98.88(1) = 8𝑇$
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟔 𝒌𝑵

deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. A wood stave pipe, 120cm in diameter, is to resist a maximum water pressure of 1,200
kPa. If the staves are bound by steel flat bands (10cm by 2.5 cm), find the spacing of
the bands if its allowable stress is 105 MPa.
2. A steel pipe having a diameter of 900mm carries water under a head of 230m of water.
Compute the following:
a. The internal pressure on the pipe
b. The tensile force in the steel pipe
c. The wall thickness of the steel pipe needed to resist the static pressure if the
allowable stress for steel pipe is 110 MPa

SCORE:
QUIZ NO. 9 -
NAME: ______________________________________ DATE: ______________________________

deductions)
RUBRIC:
POINT SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
(per unknown)
No solution 0
1. A thin-walled hallow sphere 3.5m in diameter holds helium gas at 1700 kPa. Determine the
minimum wall thickness of the sphere if its allowable stress is 60 MPa.
2. A vertical cylindrical tank is 2m in diameter and 3.5m high. Its sides are held in position by means
of steel hoops, one 0.50m from the top and other one at the bottom. The tank is filled with 2m of
water and 1m of oil (s.g.=0.85) Compute the tensile force in each hoop.

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
General Luna Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
FLUID
MECHANICS
LABORATORY
MANUAL
PREPARED BY:
ENGR. REYMORE A. INSAS

LABORATORY RULES AND REGULATIONS
Reminders for laboratory classes:
1. When borrowing equipment’s and materials, use borrowers slip with instructors’ signature.
2. All equipment’s and materials should be returned within 15 minutes before the class dismissal.
3. Eating/drinking inside the laboratory is not allowed.
4. Always return chairs and tables to their proper places.
5. Turn off the lights after using them.
6. Always follow strictly the procedures, if ever you have inquiries with regards to the procedure
approach your instructor.
7. Always observe cleanliness.
Laboratory safety rules and regulations:

1. Observed proper clothing in the laboratory room.
2. Use approved tools, equipment and protective devices.
3. Keep tools and equipment clean and in good working condition.
4. In case of fire, use only approved fire extinguisher for electrical and electronic equipment.
5. Don’t work on any equipment if you are not aware of any potential safety hazards.
6. Running, playing and having practical jokes are strictly forbidden in the laboratory.
Rules to be observed in the Performance of Experiments

1. Laboratory works are conducted in groups. Members of the same group should sit together in one
table. One of the members will report to the laboratory counter to draw the apparatus required to
perform the experiment assigned for the period.
2. Before the end of the laboratory period, each group should submit to the instructor the preliminary
report of the experiment. The preliminary report contains the data and results of the experiment.
3. In writing the final report, the prepared report format in the manual for the performed experiment
should be accomplished neatly and accurately by each member of the groups.
4. Students are expected to handle the equipment with utmost care and are to report immediately
any apparent malfunctioning. Breakage of apparatus will be charged collectively from the entire
group to which the offender belongs. The apparatus is presumed to be in good working condition
when released from the counter.
Note: This manual is designed for home practical experiments. Students who have
available materials/equipment’s at home are encouraged to try/do and provide their data
based on their home experiment. You can also be creative and improvise materials that
is available in your homes without compromising your safety. On the other hand,
students who can’t perform the experiment will be given data in the google classroom
and/or messenger for computation earlier than the scheduled experiment. Furthermore,
a video is/will be sent for your reference.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:
EXPERIMENT
TITLE SCORE:
NUMBER
Experiment no. 1 Laboratory Equipment’s
Determination of Density, Specific Weight, Specific

Experiment no. 2
Volume and Specific gravity.
Experiment no. 3 Viscosity of Liquid
Experiment no. 4 Surface Tension of a Liquid
Experiment no. 5 Pascal’s Law
Experiment no. 6 Manometer
Experiment no. 7 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces
Experiment no. 8 Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces
Experiment no. 9 Dams
Experiment no. 10 Principle of Buoyancy
Experiment no. 11 Hoop Tension
Final Requirement

SCORE:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Schedule: _________________________________ Instructor: ENGR. REYMORE A. INSAS
LABORATORY ACTIVITY NO.1:

LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS
I. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the density and specific weight of a liquid with the aid of the volumetric
method.
II. APPARATUS
Pencil/ballpen/colors
III. ACTIVITY
Draw and identify the use of all the identified the laboratory equipment’s given below. Use
capital letters.
EQUIPMENT ILLUSTRATION USE

WEIGHING
BALANCE

GRADUATED
CYLINDER
FUNNEL
U-TUBE WITH
STAND

STOP WATCH
METER STICK
MICROMETER

DROPPER
THERMOMETER
TEST TUBE

SCORE:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________

LABORATORY ACTIVITY NO.2:

DETERMINATION OF DENSITY, SPECIFIC WEIGHT, SPECIFIC VOLUME
AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
I. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the density, specific weight, specific volume and specific gravity of a
liquid with the aid of the volumetric method.
II. APPARATUS
Weighing balance
Graduated Cylinder/container of known volume (e.g. 250mL bottle)
3 types of Liquids (e.g. water, alcohol, oil, etc.)
III. DISCUSSION
The density of a liquid is defined as the mass in a unit volume of the substance. Since
the mass of the body is proportional to its weight at any given location, density may
also be expressed in terms of weight per unit volume.
The specific weight represents the force exerted by the gravity on a volume of liquid.
It is also known as the unit weight. The density and specific weight of a liquid is related
by the gravitational acceleration.
Specific gravity refers to the ratio of the density of an object and the reference material.
Furthermore, the specific gravity can tell us if the object will sink or float in reference
material. Besides, the reference material is water that always has a density of 1 gram
per cubic centimeter or 1 gram per millimeter.
In simple words, specific gravity defines whether an object will sink or float in water.
Moreover, there are many factors that determine whether an object will float or sink.
a. Density:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎
𝝆= =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽
Units:
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ: 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 1
𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐: 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚/𝑐𝑚1
𝑆𝐼: 𝑘𝑔/𝑚1
b. Unit Weight or Specific Weight

𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑾
𝜸= =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽
Units:
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ: 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 1
𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐: 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒/𝑐𝑚1
𝑆𝐼: 𝑁/𝑚1
c. Specific Gravity
𝜸𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝒔=𝜸 𝒔=𝝆
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
For water:
𝛾 = 62.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 ! = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚!
𝜌 = 1.94 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 ! = 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚 !
𝑠 = 1.0
IV. PROCEDURE
Note: students who have available materials at home are encouraged to try/do and
provide their data based on their home experiment. On the other hand, students who
can’t perform the experiment will be given data in the google classroom and/or
messenger for computation earlier than the scheduled experiment. Furthermore, a
video is sent for your reference.
1. Weigh the empty graduated cylinder.
2. Fill the graduated cylinder with the liquid up to its desired level.
3. Weigh the cylinder with the liquid in it.
4. Read and record the volume of the liquid.
5. Make three trials by adding more liquid into the graduated cylinder.
6. Repeat the above procedure for the other liquids.
V. DATA AND RESULTS
Liquid used: Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

_____________________
Mass of the cylinder (Kg)
Mass of the cylinder with the liquid
(Kg)
Mass of the liquid (Kg)
Volume of the liquid (ml)
Density of the liquid (Kg/m3)
Specific weight of the liquid
Specific gravity of the liquid

_____________________
(Kg)

_____________________
(Kg)
VI. CALCULATIONS

VII. ILLUSTRATION OF THE SETUP:
VIII. CONCLUSSION
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________

SCORE:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________

LABORATORY ACTIVITY No. 3:

VISCOSITY
I. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the viscosity of a liquid.
II. APPARATUS
a. Clear container (glass, bottle, etc.)

(The taller, the better)
b. Ruler
c. Stopwatch
d. Marble or steel ball or any spherical object available
e. Ruler
f. Thick, somewhat clear household fluids, such as motor oil, cooking oil, honey, corn syrup,
pancake syrup, shampoo, liquid soap, enough of each liquid to fill a graduated cylinder for
each group that tests it
III. DISCUSSION
Viscosity, resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape, or movement of

neighbouring portions relative to one another. Viscosity denotes opposition to flow.
The reciprocal of the viscosity is called the fluidity, a measure of the ease of flow. Molasses,
for example, has a greater viscosity than water. Because part of a fluid that is forced to move
carries along to some extent adjacent parts, viscosity may be thought of as
internal friction between the molecules; such friction opposes the development
of velocity differences within a fluid. Viscosity is a major factor in determining the forces that
must be overcome when fluids are used in lubrication and transported in pipelines. It controls
the liquid flow in such processes as spraying, injection molding, and surface coating.
For many fluids the tangential, or shearing, stress that causes flow is directly proportional to
the rate of shear strain, or rate of deformation, that results. In other words, the shear
stress divided by the rate of shear strain is constant for a given fluid at a fixed temperature.
This constant is called the dynamic, or absolute, viscosity and often simply the viscosity.
Fluids that behave in this way are called Newtonian fluids in honour of Sir Isaac Newton, who
first formulated this mathematical description of viscosity.
The dimensions of dynamic viscosity are force × time ÷ area. The unit of viscosity,
accordingly, is newton-second per square metre, which is usually expressed as pascal-
second in SI units.
The viscosity of liquids decreases rapidly with an increase in temperature, and the viscosity
of gases increases with an increase in temperature. Thus, upon heating, liquids flow more

easily, whereas gases flow more sluggishly. For example, the viscosities of water at 27 °C (81
°F) and at 77 °C (171 °F) are 0.85 × 10−3 and 0.36 × 10−3 pascal-second, respectively, but
those of air at the same temperatures are 1.85 × 10−5 and 2.08 × 10−5 pascal-second.
For some applications the kinematic viscosity is more useful than the absolute, or dynamic,
viscosity. Kinematic viscosity is the absolute viscosity of a fluid divided by its mass density.
(Mass density is the mass of a substance divided by its volume.) The dimensions of kinematic
viscosity are area divided by time; the appropriate units are metre squared per second. The
unit of kinematic viscosity in the centimetre-gram-second (CGS) system, called the stokes in
Britain and the stoke in the U.S., is named for the British physicist Sir George Gabriel Stokes.
The stoke is defined as one centimetre squared per second.
In this activity, we'll be measuring a property of fluids called viscosity. Viscosity describes
how a fluid resists forces, or more specifically shear forces. Shear is the type of force that
occurs when two objects slide parallel to one another. Since fluids are composed of many
molecules that are all moving, these molecules exert a shear force on one another. Fluids with
low viscosity have a low resistance to shear forces, and therefore the molecules flow quickly
and are easy to move through. Can anyone name an example of a low-viscosity fluid? (Listen
to student ideas.) One example is air! Another example is water. Fluids with high viscosity flow
more slowly and are harder to move through. What are examples of high-viscosity fluids?
(Listen to student ideas). One example of a high-viscosity fluid is honey.
When an object free falls through a fluid, at some point the force due to gravity is balanced by
the resistance to shear by the fluid. This is called terminal velocity, and is the point at which
the falling object maintains a constant velocity. Skydivers enjoy one terminal velocity when
they are in free-fall and another, much slower terminal velocity when they change their shape
by releasing their parachutes.
IV. PROCEDURE
Note: students who have available materials at home are encouraged to try/do and provide
their data based on their home experiment. On the other hand, students who can’t perform
the experiment will be given data in the google classroom and/or messenger for computation
earlier than the scheduled experiment. Furthermore, a video is sent for your reference.
1. Gather four clear glass jars/container and fill one with the chosen liquid.
2. Measure the height of the liquid to make sure that the liquids have the same heights.
3. Prepare the timer.
4. Carefully drop one marble into each jar. Drop one marble at a time and observe what
happens to the marble when it enters the liquid.
5. Record the time of travel from top to bottom.
6. Make 2 Trials with the other liquids.

V. DATA AND RESULTS
LIQUID USED: TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2
Height of the Liquid
Time of Travel from top to

bottom

bottom

bottom
VI. QUESTION/S:
1. Which liquid has the fastest time for the marble to travel from top to bottom?

2. how does the consistency of a liquid impact how long it will take for a marble to sink in a
jar of that liquid?
3. How can you differentiate low-viscosity liquid from high-viscosity liquid?
4. Do you think temperature can affect viscosity?

VII. ILLUSTRATION OF THE SET-UP:
VIII. CONCLUSSION
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________

SCORE:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________


SURFACE TENSION
I. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the surface tension of a liquid by dripping.
II. APPARATUS:
Water plus 2 Liquid with unknown surface tension you want to measure (e.g. water, oil, etc.)
Penny/coin
Dropper (medicine dropper, eye dropper, etc.)
Dish soap
Towel/tissue
III. DISCUSSION:

Have you ever noticed on a rainy day how water forms droplets on a window? Why does it
do that instead of spreading out evenly over the whole surface? You might not guess it but
this property of water is also related to washing dishes and doing the laundry. How? It all
has to do with something called surface tension. Try this activity to learn more!
You have probably noticed that if you look at a surface outside on a rainy day or spill some
water inside, the liquid tends to form droplets that stick up from a surface instead of
spreading out into an even sheet. This occurs because water is made up of many tiny
molecules that are all attracted to one another. Molecules in the middle of a drop of water
are pulled evenly in all directions by all the nearby molecules. Those near the droplet’s
surface, however, are pulled mostly inward by the water molecules below them. This
creates "surface tension." The surface of the water droplet is held together by the attraction
between molecules.
Now, think about washing dirty dishes or clothing. There will be lots of tiny little holes and
cracks that water needs to get into to wash away dirt and grime, such as the spaces
between the fibers of a shirt or between a plate and bits of dried food. In order for water to
flow more easily into these small spaces, you need to decrease its surface tension. You can
do this by adding soap, which is a surfactant (a material that decreases the surface tension
of a liquid). In this activity you will see how soap decreases the surface tension of water by
putting water droplets on top of a penny.

IV. PROCEDURE:
earlier than the scheduled experiment. Furthermore, a video is sent/given for your reference.
1. Place your penny on a flat, level surface that can get a little wet, such as a kitchen
counter.
2. Fill a glass, cup or small bowl with tap water.
3. Fill the medicine dropper with water.
4. Now carefully add one drop of water at a time to the top of the penny. Hold the medicine
dropper just above the top of the penny (not touching it) so each new drop has to fall a
short distance before it merges with the drop on the penny. You can write down the
number of drops you add if you like. Watch the drop on top of the penny carefully as it
grows. It should keep getting bigger and bigger until it touches the edges of the penny.
5. Keep adding drops (refill your medicine dropper as necessary) one at a time.
6. Once the drop spills over the penny’s edge, use a towel to completely dry off the penny
and surrounding surface.
7. Mix a small amount of dish soap with your tap water.
8. Now, repeat the experiment using soapy water.
9. Try the experiment with different liquids or other things you can find in your kitchen.
V. DATA AND RESULTS
Liquid Used: Water Number of Drops
Without Dish Soap
With Dish Soap
Liquid Used: _______________________ Number of Drops
Without Dish Soap
With Dish Soap
Liquid Used: _______________________ Number of Drops
Without Dish Soap
With Dish Soap

VI. QUESTION/S:
1. Which produces a stable drop of liquid on the top of the penny? is it the liquid with or
without soap? Explain.
2. Explain the concept of Surface Tension.
3. Differentiate Surface Tension, Cohesion and adhesion.

5. Give examples of surface tension and explain.
VII. OBSERVATION/S:

VIII. ILLUSTRATION OF THE SET-UP:
IX. CONCLUSSION
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________

SCORE:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________

LABORATORY ACTIVITY No. 5

PASCAL’S LAW
I. OBJECTIVE:
§ Explain and understand pressure using Pascal’s law
II. APPARATUS
§ 2-liter plastic soda bottle (ask students to bring from home)

§ (optional) Bottle Template and Rulers; prepare bottle by printing and cutting
out this template for drilling bottle holes
§ ruler or tape measure (or make rulers by printing Bottle Template and
Rulers on paper or overhead transparency sheets and cutting into strips)
§ 2 strips of duct tape for covering holes
§ drill with ~1/8-in bit (have students mark hole and teacher drill, or drill bottle
holes before activity), or a sharp-pointed object to punch 1/8-in holes
§ stopwatch (or wall clock with second hand)
§ Pascal's Law Worksheet
§ calculator
III. DISCUSSION
Water creates large forces on dams, and engineers calculate the amount of those
forces to figure out how big and sturdy dams and locks must be. How do you think
engineers actually figure out the amount of force? They must figure out the amount of
pressure that the water will apply to the structure. To do this, engineers use a special
"law" that has to do with water pressure, called Pascal's law. Today we will learn about
this water pressure law.
Pascal's law describes the characteristics of water pressure; it says that water at a
certain depth has a certain pressure. If you are comparing very deep water to shallow
water, do you think they have the same pressure? The deep water has a higher
pressure. Why? (Take suggestions from the students.)

Hydrostatic pressure diagram. (copyright)
Water is heavy!! One gallon of water weighs 8.3 lbs (or 3.8 kg)!! Since there is no
water above the surface (by definition), the water pressure at the water surface is
zero. As you move further down, more water is pushing down from above, and the
pressure goes up. This means that pressure changes with depth. Pascal's law tells
us that if we know the height of water above a location, we can calculate the pressure
at that location. In a reservoir behind a dam, where do you expect to find the highest
pressures? At what spot on the dam do you find the most water above it? (Draw a
picture on the board or overhead projector so students can see why the pressure is
highest at the bottom of the dam!)
How do engineers use this information when designing a dam or a lock? Imagine a
dam that is built into a deep, steep gorge in a river canyon. In this case, the water
level against the dam is high, so you can bet that the pressure exerted by the water
near the bottom of the dam is very high. Since engineers know this, they design dams
to be able to handle more pressure at the bottom than at the top. That is why many
dams are thicker at the bottom than they are at the top!
(In our ongoing, hypothetical, project...) The residents of Thirsty County have
complained to Splash Engineering, which is the company you work for, that the
Birdseye River is sometimes too shallow in the summer. This means that certain
bigger boats cannot pass through, and everyone loses money and access. In addition
to having a dam to provide a water supply and hydropower, Thirsty County would also
like a dam and lock system at the major Birdseye River crossing to make sure that
boats can get through at all times of the year, even during a drought, when the water
level is low. Let's learn how to use Pascal's law so you can design a dam and lock
system.
You, as the engineers at Splash Engineering, must remember that the dam and lock
system you design for Thirsty County must withstand high pressures, especially at
the bottom. Let's do an activity so we better understand Pascal's law and water
pressure.

IV. PROCEDURE
earlier than the scheduled experiment. Unfortunately, a video is not available but phots are
attached for your reference.
1. Cut out the Bottle Templates and Rulers template where marked on the template; tape the strips
to the bottle. Using a 1/8-in drill bit (or a sharp-pointed object), make holes where the template
denotes.
Note: Make sure that all holes are the same size, and nothing is blocking the holes.
2. Place strips of duct tape (with a corner folded back to make removal easier) over the holes.
3. Fill the bottle(s) with water.
4. Get ready to observe and compare the streams that come out of each hole when the tape is
removed.
5. Each bottle experiment has six jobs: 1) timekeeper, 2) tape puller, 3) height measurer, 4) height
recorder, 5) distance measurer, 6) distance recorder. Assign a timekeeper in each group who will
either use the stopwatch, or watch the wall clock and announce to the group when 30 seconds
and 60 seconds have passed.
6. When you are ready to start, have the "tape puller" remove the tape from Hole A and the
"timekeeper" make note of the starting time (or press Start on the stopwatch). Have the timekeeper
update the group members every 5 seconds. At 30 seconds, the "height measurer" looks at the
ruler above the hole and tells the "height recorder" the height of the water above the hole. At the
same time, the "distance measurer" measures how far the water is shooting from the side of the
bottle (5 cm below hole) and reports this to the "distance recorder" to write on the worksheet.

7. Refill the bottle, and repeat Step 11 using Hole B (13 cm from bottom), instead of Hole A.

Two-Liter Bottle Template and Rulers
Template for drilling holes
Rulers for measuring water height and distance

V. DATA AND RESULTS
Table 1: Hole A height and distance measurements

Horizontal Water Water height
Time (sec)
distance (cm) level (cm) above hole (cm)
0*
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
NOTE: On the tables, the starting times are shown as 0* since the jet distances are measured as soon as
the tape is removed (it won’t be 0 cm!). It is okay if it takes a second or two to take your first measurement.
Table 2: Hole B height and distance measurements
Horizontal Water Water height
Time (sec)
distance (cm) level (cm) above hole (cm)
0*
30
60
90
120?
1. Write all your observations below.

Hint: What happened? How fast and far did water come through the holes?
What happened over time?
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2. What do the graphs tell you about the relationships between (a) water height above hole
and time, (b) jet distance and time, and (c) water height above hole and jet distance? How
are the graphs for the two different holes similar?
Write your analysis below.
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VI. CALCULATIONS

VII. ILLUSTRATION OF THE SET-UP:
VIII. CONCLUSSION
________________________________________________________________________
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SCORE:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________


MANOMETER
INSTRUCTION: Solve each problem on a separate sheet of formatted bond paper or you can
use the space provided if printer is available for you. Use three decimal places for your answers
and enclose it in a box. Show your neat and detailed illustration and solution.
3. For a gage reading of -17.1 kPa, determine the
a. Elevations of the liquids in the open piezometer columns E, F, and G and
b. The deflection of the mercury in the U-tube manometer neglecting the weight of air.
2. For the open tank with piezometers attached on the side, contains two different liquids
a. Find the elevation of the liquid in piezometer A.
b. Find the pressure at the bottom of the tank.
c. Find the elevation of the liquid in piezometer B.

6. The pressure at point m in the figure shown was increased from 70 kPa to 105 kPa. This causes
the top level of mercury to move 20mm in the sloping tube. What is the inclination angle?
7. In the figure shown, determine the pressure at the center of the pipe.
8. A close cylindrical tank contains 2m of water, 3m of oil (sp.gr.=0.82) and the air above
the oil has a pressure of 30 kPa. If an open mercury manometer at the bottom of the
tank has 1m of water, determine the deflection of mercury.

9. Oil of sp.gr. of 0.750 flows through the nozzle shown and deflects the mercury in theU-tube
gage.
a. Determine the value of h if the pressure at A is 142 kPa.
b. What is the pressure at B.
c. If the diameter at A is 200mm, compute the velocity at A if oil flows at a rate of 36,000
liters per minute.
10. From the figure shown,

a. Determine the pressure at A.
b. Compute the pressure at C.
c. Compute the pressure at D.

SCORE
:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________


HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON PLANE SURFACES
1. A vertical circular gate 1 m in diameter is subjected to pressure of liquid of specific gravity 1.40
on one side. The free surface of the liquid is 2.60 m above the uppermost part of the gate.
Determine the following:
a. The total force acting on the gate
b. Location of center of pressure
2. Find the horizontal and vertical components of B of the gate 1.60m wide shown below which lies
in smooth surface and is hinged at B.
3. Determine the horizontal component FH acting at point B of a 2m wide gate shown below.

4. The gate shown is subjected to water pressure on one side and to air pressure on the other side.
Determine the value of x for which the gate will rotate counterclockwise if the gate is,
a. Rectangular (1.5m base x 1.0m high)
b. Triangular (1.5m base x 1.0m high)
5. The gate shown is hinged at A and rests on a smooth surface at B. The gate is circular
having a diameter of 3m. Determine the value of the vertical force P that will open the
gate at B.

SCORE:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________


HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON CURVE SURFACES
1. Determine the magnitude and location of the total force on the gate AB shown. The width of the
gate normal to the paper is 2m.


SCORE:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________


DAMS
1. A masonry dam of trapezoidal cross-section, with one face vertical has a thickness of 60cm at
the top, 3.70m at the base, and has a height of 7.40m. What is the depth of water on th vertical
face if the resultant intersect the base at the downstream edge of the middle third? Assume that
the uplift pressure varies uniformly from full hydrostatic at the heel to zero at the toe. Specific
weight of masonry is 23.54𝑘𝑁/𝑚1 .
2. The section of a masonry dam is shown. If the uplift pressure varies uniformly from full
hydrostatic at the heel, but acts only over two-thirds of the area of the base. Find:
a. The location of the resultant
b. The factor of safety against overturning
c. The factor of safety against sliding if the coefficient of friction between the base and the
foundation is 0.60.
3. A masonry dam has a trapezoidal section: one face is vertical, width at the top is 60cm and the
bottom is 3m. The dam is 7m high with the vertical face subjected to water pressure. If the depth

of water is 5m, where will the resultant force intersect the base? Determine the distribution of
pressure along the base,
a. Assuming there is no uplift pressure
b. Assuming that the uplift pressure varies uniformly from full hydrostatic at the heel to zero at
the toe. Specific weight of masonry is 23.54 kN/𝑚1

SCORE:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________


PRINCIPLE OF BUOYANCY
I. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the density of solid material using Archimedes principle
II. APPARATUS
Weighing balance
Solid objects
Water container
Knot string
III. DISCUSSION
The principle of Archimedes states that the body wholly or partially submerged in a
liquid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of volume of the liquid displaced.
In physics, Archimedes’s principle says that any fluid exerts a buoyant force on an
object wholly or partially submerged in it, and the magnitude of the buoyant force
equals the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. An object that’s less dense than
water floats because the water it displaces weighs more than the object does.
When an object is immersed in a fluid, the upward force on the bottom of an object is greater
than the downward force on the top of the object. The result is a net upward force (a buoyant
force) on any object in any fluid. If the buoyant force is greater than the object’s weight, the
object will rise to the surface and float. If the buoyant force is less than the object’s weight,
the object will sink. If the buoyant force equals the object’s weight, the object will remain
suspended at that depth. The buoyant force is always present in a fluid, whether an object
floats, sinks or remains suspended.
A simple method to calculate buoyancy is from the Archimedes principle, which states that
the buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid the
body displaces. In other words, to calculate the buoyant force on an object we assume that
the submerged part of the object is made of water and then calculate the weight of that water.
The principle can be stated as a formula:
Fobject = wfluid
The reasoning behind the Archimedes principle is that the buoyancy force on an object
depends on the pressure exerted by the fluid on its submerged surface. Imagine that we
replace the submerged part of the object with the fluid in which it is contained. The buoyancy
force on this amount of fluid must be the same as on the original object. However, we also
know that the buoyancy force on the fluid must be equal to its weight, as the fluid does not
sink in itself. Therefore, the buoyancy force on the original object is equal to the weight of the
“displaced fluid.” The Archimedes principle is valid for any fluid—not only liquids (such as
water) but also gases (such as air).

IV. PROCEDURE
earlier than the scheduled experiment. Furthermore, a video is sent for your reference.
1. Tie the string to the solid object and let it be suspended in the weighing balance.
2. Record the corresponding mass of the object.
3. Fill a container with a considerable amount of water and position it in such way that
the suspended object will be submerged in it. The submerged body must not touch
the walls of the container.
4. Again, record the corresponding mass
5. Repeat the procedure using another object.
PRECAUTION:
1. Air bubbles must not cling to the sides of the submerged body. These will increase
the displaced volume and will decrease the weight of the body in water.
2. The submerged body must not touch the walls of the vessel; this will create friction
force.
3. The knot string must have a small diameter to minimize increase in displaced
volume.
V. DATA AND RESULTS

Objects used:
Object no.1:_________________
Object no.2:_________________
Object no.1 Object no.2

Mass of the object in air, Ma(Kg)
Mass of object in water, Mw(Kg)
Buoyant force, BF(kg) (Ma-Mw)
Volume submerged (BF/ unit weight of
water)
Density of object (Ma/Vs)
Unit weight of the object
Specific gravity of object
V. CALCULATIONS

VI. ILLUSTRATION OF THE SET-UP:
IX. CONCLUSSION
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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SCORE:
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ____________________________


HOOP TENSION
1. A steel pipe having a diameter of 15cm and a wall thickness of 9.50 mm has an
allowable stress of 140 MPa. What is the maximum allowable internal pressure in the
pipe?
2. A pipe carrying steam at a pressure of 7000 kPa has an inside diameter of 20cm. If the pipe is
made of steel with an allowable stress of 400MPa, what is the factor of safety if the wall
thickness is 6.25mm?
3. Compute the stress in a 90cm pipe with wall thickness of 9.50mm if water fills it under a head of
70m.
4. A wood-stave pipe, 120cm in diameter, is to resist a maximum water pressure of 1,200

kPa. If the staves are bound by steel flat bands (10cm by 2.5 cm), find the spacing of
the bands if its allowable stress is 105 MPa.
5. A vertical cylindrical container, 1.60m in diameter and 4m high, is held together by means of
hoops, one at the top and the other at the bottom. A liquid of specific gravity 1.40 stands 3m in
the container. Calculate the tension in each hoop.

FINAL REQUIREMENT:
INSTRUCTION:
Choose an experiment from the manual and video yourself doing it. Your video should contain
the following:
1. Introduction or Background of the Topic/experiment

2. Materials/equipment’s needed
3. Procedures.
4. Observations and conclusion
The experiment should be submitted before taking you final examination. Save the video in a
CD.

EVALUATION OF THE COURSE:
This part of the module which is to be answered at the end of the course. It will not evaluate your
teacher.
1. What lesson or activity did I enjoy most? Why?

2. What lesson or I activity I have difficulty dealing with? Why?
3. What is the most important lesson which I can apply in my daily life?
4. What are the new insights/ discoveries that I learned?
5. What topics do I find least important?
6. What possible topics should have been included?
7. What I can suggest to improve the learning module of the course?
REFERENCE/S:
1. Besavilla, V.I. (1996). Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics.VIB Publisher.
2. Cengel, Y.A.,Cimbala, J.M. (2006). Fluid Mechanics-Fundamentals and Applications. The

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
3. Centroids and Moment of Inertia of Beam Sections. Retrieved from

http://faculty.arch.tamu.edu/anichols/courses/elements-architectural-structures/notes-
614/Files/NS8sections_3N6ARSQ.pdf
4. Buoyancy. Retrieved from https://mathalino.com/reviewer/civil-engineering/buoyancy
5. Analysis of Gravity Dam. Retrieved from https://mathalino.com/reviewer/civil-

engineering/analysis-gravity-dam
6. Britannica. Viscosity. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/viscosity
7. Teach engineering. Under Pressure.
https://www.teachengineering.org/activities/view/cub_dams_lesson03_activity1

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

FLUMEC1 FLUID MECHANICS WITH LAB

A Self-regulated Learning Module

Submission of Activities ……………………………………………………………………… 4

Study Schedule ……………………………………………………………………………….. 5

Lesson 1: Introduction on Fluid Mechanics ………….…………………………………….. 6

Lesson 2: Properties of Fluid..………..……………………………………………………… 15

Lesson 3: Principle of Hydrostatics …….…………………………………………………... 24

Lesson 4: Manometer ……………………… ……………………………………………….. 33

Lesson 5: Hydrostatic Force (Plane Surfaces) ……………………………………………. 39

Lesson 6: Hydrostatic Force (Curved Surfaces) …………………………………………. 50

Lesson 7: Dams ……..………………...…………………………………………………….. 57

Lesson 8: Buoyancy …….………………………………………………………………….... 67

Lesson 9: Stability of Floating Bodies …………………………………………..………….. 75

Lesson 10: Hoop Tension …………………………………..………………………………. 82

Laboratory Activities and Experiments ……………………………………………………... 88

Evaluation of the course ……………………………………………………………………… 134

References ……………………………………………………………………....................... 134

A Self-regulated Learning Module 2

REQUIREMENT OF THE COURSE:

At the end of the course, the student shall be able to:

ACTIVITIES/RUBRICS AND FORMAT:

A Self-regulated Learning Module 3

Name: Reymore A. Insas

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FLUID MECHANICS WITH LAB (FLUMEC1)

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We can also see numerous applications of fluid mechanics in an automobile. All

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IV. A BRIEF HISTORY OF FLUID MECHANICS

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CRITERIA: DESCRIPTION: POINT:

1. What is a fluid? How does if differ from solid and gas?

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Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are

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A. UNIT WEIGHT OR SPECIFIC WEIGHT, 𝛾

B. MASS DENSITY, 𝝆(rho)

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1. Kinematic Viscosity, 𝜈(nu)

F. SURFACE TENSION, 𝛿(sigma)

Pressure inside a droplet of liquid:

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ℎ = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

H. BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E

I. COMPRESSION OF GASSES (Boyle’s Law)

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for Isothermal Conditions: (constant temperature, 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 )

for Adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions: (no heat exchanged)

II. SOLVED PROBLEMS:

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𝑾 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟐 𝑵 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟐 𝒌𝑵

3. A liter of water weighs about 9.75 N. Compute its mass in kilograms.

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ℎ = −5.9𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑟 5.9𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

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NAME: ________ DATE: