EEE 2314 Induction Machines.

By: Siyoi. V.
▪ 3𝚽 Bank of 1𝚽 Transformers.

▪ 3𝚽 Tx Connections.

▪ 3𝚽 to 1𝚽, 2𝚽, 3𝚽 and 6𝚽 Tx Conversions.

▪ Parallel Operations of 1𝚽 and 3𝚽 Tx.

▪ Tx Ratings and Related Problems.

▪ Tx for Special Purpose.

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▪ Voltage and Frequency Ratings of a Tx.

▪ Apparent Power Rating of a Tx.

▪ Problem of Current Inrush.

▪ Transformer Nameplate.

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▪ Transformers have four major ratings: apparent power, voltage, current,
and frequency.

▪ Aim: Examine the ratings of a transformer and explain why they are
chosen the way they are.

▪ Theory of the related current inrush that occurs when a transformer is first
connected to the line.

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▪ The voltage rating of a transformer serves two functions.

▪ One is to protect the winding insulation from breakdown due to an

excessive voltage applied to it.

▪ Thesecond function is related to the magnetization curve and

magnetization current of the transformer.

▪ Figure shows a magnetization curve for a transformer.

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Fig: The magnetization curve of the transformer core.
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Fig: Magnetization current caused by the flux in the transformer core. 168
▪ If a steady-state voltage:

▪ is applied to a transformer’s primary winding, the flux of the transformer is

given by:

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▪ If the applied voltage 𝒗(𝒕) is increased by 10%, the resulting maximum
flux in the core also increases by 10%.

▪ Above a certain point on the magnetization curve, a 10% increase in flux will
require an increase in magnetization current much larger than 10%.

▪ This concept is illustrated in Figure.

▪ As the voltage increases, the high-magnetization currents soon become

unacceptable.

▪ The maximum applied voltage (and therefore the rated voltage) is set by the
maximum acceptable magnetization current in the core.
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 171
Fig: The effect of the peak flux in a Tx core upon the required magnetization current.
▪ Notice that voltage and frequency are related in a reciprocal fashion if the
maximum flux is to be held constant:

▪ Thus, if a 60 Hz Tx is to be operated on 50 Hz, its applied voltage must also

be reduced by one-sixth or the peak flux in the core will be too high.

▪ This reduction in applied voltage with frequency is called derating.

▪ Similarly, a 50 Hz Tx may be operated at a 20% higher voltage on 60 Hz if this

action does not cause insulation problems.
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▪ The principal purpose of the apparent power rating of a Tx is that,
together with the voltage rating, it sets the current flow through the
transformer windings.

▪ The current now is important because it controls the 𝒊𝟐 𝑹 losses in

transformer, which in turn control the heating of the transformer coils.

▪ It is the heating that is critical, since overheating the coils of a transformer

drastically shortens the life of its insulation.

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▪ The actual voltampere rating of a transformer may be more than a single
value. In real transformers, there may be a voltampere rating for the
transformer by itself, and another (higher) rating for the transformer with
forced cooling.

▪ The key idea behind the power rating is that the hot-spot temperature in the
transformer windings must be limited to protect the life of the
transformer.

▪ If a transformer’s voltage is reduced for any reason (e.g., if it is operated at a

lower frequency than normal), then the transformer’s voltampere rating
must be reduced by an equal amount.

▪ If this is not done, then the current in the transformer’s windings will exceed
the maximum permissible level and cause overheating.
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▪ A problem related to the voltage level in the transformer is the problem of
current inrush at starting.

▪ Suppose that the voltage:

▪ is applied at the moment the transformer is first connected to the power

line.

▪ The maximum flux height reached on the first half-cycle of the applied voltage
depends on the phase of the voltage at the time the voltage is applied.
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▪ If the initial voltage is:

▪ and if the initial flux in the core is zero, then the maximum flux during the first
half-cycle will just equal the maximum flux at steady state:

▪ This flux level is just the steady-state flux, so it causes no special problems.

▪ But if the applied voltage happens to be:

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▪ The maximum flux during the first half-cycle is given by:

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▪ This maximum flux is twice as high as the normal steady-state flux.

▪ If the magnetization curve in Figure is examined, it is easy to see that doubling

the maximum flux in the core results in an enormous magnetization
current.

▪ In fact, for part of the cycle, the transformer looks like a short circuit, and a
very large current flows (see Figure).

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Fig: Current inrush due to a Tx’s magnetization current on starting. 179
For any other phase angle of the applied voltage between 90°, which is no
problem, and 0°, which is the worst case, there is some excess current flow.

The applied phase angle of the voltage is not normally controlled on starting,
so there can be huge inrush currents during the first several cycles after the
transformer is connected to the line.

The transformer and the power system to which it is connected must be

able to withstand these currents.

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Instrument Transformers.

Audio Frequency Transformer.

Grounding Transformer.

Welding Transformer.

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 Instrument Tx

A potential transformer is a specially wound transformer with a high voltage

primary and a low-voltage secondary.

It has a very low power rating, and its sole purpose is to provide a sample of
the power system's voltage to the instruments monitoring it.

Since the principal purpose of the transformer is voltage sampling, it must be

very accurate so as not to distort the true voltage values too badly.

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The impedance presented by the instrument on measurement system to the
transformer output terminals is called burden. It is mainly resistive in nature
and has a large value, e.g. the impedance (practically a resistance) of a
voltmeter.
The circuit model of a PT is drawn in Fig.

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It is the same as that of an ordinary transformer but ideally should have:

The current drawn by the burden causes a voltage drop in 𝑅2′ + 𝐽𝑋2′ and this
current referred to primary plus the magnetizing current (all phasors) causes a
voltage drop in 𝑅1 + 𝐽𝑋1.

𝑉 𝑁
Therefore 2 differs from the desired value 1 in magnitude and phase resulting
𝑉1 𝑁2
in magnitude and phase errors.

Most important thing for low PT errors is to make the burden (Zb) as HIGH
as feasible.

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A 6000 V/100 V, 50 Hz potential transformer has the following parameters as
seen from HV side.

R1 = 780 Ω, X1 = 975 Ω, R′2= 907 Ω, X2′ = 1075 Ω, Xm = 443 kΩ.

(a) The primary is excited at 6500 V and the secondary is left open. Calculate
the secondary voltage magnitude and phase.

(b) The secondary is loaded with 1 kΩ resistance, repeat part (a).

(c) The secondary is loaded with 1 kΩ reactance, repeat part (a).

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The potentiometer equivalent circuit as seen from HV side is drawn on Fig.

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(a) Secondary open;

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(b)

As 𝑅𝑏′ is far larger than 𝑅 ′ and 𝑋 ′ , we can ignore the later. Then:
2 2

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Exact value should be:

(c)

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Ignoring 𝑅2′ and 𝑋2′ in comparison:

𝑉2 is same as in resistive load part (b) except for change in phase. In any case
phase is almost zero.

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Current transformers sample the current in a line and reduce it to a safe and
measurable level.

A diagram of a typical current transformer is shown in Figure:

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The current transformer consists of a secondary winding wrapped around a
ferromagnetic ring, with the single primary line running through the
center of the ring.

The ferromagnetic ring holds and concentrates a small sample of the flux from
the primary line.

That flux then induces a voltage and current in the secondary winding.

A current transformer differs from the other transformers in that its windings
are loosely coupled.

Unlike all the other transformers, the mutual flux 𝜙𝑀 in the current transformer
is smaller than the leakage flux 𝜙𝐿
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Nevertheless, the secondary current in a current transformer is directly
proportional to the much larger primary current , and the device can provide an
accurate sample of a line’s current for measurement purposes.

Current transformer ratings are given as ratios of primary to secondary current.

A typical current transformer ratio might be 600:5, 800:5, or 1000:5.

A 5 A rating is standard on the secondary of a current transformer.

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It is important to keep a current transformer short-circuited at all times,
since extremely high voltages can appear across its open secondary
terminals.

In fact, most relays and other devices using the current from a current
transformer have a shorting interlock which must be shut before the relay
can be removed for inspection or adjustment.

Without this interlock, very dangerous high voltages will appear at the
secondary terminals as the relay is removed from its socket.
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It is the current ratio transformer meant for measuring large currents and
provide a step down current to current measuring instruments like an ammeter.

Such instruments present a short-circuit to the CT secondary.

It means that burden 𝑍𝑏 ≈ 0. An ideal CT current ratio is:

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A 250 A/5 A, 50 Hz current transformer has the following parameters as seen
on 250 A side:
𝑅1 = 109 μΩ, 𝑋1 = 505μΩ, 𝑅2′ = 102 μΩ, 𝑋2′ = 551 μΩ, 𝑋𝑚 = 256 𝑚Ω.

(a) The primary is fed a current of 250 A with secondary shorted. Calculate the
magnitude and phase of the secondary current.

(b) Repeat part (a) when the secondary is shorted through a resistance of 200
μΩ.

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The equivalent circuit with secondary shorted is drawn in Fig.

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By current division:

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 Audio Frequency Tx
It is used at the output stage of audio frequency electronic amplifier for
matching the load to the output impedance of the power amplifier stage.

Here the load is fixed but the frequency is variable over a band (audio, 20
Hz to 20 kHz), the response being the ratio V2/V1.

A flat frequency response over the frequency band of interest is most

desirable.

The corresponding phase angle (angle of V2 w.r.t. V1) is called phase

response. A small angle is acceptable.

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Fig shows the exact circuit model of a transformer with frequency variable
over a wide range.

Here the magnetizing shunt branch is drawn between primary and secondary
impedances (resistance and leakage reactance).

Also represented is the shunting effect of transformer windings stray

capacitance Cs.
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In the intermediate frequency (IF) range the shunt branch acts like an open
circuit and series impedance drop is also negligibly small such that V2/V1
remains fixed (flat response) as in Fig.

In the LF (low frequency) region the magnetizing susceptance is low and draws a
large current with a consequent large voltage drop in 𝑟1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 .As a result V2/V1
drops sharply to zero as 𝐵𝑚 = 0.

In the HF (high frequency) region as 𝐵𝑠 = 1/𝜔𝐶𝑠 (stray capacitance susceptance) has

a strong shunting effect and V2/V1 drops off, which shows the complete frequency
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response of a transformer on logarithmic frequency scale.
 Grounding Transformer

In case the neutral of the power transformer is not available for grounding (e.g.
when a Δ − Δ transformer is used), a special 𝑌 −
only for neutral grounding as shown in Fig.

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Such a transformer is called a grounding transformer and it is a step down
transformer.

The star connected primaries are connected to the system and its neutral is
grounded.

The secondaries are in delta and generally do not supply any load but provide a
closed path for triple harmonic currents to circulate in them.

Under balanced conditions the current in a grounding transformer is its own

exciting current.

Under fault conditions (such as LG fault) large current may flow in it. Hence a
grounding transformer should be of sufficient rating to withstand the effects of
LG (line to ground) faults.
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Welding transformer is basically a step-down transformer with high reactance
both in primary and secondary.

Its primary and secondary winding are placed in separate limbs or in the same
limbs but spaced distance apart.

This high reactance causes steeply drooping V-I characteristics. That is with
increase in current, the leakage flux increase and the induced emf will come
down.

This is why the increase in primary or secondary current increases the

reactance voltage drop across the respective windings, which is essential to
limit the welding current as the weld is practically a short circuit.
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The schematic of a welding transformer is shown in Fig.

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The information on a Tx nameplate includes rated voltage, rated
kilovoltamperes, rated frequency, and the transformer per-unit series
impedance.

It also shows the voltage ratings for each tap on the transformer and the wiring
schematic of the transformer.

Nameplates such as the one shown also typically include the transformer type
designation and references to its operating instructions.

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Fig Phase shift in line-to-line voltages in a 3Φ Tx.

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Fig 3Φ Tx and equivalent circuit.

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Fig 3Φ Tx and equivalent circuit.

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A 3Φ, 230 V, 27 kVA, 0.9 PF (lag) load is supplied by three 10 kVA, 1330/230
V, 60 Hz transformers connected in 𝐘 − 𝚫 by means of a common
whose impedance is 0.003 + 𝑗0.015Ω per phase.

The transformers are supplied from a 3Φ source through a 3Φ feeder whose

impedance is 0.8 + 𝑗5.0Ω per phase. The equivalent impedance of one
transformer referred to the low-voltage side is 0.12 + 𝑗0.25Ω.

Determine the required supply voltage if the load voltage is 230 V.

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The circuit is shown in Fig.

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The equivalent circuit of the individual Tx referred to the high-voltage side is:

The turns ratio of the equivalent 𝐘 − 𝐘 bank is:

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The 1Φ equivalent circuit of the system is shown Fig.

All the impedances from the primary side can be transferred to the secondary
side and combined with the feeder impedance on the secondary side.

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The circuit is shown in Fig.

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The line-to-line supply voltage is:

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END

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