AQA A LEVEL SOCIOLOGY

UNIT 2 – EDUCATION

COMPLETED KNOWLEDGE ORGANISERS

 Introduction to Education

Early Years and Foundation Stage

State Schools Private Schools Alternative Provision

Schools for those that are

Nursery Reception Schools which are funded by the government Fee paying schools unable to attend main
0 - 4 years old 4 – 5 years old stream education
Community schools or maintained schools are funded by the local Private / Independent Pupil Referral Units – PRUs are a
authority and not influenced by business or religious groups and follow Schools - Schools where type of school that caters for
the national curriculum. children who can’t attend a
students pay fees in order to
attend, they can be day mainstream school. Pupils are
Foundation and voluntary schools, which are funded by the local often referred there if they
schools or boarding schools but
Primary School authority but have more freedom to change the way they do things - need greater care and support
they are independent of the
sometimes they are supported by representatives from religious groups. than their school can provide.
regulations and conditions
which apply to state funded Children who attend a PRU
Key Stage 1 / Year 1 & 3 Key Stage 2 / Year 4 – 6 City Technology Colleges (CTCs) are all-ability secondary schools based might be
schools. They may choose to
5 – 8 years old 8 – 11 years old in urban centres and geared towards science, maths, technology and follow some regulations such as • Permanently excluded for
preparing students for the world of work. 15 City Technology Colleges Curriculum or the type of behaviour reasons,
were created, of which all but three have converted to academies. • Experiencing emotional or
examinations they choose to
do but they don’t have to. behavioural difficulties,
• Experiencing
Grammar schools are state secondary schools that are free to attend but
severe bullying.
select their pupils by means of an examination taken by children at age
11, known as the "11-plus". There are only about 163 grammar schools in
• Pregnant or young mothers.
Secondary School
England.
Special Education Schools:
Public Schools – Schools A school catering for students
Key Stage 3 / Year 7 – 9 Key Stage 4 / Year 10 – 11 Academy schools are state-funded schools in England which are directly which are long established who have special educational
11 – 14 years old 14 – 16 years old funded by the Department for Education but independent of local and are fee paying but also needs due to learning
authority control. Academies are self-governing non-profit charitable require an entrance exam difficulties, physical disabilities
trusts.They do not have to follow the National Curriculum but do have to in order to attend. or behavioral
ensure that their curriculum is broad and balanced, and that it includes problems. Special schools may
the core subjects of mathematics and English. be specifically designed,
e.g. Eton and Cheltenham
staffed and resourced to
Free schools are funded by the government but are not run by the local Ladies College provide appropriate special
Further Education authority. They have more control over how they do things. They’re ‘all- education for children with
16 – 19 years old ability’ schools, so can not use academic selection processes. Free additional needs.
schools are run on a not-for-profit basis and can be set up by groups like,
charities, universities, independent schools, community and faith groups, International Schools –
teachers, parents, businesses. Home Schooling:
Sixth Form College Schools which cater to the Homeschooling means learning
Faith schools have to follow the national curriculum, but they can choose international community outside of the public or
what they teach in religious studies. Faith schools may have and follow an international private school environment. For
different admissions criteria and staffing policies to state schools, although curriculum such as the most families, their "schooling"
anyone can apply for a place. Internal Baccalureate, involves being out and about
International Primary each day, learning from the
Single Sex Schools are schools which select based on gender. They are
Higher Education Curriculum and iGCSE’s rich resources available in their
100% Male or Female in the student body, although many become co-Ed
18+
community, and through
at 6th form level.
interactions with other families
A state boarding school is one where you pay for boarding and the who homeschool.
Batchelors education is free. The government pays for the education as it would at
Masters Degree Doctorate
Degree any other state school in England. There are around 40 State Boarding
Schools in the UK.

Human Capital means the
stock of Knowledge, skills,
values, habits and creativity
that makes someone an
economic asset to society.
Hidden Curriculum means the
informal learning processes
that happen in school It is a
side effect of education that
teaches students the norms
and values of society.
Particularistic Values means
values and Rules which only
apply to that particular
Person in a given situation
(e.g. Home)
Universalistic Values means
values and Rules which apply
to all members of
Society equally.
Role and functions of Education: Functionalism
The four functions of education
Identify + Key Thinker Explain Evaluation
The education system meets a functional pre-request • Ignores aspects of education which
Socialisation and of society by passing on the cultural and values of are dysfunctional, such as negative
Social Solidarity society. This is achieved hidden curriculum and PSHE conflict.
1 lessons.
Durkheim This helps to build social solidarity as it teaches • Myth of meritocracy – private
students the core values of society. education
Parsons believed that schools provide a link between • Marxists – Hidden Curriculum
Bridge between the family and wider society which allows students to reinforces social inequality and
family and society. move from the ascribed status and particularistic maintains ruling class ideology.
2 values of the home to the meritocratic and
Parsons universalistic values of wider society. • Feminists – Hidden curriculum
maintains and reinforces patriarchy
not meritocracy.
This suggests that investment in education benefits the
Developing Human wider economy. Education can provide properly
• Wong – Functionalists see children
Capital trained, qualified and flexible workforce. They argue
3 that education makes sure that the best and most
as passive puppets of socialisation
when the process is much more
Schultz qualified people end up in jobs that require the most
complex and involves teacher –
skill.
pupil relationships.
The education systems provides a means to selecting
and sifting people into the social hierarchy. In a • There is a weak link between
Role Allocation educational achievement and
meritocratic society access to jobs and power, wealth
4 and status are directly linked to educational economic success.
Davis and Moore achievement.
New Right View of Education
Role of Education Influence of Education Policy
Similar beliefs to the functionalists but believe that he state takes 1980’s Vocational Education
too much of a role and the free market policies (marketisation) 1988 Education Reform Act:
would raise standards. • Funding formula
• League Tables
Schools should compete with one another and parents and
New Labour - Academies
pupils should be seen as consumers.
Coalition Government
Chubb and Moe - Education Vouchers and Parentocracy. • Free Schools
• Privatisation of Education
 Role and functions of Education: Marxism

The main role of education is to maintain capitalism and reproduce social inequality.
Ideological State
Apparatus means a Althusser Bowles and Gintis
Social institution whose
Reproduction of social Legitimisation of social
main role is to pass on Correspondence principal Myth of Meritocracy
the dominate ideology
inequality inequality
of the Ruling class. Education deliberate M/C has access to more School processes mirror the Education claims to be
engineers W/C failure in order cultural and economic capital world of work in order to meritocratic but schools
to create an unqualified which puts them at an prepare them for manual discriminate in favour of the
factory workforce. advantage. labour: middle class, e.g. language.
• wages not satisfaction
Private education prepares Education encourages • Lack of control Hidden Curriculum lowers
Repressive State
children of the elite for students to blindly accept • Obedience working class ambitions.
Apparatus means a
positions of power. capitalist values, through the • Achieved status
social institution whose
hidden curriculum. • Discipline and
role it is to enforce the
Hidden Curriculum is shaped consequences
dominant ideology by
to assist M/C achievement • Boredom
force or threat of force
– e.g. police and deter W/C achievement.

Evaluation

Correspondence Giroux – Neo Marxism Social Democratic Neo-Liberals New Right Postmodernism
Principal means the
Rejects the view that Halsey Floud and Martin Saunders claim that Chubb and Moe argue Marxists fail to
ways in which the
WC passively accept suggest that Marxists middle class that the Marxists fail to acknowledge that
education system
their position to become exaggerate the effect educational success is see how education has education actually
Mirrors the world of
compliant workers. the education has on due to biological failed all social groups reproduces diversity
work. E.g. hierarchy,
working class differences. not just the working rather than inequality.
punctuality and
Existence of anti-school achievement. class.
subcultures, truancy and Morrow and Torres claim
exclusion suggest both They point out that govt They believe that the students create their
the hidden curriculum policies such as education has failed to own identities rather
and correspondence comprehensivisation equip all students with than being constrained
Hidden Curriculum
principal have failed. have improved the the skills needed to be by traditional structures
means the informal
chances of the working successful in the global like class. In postmodern
learning processes that
Marxists often fail to class. market place. societies students are
happen in school it is a
acknowledge that able to make their own
side effect of education
gender and ethnicity choices about their
that teaches students
often combine with class identity e.g. increasing
the norms and values
to produce success or numbers of trans
of society.
failure. students.

What are the three aims of education
policy in the UK?
Economic Efficiency – develop the skills of
the young to improve the labour force. This
involves making the education system meet
the needs of industry and employers.
Raising educational standards – UK
education needs to compete in a global
education market and is ranked against
other countries – e.g. PISA
Creating equality of educational opportunity
- ensuring that all students get the best
educational opportunities.
What are the 4 aspects of educational
equality identified by Gillborn and
Youdell
Explain
Every child should have the same
Equality of
opportunities to access
Access
educational provision of similar
quality regardless of socio-
economic background.
Children should all start school
circumstance
Equality of
with a similar socio-economic
background so that they are all
truly equal.
All students have the chance to
Participation
Equality of
participant on an equal footing in
the processes that make up
school life.
All students have the same
Equality of
outcome
chances of achievement in
education regardless of socio-
economic background.
Education Policies (Equality)
Policies which increased equality in education
Policy How it increased equality Evaluation
1988 Education Reform All schools had to teach the same core curriculum Not suitable for all – suits ‘academic’
Act – National pupil more.
curriculum
1965 – Got rid of the 11+ exam and made it so all students Comprehensives are large schools so
Comprehensivisation would get ‘Parity of Esteem’ & ‘Equality’ within lack individual attention.
Act education
Schools Admissions Forbids discrimination in admitting pupil on grounds Covert selection still takes place by
Code of socio-economic backgrounds or ability. both schools and parents. Postcode
lottery
Policies that improve Pupil Premium – additional funding for those students Kerr and West – too many other
inequality in from a poor socio-economic background. factors outside of school that impact
circumstances Compensatory education achievement.
Selection and Admissions Policies
3 types of selection Arguments against selection Over Subscription Policies
Priority to
Selection by ability – entrance Late developers don’t benefit.
tests • Children in care,
• Pupil premium,
Mixed ability fosters social cohesion.
• Siblings (at discretion of LA)
Selection by aptitude – Talents Reduced risk of labelling and • Catchment area – closest first,
• Faith
therefore SFP
Selection by Faith HA can act as a inspiration to other Covert Selection
students.
Tough and Brooks:
Open Enrolment Polices &
Arguments in favour of Backdoor social selection to cherry pick
Parental Choice
selection students. Discouraging parents of poorer
students from applying in the first place
OEP mean that parents can apply to
Allows ‘high-flyers’ to benefit. through high uniform prices, making
any state school, in any area and if
literature hard to understand, not
Specialised and focused the school is under subscribed they
advertising in poorer areas.
must take the child. However over-
teaching can take place. Faith schools require a letter from spiritual
subscribed schools fill up quickly so
leader to gain insight to the potential
many parents don’t get their 1st
students family and commitment to both
choice.
the faith and the school ethos.

Marketisation means the
process of where by services
like education are pushed
towards operating like a
business based on supply and
demand. Students are
considered consumers rather
than pupils.
Privatisation in Education
means changing the internal
processes of a school to be
more like a business, for
example treating Parents and
students as consumers, target
setting, performance related
pay and league tables.
Privatisation of Education
means opening up aspects of
education to Private
businesses such as staff
training, school finances,
school Management
(academy chains) and Exams
Parentocracy means when a
child’s Educational
achievement has more to
do with parental wealth and
wishes than student ability.
Parents are able to have more
choice over where to send
their children.
Education Policies (Marketisation)
Three features of marketisation Policies which promote Marketisation and Raising standards
Independence – allowing schools Marketisation Policies Raising Standards Policies
to run themselves how they see fit.
League Tables Ofsted
Conservative
1979 – 1997
Local Management Schools National Curriculum
Funding Formula National Testing
Govt
Competition – Making schools
Open Enrolment
compete with each other for
students.
Choice – Giving customers Business sponsored Academies Maximum class sizes for 5 -7 yr old
Labour Govt
1997 – 2010
(parents and students) more Specialist schools Building Schools for the future program
choice in where they go to school. Education Action zones
Business sponsored Academies
Three elements of quality
control New Style Academies Pupil Premium
Coalition Govt
2010 - 2015
Free Schools English Baccalaureate
Ofsted Inspections Reform of the National Curriculum
Reform of the Exams system
Tougher performance targets for schools
Publication of performance Tables
such as examination results.
Evaluation of Marketisation policies and raising standards
Parents do not have equal freedom to choose the schools which their child attends due
Parentocracy
National curriculum – baseline for to covert selection process, postcode lotteries in catchment areas, Middle class parents
Myth of
what is taught. have much more freedom in choice due to their cultural capital, higher education and
income.
Evaluation of Privatisation of Educational Teachers tend to allocate more resources to the students who are on the C/D boarder
line in order to achieve the 5 A* - C needed for the league tables thus ignoring those who
Education
Triage
are unlikely to achieve this.
Positives Negatives
More efficient Takes money Due to the funding formula, schools need to retain and attract students in order to receive
from the
Dumbing
funding. Schools will therefore lead to the dumbing down of teaching and standards in
Down
More choice for education order to retain students who might leave if they are pushed too hard or if the courses are
parents system. too difficult.
Profit making Business go out of
might induce business – leave Ofsted is not as independent as it appears with government and politicians interfering with
Reduced
companies to schs stranded. the process by changing the standards and goal posts.
control
quality
support failing
schools Less equality

Globalisation – the
increased
interconnectedness
between people and nation
states. Includes
technological, economic
and cultural
interconnectedness.
Migration - The movement
of peoples from one place
to another. Either within a
country or between
countries.
PISA Tests - The Programme
for International Student
Assessment is a worldwide
study by the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation
and Development in
member and non-member
nations intended to
evaluate educational
systems by measuring 15-
year-old school pupils'
scholastic performance on
mathematics, science, and
reading.
PREVENT Policy - Prevent is
about safeguarding and
supporting those vulnerable
to radicalisation. Prevent is 1
of the 4 elements
of CONTEST, the
Government’s counter-
terrorism strategy. It aims to
stop people becoming
terrorists or
supporting terrorism.
Features of Globalisation
Technological Development
– New technologies have
made it easier to connect
over long distances. It has
created a Time-Space
compression.
Economic Changes –
Economic activity now takes
place on a global scale in a
24 hour system. The growth
of transnational companies
and an electronic
economy.
Political Changes –
Globalisation has
undermined the power of
the nation state. We now
live in a borderless world
(Ohmae). In some cases
TNC’s have more power
than governments.
Cultural Changes – We now
live in a global culture
created by mass media and
the internet that has led to
the westernisation of the
world.
Migration – People are
moving more freely within
and between countries for
economic and personal
reasons.
Globalisation and Education
Impact of Globalisation on Education
Increased competition for
Jobs meaning that schools Global ICT companies such
Increased multiculturalism
have to change the as Apple and Google
in schools and decline of
curriculum to meet new creating online resources
the ethnocentric curriculum
needs e.g. Computer and curriculums.
Science.
Increased risk and
Global rankings used to
Increased competition safeguarding issues for
compare and contrast
between schools and schools – e.g. Cyber
systems and raise
universities for students. bullying, PREVENT and Anti
standards.
Radicalisation.
Perspectives views on Globalisation and Education
Hyper Globalist
Marxist View Neo-Liberal View New Fordist View
View
Ohmae: Globalisation only Globalisation allows Globalisation has
• Creation of provides more for private schools increased
global citizens educational and universities to competition in the job
opportunities to the expand around the market which means
• Greater wealthy. world. governments should
tolerance and increase education
respect for Joel Spring: Globalisation means spending.
differences. • Global that governments can
Corporations are play a reduced role in Needs to be more
• Greater access setting the the education system focus on skills and
to information educational and reduce funding. competences to be
creating higher agenda. able to complete
educational • Creating a Digital globally.
achievement. Divide.
• Disempowering
of teachers.
 Roles and Process in Schools
Characteristics of an ideal pupil Labelling Theory
Setting means
placing students in Labelling theory suggest that teachers often attach a label to a pupil that has little
groups according to to do with their actual ability or aptitude. Instead they form an opinion of the

Overview
ability Female
student based on how close the students fit the ideal pupil. Becker suggests that
in individual subjects. teacher/ pupil interactions are based upon these labels and can lead to a self
White fulfilling prophecy where the students take on the label and act accordingly.

M/Class
Streaming means Deterministic
placing students in Quiet Focuses on the negative effects

Evaluation
groups according to Labelling theory attributes too much importance to ‘teacher agency’ (the
ability across all autonomous power of teachers to influence and affect pupils) – structural
subjects. sociologists might point out that schools themselves encourage teachers to label
students
Teacher training.
Ideal Pupil means the Self fulfilling prophecy
characteristics that a

Reactions
teacher Rejection of the label - Margaret Fuller’s (1984) research on black girls in a London
subconsciously looks Bernstein – Language Codes comprehensive school found that the black girls she researched were labelled as
for in a good pupil. low-achievers, but their response to this negative labelling was to knuckle down and
Restricted Code Elaborate Code study hard to prove their teachers and the school wrong.
Self Fulfilling W/C M/C
prophecy means Limited vocab Wide vocab
when a pupil takes
Short unfinished Grammatically Labelling – Case Studies
sentences complex
on the label that they Grammatically Varied and Rosenthal and Jacobson Ray Rist Hempel Jorgenson
have been by the simple abstract
school and acts Context bound Context free
Pygmalian in the classroom. US Primary school study. Ideal pupil varies according
accordingly. Teacher used home the make up of the school.
Fake IQ test given to students. background to
Random 20% students group/segregate students. Aspen – W/C sch. Discipline
identified as bright (bloomers), Tigers – Neat m/c, fast was a problem. Ideal pupil is
went back after a year and students. quiet, passive and obedient.
found that those students had Cardinals – W/C middling
made more progress then ability. Rowan – M/C sch. Few
others. Clowns – W/C troublesome. dicispline problems. Ideal pupil
is defined by personality &
Labels carried through later academic ability rather than
years behaviour.
 Pupil Identities and Subcultures
Subcultures - A Pupil Subcultures How Schools shape Pupil Identities
subculture is a group of
people within culture
Types Peer Groups and Symbolic Capital Symbolic Violence – Archer
that differentiates itself Characteristics
from the parent culture Mac An Ghaill (1994) Reinforcing acceptable behaviours by Schools impose forms of symbolic
ostracising those that don’t conform violence against students whose
to which it belongs often Committed to The academic achievers: and giving status to those that do. identities are shaped by designer
maintaining some of the

Pro – School Subcultures

school values. Seek to achieve academic E.G. Calling those that study names like clothing or hyper-heterosexual feminine
founding principals but success by focusing on “nerd” or “geek” behaviour (usually w/c) which suggests
developing their own Gain approval / traditional academic subjects to those students that education is not
norms and values. status through such as English, maths & for them.
academic sciences.
success.
Symbolic Capital – The The New Enterprisers:
Involved in Rejected the traditional
status, recognition and wider life of the School Environments – Reay Ethnocentric Curriculum – Ball
academic curriculum but were
sense of worth that school. Students align their ability with the type
motivated to study subjects such
students receive from as business and computing
of school that they attend. Students
who attend a poor performing school The current curriculum is very focused
others. which they see as a route to on Middle class White British culture,
see themselves as poor students and
economic success. more likely to for anti school sub what Ball refers to as “Little Englandism”
cultures, where as those attending high this can turn both ethnic minorities and
Symbolic Violence – Characteristics Girls who feel excluded.
performing schools tend to form pro-
Anti – School subcultures

using symbolic capital in Lower streams.

school subcultures.
a negative way, for
example demonstrating Rejection of school values.
superiority through
Subject Choice Uniforms
values, beliefs and Truanting.
attitudes. Schools reinforced gender stereotypes Uniform reinforces gender roles as girls
Disruption. in subject choices – pushing girls to expected to wear skirts and blouses
expressive subjects and boys to and boys' trousers and ties. Can also
Not doing homework. instrumental ones – this reinforces shape class identity with schools
Working Class Dilemma – gender identity. Can also be achieved demanding certain standards of dress
The dilemma faced by through stereotypical images within or pupils being sent home. Most schools
working class pupils to school also do not take ethnic minority dress
into account within their polices. E.g.
achieve symbolic capital Formation of Pupil Sub cultures - Lacey Hair cuts and Hijabs .
from their friends or
academic capital by Differentiation Polarisation
rejecting working class Sub-Cultures Labelling
identity. The process of teachers The process by which Rejection by school can lead working Positive and negative labelling impacts
categorising pupils pupils respond to class and minority ethnic groups to of self esteem and self image. Students
according to how differentiation identify as being antiauthoritarian and labelled negatively may assume that
therefore reject authority in all walks of academic achievement is not part of
they perceive their by moving towards one
life. See Studies by Fuller, Willis, Sewell their identity and therefore look towards
ability, attitude and of two opposite poles more vocational course in the future
behaviour. Streaming is or extremes, ie pro or
a form of differentiation, anti school subcultures.
as it categorises pupils
into different classes
 Measuring Educational Achievement
Educational Achievement - Methods used to measure educational achievement. Issues with using these measures of
Refers to the qualifications
achieved at the end of educational achievement.
Formal Education (e.g. Until 2017 educational achievement was measured by:
GCSE’s, degrees, A-levels, • The number of GCSE grades A* - C a student achieved.

Raw GCSE Grades

diploma’s, doctorates, • The Number of GCSE grades A* - C including English • Open to manipulation by Schools and the
certificates) and Maths a student achieved. Government.
Schools would be judged on the percentage of students in their
school that achieved these two criteria. • Attainment 8 unfairly disadvantages those
Differential Educational with SENd who might take less GCSE’s.
Achievement – Refers to the After 2017 this was changed to the number of 5 – 9 grades a
differing levels of Educational student achieved again including English and Maths and in • Middle and upper class students are more
Success individuals might general. likely to go to private schools who do not
achieve within the education
system, when studied across take GCSE’s but IGCSE’s or International
different social groupings Baccalaureate which are not included in
Introduced in 2016 Attainment 8 measures a student's average grade the official statistics.
across eight subjects.

The eight subjects fit into three groups:

Internal Factors – Factors • English and maths. These are double-weighted, which means they
inside of school which impact count twice. When English Lit and Lang are both taken the highest
a students educational of the 2 will double weight. The other will join the open group.
Attainment 8

achievement. • English Baccalaureate (Ebacc). These are the highest scores from
the sciences, computer science, geography, history and
languages.
• Open group. Any remaining GCSEs and other approved
academic, arts or vocational qualifications.
External Factors – Factors
outside of school which A student’s Attainment 8 score is calculated by adding up their points for
impact a students their top eight subjects and dividing by 10 to get their Attainment 8 score.
educational achievement. Students don't have to take eight subjects, but they score zero for any
unfilled slots.

Official Statistics – Data that is

This comes from UCAS data that is released after all students have
collected and published by
Acceptances

government or government
been placed.
University

agencies.
It looks at the different social groups to see differences in
acceptance of places at university. NOT the offers or applications.
 Differential Educational Achievement: Class (Internal Factors)
Factor Outline Impact on Achievement Evaluation
Middle Class means
occupations that are Labelling theory suggest that teachers often Self fulfilling prophecy Deterministic
mostly white collar attach a label to a pupil that has little to do with Focuses on the negative effects
and professional jobs. their actual ability or aptitude. Instead they form Rejection of the label - Margaret Fuller’s (1984) Labelling theory attributes too much importance
Highly Educated

Labelling
an opinion of the student based on how close research on black girls in a London to ‘teacher agency’ (the autonomous power of
the students fit the ideal pupil. Becker suggests comprehensive school found that the black girls teachers to influence and affect pupils) –
that teacher/ pupil interactions are based upon she researched were labelled as low-achievers, structural sociologists might point out that
these labels and can lead to a self fulfilling but their response to this negative labelling was schools themselves encourage teachers to label
Working Class means prophecy where the students take on the label to knuckle down and study hard to prove their students
mostly blue collar and act accordingly. teachers and the school wrong. Teacher training.
and manual jobs.
Low educational
achievement. When students take on the label that is A negative label usually placed on W/C Deterministic
attributed to them by the teacher or school. This students can lead to students forming an anti- Rejection of the label - Margaret Fuller’s (1984)
Self Fulfilling

can either be a positive or negative label. school subculture and underachieve at school. research on black girls in a London
Prophecy

comprehensive school found that the black girls

Internal Factors refers A positive label usually applied to M/C students she researched were labelled as low-achievers,
to factors inside of due to ideal pupil characteristics can lead to a but their response to this negative labelling was
the school which pro-school subculture and help students to to knuckle down and study hard to prove their
influence achieve at school. teachers and the school wrong.
educational
achievement.
Setting is the placement of students into ability W/C students are usually placed in the lower Setting and streaming allow for higher ability
Setting / streaming

classes within individual subjects. streams/sets which can lead to lower self students to be stretched and the lower ability
esteem and therefore under achieve. Being students to be supported which can lead to
Educational Triage Streaming is the placement of students into placed in lower streams can also limit student higher achievement.
means putting ability groups going across all subjects. achievement by not allowing them access to
students into 3 opportunities to achieve.
streams. M/C in the
top streams, C/D
Boarder line, W/C in
lower streams.
Anti –school Pro – School W/C are more likely to be part of an anti-school Not all students become part of a pro or anti
Pupil sub cultures

subcultures Subcultures subculture where by status is not achieved school subculture.

through educational achievement but through
A-C Economy means Lower streams Committed to school disruptive behaviour and therefore unlikely to
schools are judged Rejection of school values achieve at school.
based on the number values Gain approval / status
of students who Truanting through academic
Achieve A – C grades Disruption success
at GCSE. Not doing homework

Habitus – learned or taken for granted ways of M/C have power to set the habitus of the school Postmodernists argue that class doesn’t have as
Pupil’s class Identity.

thinking, being or acting that are shared by a
particular social class (Bourdieu)
It includes their tastes, outlook on life,
expectations and what is normal or realistic for
people ‘like us’
giving M/C students an advantage. much of an impact on students identity
anymore due to the pick and mix culture.
W/C habitus is devalued by schools and W/C
students felt that they had to change who they
are in order to be academically successful.
W/C habitus sees HE as undesirable and
unrealistic.
 Differential Educational Achievement: Class (External Factors)

Cultural Deprivation means having inferior norms and values, Material Deprivation means not having the resources External Factors means elements from
skills and knowledge that make it difficult to access or spaces available to do well in school – linked to outside of the school environment which will
education. poverty. effect educational achievement.

Cultural Deprivation Material Deprivation Bourdieu and Capital

The way parents communicate with their children essential Material deprivation refers to poverty and lack of Bourdieu states that there are three interlinked
part of cognitive development and it is suggested by Hubbs- material necessities which aid educational types of capital which combine both material

Overview
Tait that parents who challenge their children to evaluate achievement. and cultural factors to explain why MC

Types of Capital
their thinking are more likely to have higher cognitive ability. Poverty and lack of material necessities is closely students do better than their WC counterparts.
Feinstein suggested that this is more likely to happen in linked with social class as it is more likely that the His three types of Capital are:
Language

families where the parents are educated and therefore working class are going to have a low household • Cultural Capital – referring to the
middle class. income and inadequate housing which can lead to knowledge, attitudes, values,
Bernstein identified that the working class and the middle low educational achievement. language and abilities of the middle
class have different language codes, the working class use a class.
restricted code which involves simple grammar, limited vocab • Economic Capital – referring to money
Although education in the UK is provided free at the
and gestures. Where as the Middle class use an elaborate and household income.
point of services there are many hidden costs to
code which involves complex grammar, fuller sentences and • Educational Capital
education that can leave working class pupils at a
more abstract ideas. This puts MC students at an advantage

Cost of Education
disadvantage. Tanner points to the costs of transport,
at school as teachers, textbooks and the education system
books, computers, uniforms, equipment and field trips Bourdieu argued that these three types of
tend to use the elaborate code
can place a heavy burden on working class families. capital could be converted from one to
Douglas argues that parental attitudes to education and their Flaherty also suggests that there is a stigma attached anther and were inexorably interlinked. For
to those on FSM which prevents to some from taking

Conversion
Parents education

own levels of education often have a big impact on example middle Class have the economic
educational achievement. He argued that working class up the entitlements. Smith and Nobel also suggest that Capital (money) to be able to provide cultural
parents place less value on education and therefore are less working class pupils are at a disadvantage as they experiences such as holidays abroad and trips
likely to push their children academically and visit school less cannot afford private tuition or schools. Ridge to museums which then leads to academic
often and as a result the children have lower levels of highlights that working class pupils might need to take achievement and Educational Capital.
motivation and achievement. Feinstein also states that on paid work whilst still at school in order to help the Additionally Economic Capital can be used for
parents levels of education impact achievement as middle household which takes time away from study. private schooling and tutors to increase
class parents socialise their children differently, in particularly academic attainment.
terms of parenting style where middle class parents are more
Housing and health can have both a direct and
consistent in terms of discipline and educational behaviours.
indirect affect on educational achievement. For Completed a study to assess students cultural
example overcrowding can have a direct effect in capital. She used questionnaires and got 465
Housing and Health

Alice Sullivan (2001)

Sugarman argues that the working class have a different terms of lack of space for study, disturbed sleep and pupils across 4 schools to complete them.
culture to the middle class which is a barrier to educational lack of developmental play. It can also have an She found that those students who showed
achievement. He identified 4 elements of this subculture: indirect effect in terms of child's health and welfare as greater cultural capital were children of
Working class

1. Fatalism cold and amp housing cause ill health.

Subculture

graduates and more likely to succeed at

2. Collectivism Howard notes that children poorer families have GCSE, however cultural capital was only part
3. Immediate Gratification poorer diets and nutrition which leads to lack of of the reason for differences in educational
4. Present time Orientation. energy and higher absence rates. Wilkinson also achievement by social class, access to
Which leads to under achievement in education. Sugarman points out that there is I higher rate of hyperactivity resources and greater aspirations also have a
also links this to the security of middle class jobs which have and ADHD amongst 10 year old who are from lower big impact.
room for progression and encourages ambition and long term income backgrounds which can lead to issues with
planning which is then socialised into children who apply it to education.
their education.
 Differential Educational Achievement: Ethnicity (External Factors)
Ethnicity means a social group Cultural Deprivation Material Deprivation
that shares a common and
distinctive culture, religion,
These arguments suggest that many ethnic minority groups According to Flaherty (2004):
language, or the like. This is (particularly Black, low-income groups), lack adequate stimulation & • Pakistanis & Bangladeshis are 3X more likely than
different to race which is linguistic development through their socialisation. Whites to be in the poorest 1/5 of the population.
related to biology. • Africans, Pakistanis & Bangladeshis are 3X more likely to

Language
Bowker (1968): ‘The Education of Coloured Immigrants’ A lack of be unemployed than Whites.
standard English creates a huge barrier to UK education. • 15% of minority groups live in overcrowded homes (2%
Trends in Ethnicity and for Whites).
Achievement Bollard and Driver – language problems cease to be a problem by the • Pakistanis are 2X as likely to be in semi/ un-skilled jobs

Overview
age of 16. compared to Whites.
The Swann Report (1985) found that language differences had little
DfES (2007): impact on achievement. According to the Swann Report (1985), Social Class
differences account for a high proportion of differences in
• Only 24% of White male Many sociologists argue that ‘dysfunctional’ family types are to blame for the achievement between ethnic groups.
pupils who were on free underachievement of certain ethnic groups.
school-meals gained 5 A*- This argument is paradoxical. We cannot tell if these groups
• Murray 1984: African Caribbean Lone-Parenthood to blame. Lack of male underachieve within education because they are working
C Grades. role-models means that mothers struggle to socialise children adequately.
• White & Asian pupils on class, or if they end up being working class because other
Family Structures & Support

• Scrunton 1986 - Low achievement is the result of ethnic minorities failing to

factors lead them to fail within education.
average achieve higher embrace & conform to British culture.
than Black pupils • Pryce 1979 - Asian culture in the UK is much more cohesive than Black
culture & as such they are able to ignore racism more effectively and as
• Amongst Asians, Indians do such are not effected by it as much e.g. low self-esteem leading to
better than Pakistanis & educational failure.
Bangladeshis • Hall (1992) calls this a ‘Culture of Resistance’ - The impact of Slavery means
Racism in wider Society
that much of the Black culture has lost it’s language, religion, ancestry etc.
The Black culture are therefore much less likely to integrate & assimilate with
• Hastings (2006): White White M/C UK.
Mason (1995) argues that ‘Discrimination is a continuing &
pupils make less progress • Driver & Ballard (1981): Argue that Asian families have a much more ‘Pro-
School’ attitude than Black families. Also because Asian families are rarely persistent feature of the experience of Britain’s citizens of
between the ages of 11-16 minority ethnic origin’.
lone parents families they offer a bigger support network for children.
years-old compared to • Lupton (2004) suggests that the ‘Adult Authoritarian’ Asian family matches
Black or Asian pupils. If Rex (1986) - Racism leads to social exclusion and
that of the school.
accordingly poverty. This is shown in housing, employment
current trends continue
Keddie (1971) says that to blame culture is to blame the victims of educational & education. Racism also leads to discrimination both
then White pupils will failure. inside & outside the classroom.
become the lowest
performing ethnic group in Noon (1993) - Sent identical letters to 100 top UK

Overview
companies but alternated between the names ‘Evans’ &
the UK.
These arguments suggest that different ethnic groups are socialised ‘Patel’……… the replies to the ‘White’ candidate were
Attitudes and Values

into (or ‘inherit’) different attitudes & values. more helpful and informative.
• Within every ethnic group,
M/C pupils do better than Tronya and Carrington (1990) – argue that the descriptions
Arnot (2004) suggests that the Media have created a negative anti- of some cultures are little more than racist stereotypes.
W/C pupils. school role model for Black pupils in particular which he describes as
‘the Ultra-Tough Ghetto Superstar ‘ reinforced through rap lyrics &
• Among all groups other MTV videos. Cultural research can be used against certain groups –
than Gypsy/Roma children, Sivanandan argues that afro-caribbean culture is used by
girls out perform boys. Driver (1977) highlights how ethnicity can be an advantage in some right wing groups to justify the view that they are a
education e.g. African Caribbean Girls actually do very well in school. problem for society.
 Differential Educational Achievement: Ethnicity (Internal Factors)
Labelling Pupil Identities Pupil responses and subcultures

Archer: Teachers often define pupils by stereotypical Fuller studied a group of black girls in year 11 in a London
Interactionist/ Labelling theory look how teachers
Overview

ethnic identities which often lack the favoured ideal pupil Comprehensive who were in lower streams yet were achieving
label pupils from different ethnic groups differently.

Rejection of
characteristics. This leads to negative labelling. highly. These girls did not conform to all the values of school (e.g.
Particular focus is on how Black & Asian pupils are

Labels
respect for teachers) but did value educational success enough to

Overview
labelled negatively
Archer argues that the teachers dominant way of looking push themselves.
at things shapes and defines the pupils ethnic identity. Mac an Ghaill discovered similar findings in his study of Black & Asian
When students challenge these stereotypes they are A-Level pupils. Each of these studies show how labelling does not
Gilbourn & Youdell: Teachers were quick to discipline
Expectations’.

treated more harshly. always follow the same negative pattern.

Racialised

Black pupils than others for similar behaviour.

As such teachers misinterpret behaviour & see Black
pupils as anti-authority. This creates conflict between Mirza highlights how some pupils are not able to develop coping

Failed Coping Strategies.

teachers & pupils which reinforce stereotypes & leads strategies when faced with teacher racism & labelling.
to further problems. Mizra identified 3 types of teacher Racism:
Ideal pupil Pathologized Demonised
• The Colour Blind
identity pupil identify pupil identity . • The Liberal Chauvinists
Osler: Black students are more likely to be both • Overt Racists
officially and unofficially excluded. They are also more
Discipline

White Deserving poor Black or white

likely to be in a PRU excluding them from mainstream Black girls would avoid these teachers by being selective about who
education. Middle class Feminised Working class they asked for help, getting on with their own work in lessons without
Bourne: schools see black boys as a threat which identity taking part, avoiding certain options to avoid the teachers.
leads to negative labelling and eventual exclusion. Masculine Hyper sexualised This puts them at a disadvantage by restricting their opportunities

Types of Identity
identity Asexual / therefore causing under-achievement.
Foster: Teachers stereotypes of black students could repressed Unintelligent
Setting and

result in them being put in lower sets and there for a Normal sexuality sexuality
Streaming

Sewell:
self fulfilling prophecy of under achievement. Peer – led

Boys Responses to racist

The Rebels – The most influential group but still a minority. These
Achieving in the Plodding
rejected the values of the school & opposed the school by joining a
right way conformist Culturally
peer group. These reinforced the negative stereotypes of ‘Black
through natural deprived

stereotypes.
Machismo’ .
ability and Slogger who
The conformists - The majority of Black pupils accepted the values of
talent. succeeds Underachiever
Wright study of a multi-ethnic primary school saw that the school & were eager to succeed.
through hard
Asian Pupils

Asian students also suffer labelling. She found that The Retreatists - A small minority who isolated & disconnected with
work rather than
teachers held ethnocentric views. Which affected peer group subcultures & the school. These kept a low profile.
natural ability.
who they related to Asian pupils including leaving The Innovators - Second largest group who were pro-education but
them out of discussions or using childish language anti-school. They distanced themselves from ‘Conformists’ enough
when speaking to them leading to marginalisation. to keep credibility with the ‘Rebels’ whilst valuing education success.

Institutional Racism

Critical Racism Theory
Sees racism as a feature of
society.
Roithmayer – institutional racism
is a locked in inequality so large
and historical that it is no longer
a conscious though.
Gillborn sees racism so ingrained
in education that is now
inevitable.
Marketisation &
Segregation
Gillbourn – marketisation allows
from more covert selection to
take place which can lead to
segregation.
Commission for Racial Equality
1993 noted that covert selection
procedures led to EM students
more likely to be in unpopular
schools.
Ethnocentric Curriculum
A curriculum which reflects the
culture of one ethnic group,
usually the dominant culture.
This is a prime example of
institutional racism.
Tronya and Bell – lack of
teaching of Asian languages
Ball – Little Englandism: NC
ignores black and Asian history
Assessment Access to opportunities
Gilbourn - System is rigged to In G&T programs whites are
validate the dominate culture twice as likely to be identified
superiority. as G&T over EM’s
Sanders & Horn - Changing EM’s are less likely to be
from a written tests to teacher entered for higher tier exams
assessment led to black despite policies and initiatives
students underachieving. to raise EM achievements. This
is due to teacher labelling and
SFP
New ‘IQ ism
Teachers and Policy makers make
false assumptions about the nature of
pupils ability or potential.
Potential is seen as fixed and can be
measured through old style IQ tests or
psychometric tests, however Gillborn
suggests that these test only test what
is currently known or learnt not what
could be.
These tests are skewed to dominant
culture.
 Differential Educational Achievement: Gender (Internal Factors)
Gender Gap in Factor Outline Impact on Achievement Evaluation
Achievement
Government policies for education that have Boaler suggests that these policies are the Liberal Feminists

Opportunities
2013 Teacher aimed to create more opportunities for girls key reason for the changes in girls
to take part in what have traditionally been achievement as they removed many of the
Starting school

assessments showed Celebrate the progress that have been

Equal
make subjects for example GIST & WISE. barriers faced by girls and has made
that girls were out The national curriculum also levelled the education more meritocratic. made in education and achievement
performing boys in playing field as girls and boys had to study for girls but believe that there is still work
literacy, language, the same subjects. to be done. They see the need for
maths and PSED continued equal opportunities policies,
In the last 20 years there has been an By having role models to look up to in no more positive roles models and
Role models
increase in the number of females taking up traditional positions Girls are more likely to education against sexist attitudes and
Girls continue to do head teacher and senior teacher roles which work harder to achieve these goals stereotypes in order for true equality in
acts as role model for girls showing them that themselves which leads to them achieving education to be achieved.
Key Stage 1 - 3

better in boys
they can achieve positions of importance more educationally.
especially in English
and power.
where the gap
continues to widen
but the gap begins
Course work was introduced in 1988. Gorard Mitsos and Browne suggest that girls are more Radical Feminists
noted that the achievement gap was fairly successful in coursework because they are
Coursework

to narrow in the
GCSE and

constant between 1979 and 1989, however more conscientious and better organised
sciences and maths. once coursework was introduced girls began than boys which puts them at an advantage. Radical feminists recognise that girls are
to out perform boys and the gap widened. achieving more but they emphasis that
The average gap at this is in spite of the patriarchal nature of
Key Stage 4

KS4 stands about 10 the education system rather than due to

points but the gap is major changes in education.
increasing. Peter and Jane French analysed classroom This negative interaction could explain why
The use the following as evidence of
interactions and noted that teachers interact teachers respond more positively to girls patriarchy in education:
• 1/3 of 16-18 yr old girls said
Attention

with girls and boys differently. Boys get more which could lead to a self fulfilling prophecy
Teacher

attention in the classroom but it is negative allowing girls to achieve and boys to they have experienced
The gap at A Level is attention. Boys also tend to dominate in underachieve unwanted sexual touching in
whole class discussion where as girls tend to school.
much narrower than
Keys Stage 5

be more democratic. • Women are hugely

at GCSE but girls still
out perform boys underrepresented in the
even in the so The removal of gender stereotypes from Weiner shows that since the 1980’s there has curriculum, Wiener calls
Challenging
Stereotypes

textbooks, reading schemes and has been significant change with teachers and history a Women Free Zone.
called ‘boys
removed a barrier to girls aspirations and textbooks challenging the traditional • There are still many more
subjects’ such as achievement. In the 1970’s and 1980’s girls stereotypes which has led to greater
maths and science. were portrayed as wives and mothers and achievement in girls as they are presented
men in positions of authority
textbooks would reinforce this image as well with more positive images of what they can in education such as Head
Although boys are Teachers especially in
Vocational Education

as putting girls off science and maths. achieve.

more likely to take a secondary schools.
vocational The introduction of league table have made Jackson links this desire for high achieving • There is still the genderisation
League Tables /

qualification than girls more desirable for schools as they are girls to a self fulfilling prophecy. League of subjects and career
Selection

girls, girls are still likely to achieve better grades. Slee points
more likely to out that boys are more likely to have
behavioural issues and four times more likely
receive a
to be excluded which reflects badly on a
distinction. school in the competitive nature of
education today.
tables have created greater opportunities for options which limit girls
girls and they fact they are more desired by
schools means that girls take on a self fulfilling
choices and options.
prophecy and master status of higher
achievement.
 Differential Educational Achievement: Gender (External Factors)
Factor Outline Impact on Achievement Evaluation

The ‘Feminist Movement’ has improved the Sue Sharpe Interviewed girls about their career Glass Ceiling and Pay Gap still exists
rights of women as well as raising expectations aspirations & concluded that, due to
& self-esteem/ motivation of women. Women increased employment opportunities, females Traditional gender roles in regards to
Feminism

are no longer strictly bound to the ‘Mother/ have become extremely ambitious & aim for motherhood
Housewife Role’. ‘high professions’ such as Doctors & Solicitors.
Diane Reay – Class Gender and
More role model who ‘have it all’ Ambition

Primary Socialisation: Perhaps traditional Bedroom culture – quiet, reading, submissive Myth of Meritocracy
Changes in the Family

‘Female’ socialisation is more suited to attitudes which are favoured in schools →

education than typical ‘Male’ socialisation – ideal pupil
Bedroom Culture.

More lone parents families headed by women

and duel earning families raises girls
aspirations.

Mitsos & Browne (1998) highlight how the The changes have encouraged girls to see
Changes in Women's

growing Service Sector/ Economy has created their future as more than housewives and
more ‘feminised’ career opportunities for mothers but having greater career
employment

women e.g. in Health Care, Hospitality, opportunities and financial independence.

Teaching, Clerical, Childcare professions.
Aspirations to get these job push girls to do well
Equal pay act etc open up more opportunities in education in order to achieve these career
for girls in goals.

Decline of traditional gender roles – Stay at In order to achieve the desired goals of
Changing Girl’s

home Dads, duel earning families. independence and self sufficiency girls now
recognise the need for good education.
Ambitions

Individualisation – Beck and Beck Genshiem: Educational success becomes a central

Independence is highly regarded in modern tenant to girls identity.
society in order to gain recognition and status.

Factor
Internal or
Outline
External
DfCSF (2007) argue that the ‘Gender gap’ is the
result of poor literacy amongst males.
Literacy
Reading is seen as a feminine activity as it is
Internal generally mothers who read with their children.
Bedroom culture – Girls are socialised to talk and
discuss which increases their vocab.
Due to globalisation (1980’s) there has been a
decline in heavy industries, such as iron and steel,
Masculinity
engineering etc.
Crisis of
Mitsos and Browne- decline in male employment
External opportunities has led to ‘identity crises’
Schools do not nurture masculine traits, such as
of Education
Feminisation
competitiveness and leadership and instead
celebrate qualities such as attentiveness in class,
Internal methodical working
Sewell thinks coursework should be replaced with
exams and emphasis in outdoor education within
the curriculum.
Teaching is a feminine profession, and schools lack
Lack of Male
many ‘real’ men role models. This is especially
teachers
Primary
critical at primary schools where women
Internal dominate.
Boys gain symbolic capital amongst peers by
Laddish Sub
joining anti-school subcultures. More disruptive –
Cultures
boys tend to get excluded more and seek status
Internal
from exclusion. Doing well in school or asking for
help leads to bullying and belief that they are
weak.
Barber (1996) boys see themselves as more
Estimation of
capable than they really are. This belief runs
Ability
through to their GCSE exams where they fail to do
Over
External as well as thy imagined but blame everyone but
themselves. This overconfidence to come from
living in a patriarchal society where men assume
they will always succeed over women
Differential Educational Achievement: Gender (Boys)
Impact on Achievement Policies to improve Boys Achievement
RBA was a four-year project (2000-2004) which
Lower vocabulary limits achievement
Achievement
focused on issues associated with the apparent
Raising Boys
through language code and the ability differential academic achievement of boys and
Project
of students to express ideas coherently. girls at key stage 2 and key stage 4 in schools in
England.
Daily "literacy hour"
National Literacy Strategy
Results in belief that they will not get a
• Fifteen minutes sitting together working from
‘proper job’= low self esteem and
a shared large print book.
motivation to get grades.
• A further 15 minutes focusing on certain
Decline is mainly in manual working class
words with the class.
jobs, which didn’t need qualifications.
• Twenty minutes devoted to reading or writing
Unlikely that disappearance of such jobs
on their own or in small groups.
would impact on boys motivation to
• The final 10 minutes should be spent in a
obtain qualifications
group going over all the main points.
• The strategies have only ever been
Boys become ‘bored’ with school recommended, not compulsory
Uses male role models celebrating their own
champions
Reading
reading interests.
This could help explain why learning is Playing for Success was an initiative which
seen as ‘girlie’ by many boys and not aimed to raise literacy, numeracy and ICT
Playing for
Success
worth their time. standards amongst demotivated KS2 and KS3
pupils by holding out-of-school-hours study
support centres at football clubs and other
sports grounds.
Dads and Sons is primarily aimed at fathers of
Exclusion from school leads to
boys aged 11-14. Fundamentally, its aim is to
Dad’s and Son’s
underachievement.
increase dads' involvement in their sons'
education The aims of the campaign are:
• To help dads play a greater role in their sons'
education
• To generate media interest in the issues
around fathers helping with their sons'
Over confidence leads to lack of educations
preparation for examinations and class
Recruitment events at universities across the
Recruitment
work. Accepting responsibility is showing
teachers
country, which have been targeted particularly
of Male
weakness.
at male students in STEM subjects.
 Subject Choice

Traditional subject Choices Explanations for trends in Subject Choice

Boys Neutral Girls
Outline Evaluation
Maths English Humanities
GENDER ROLE SOCIALISTION – Girls and Boys are raised differently and this can • Move towards Gender
Physics Social Languages
channel them into different subjects at school. Norman Links this to the different Neutral parenting and
Technology Sciences activities boys and girls take part in as children. Murphy and Elwood link this to the socialisation.
bedroom culture and that girls tend to read more fiction which lead to more • Leonard Gendered
Business
expressive subjects, Boys read more hobby books which leads to more technical subject image has less
subjects. Browne and Ross state gender create gender domains based around impact in single sex
what they see the adults around them doing. schools show that
subject genderisation is

Gender
Trends in subject choice at GCSE
There is very little choice given in the
national curriculum and at GCSE however
trends can be seen in options with boys
taking more practical and vocational based
subjects such as Business and Technology
where as girls opt more for the humanities
and arts based subjects.
Trends in subject choice at A Level
Ethnicity
GENDERED SUBJECT IMAGE – The gender subject image affects who chooses that a social construct.
subject at GCSE and A Level. Kelly argues that science is seen as a boys subject • Programs such as GIST
due to there being more male teachers, textbook illustrations focus on boys interests and WISE help to draw
such as sport. Which ever gender dominates in the lesson can influence the gender girls into the sciences.
image, e.g. girls dominate in Drama and the Arts where as boys Dominate in PE.
GENDER IDENTITIES & PEER GROUP PRESSURES – Students can face extreme pressure
to conform to gender stereotypes in order to be accepted by their peers. Paechter
found that sport is often seen as a male domain and girls will be seen as unfeminine
if they opt for it. Dewar also found that when students opt of opposite domain
subjects they are subjected to name calling and bullying.
Ethnocentric Curriculum – BAME students may be put off from studying Globalisation has created a
subjects such as English and History due to the focus on white British culture. more multicultural

The difference in subject choice are much curriculum, with wider

more apparent at A Level with wider choice choices to the units that are
English as a additional Language - Students may be channelled to less
available. Boys still tend to take more taught.
technical subjects such as computing,
academic subjects due to levels of English language.
physics and maths and girls taking subjects
such as sociology, English and Languages. Material Factors – Some students may feel that they are excluded from Policies such as Pupil
certain subjects due to the cost of completing the course, for example Premium are in place to
Trends in subject choice: Vocational Music and Art. support students from
Education deprived backgrounds with
the hidden cost of
Cultural Factors – Working class students may feel that certain subjects are
Class

Gender segregation is very noticeable within education.

not for them as they do not possess the cultural knowledge to succeed. For
vocational education, with girls opting for
careers which are more caring and
example in Drama or English.
traditionally female such as Child Care,
Health and Beauty and Social Care. Where Labelling – Working class students may be pushed towards less academic
as boys tend to go for more technical and more vocational subjects.
courses such as mechanics, engineering
and construction.