2.

1
Situation: A system is separated from its surrounding by a
a. border
b. divisor
c. boundary
d. fractionation line

SOLUTION
Answer is (c) boundary. See de…nition in EFM11e §2.1.

1
2.2

Find:
Where in this text can you …nd:
a. density data for such liquids as oil and mercury?
b. speci…c weight data for air (at standard atmospheric pressure) at di¤erent tem-
peratures?
c. speci…c gravity data for sea water and kerosene?

SOLUTION
a. Density data for liquids other than water can be found in Table A.4 in EFM11e.
Temperatures are speci…ed.
b. Data for several properties of air (at standard atmospheric pressure) at di¤erent
temperatures are in Table A.3 in EFM11e.
c. Speci…c gravity and other data for liquids other than water can be found in Table
A.4 in EFM11e. Temperatures are speci…ed.

2
2.3
Situation:
Regarding water and seawater:
a. Which is more dense, seawater or freshwater?
b. Find (SI units) the density of seawater (10 C, 3.3% salinity).
c. Find the same in traditional units.
d. What pressure is speci…ed for the values in (b) and (c)?

SOLUTION
a. Seawater is more dense, because of the weight of the dissolved salt.
b. The density of seawater (10 C, 3.3% salinity) in SI units is 1026 kg/m3 , see Table
A.3 in EFM11e.
c. The density of seawater (10 C, 3.3% salinity) in traditional units is 1.99 slugs/ft3 ,
see Table A.3 in EFM11e.
d. The speci…ed pressure for the values in (b) and (c) is standard atmospheric pres-
sure; as stated in the title of Table A.3 in EFM11e.

3
2.4
Situation:
Where in this text can you …nd:
a. values of surface tension ( ) for kerosene and mercury?
b. values for the vapor pressure (pv ) of water as a function of temperature?

SOLUTION
a. Table A.4 (EFM11e). Note that these values of surface tension assume a
liquid/air interface.
b. Table A.5 (EFM11e). Note that vapor pressure tables are always in absolute
pressure; since pv is a material property, it can’t be documented for gage pressures
because gage pressures vary from day to day, and from place to place.

4
2.5
Situation:
Open tank of water:
T20 = 20 C, T80 = 80 C.
V = 500 L, d = 2 m.
Find:
Percentage change in volume.
Water level rise for given diameter.
Properties:
From Table A.5 (EFM11e): 20 = 998 mkg3 ;and 80 = 972 mkg3 :

PLAN
Density changes as a function of temperature. For a given system (mass = constant):
a. Find the mass for a known density and volume
b. Use geometry to get water level change
SOLUTION
a. Calculate percentage change in volume for this mass of water at two temperatures.
For the …rst temperature, the volume is given as V 20 = 500 L = 0:5 m3 :Its density is
kg
20 = 998 m3 : Therefore, the mass for both cases is given by.

kg
m = 998 0:5 m3
m3
= 499:0 kg
For the second temperature, that mass takes up a larger volume:

m 499:0 kg
V 80 = =
972 mkg3
= 0:513 m3
Therefore, the percentage change in volume is
0:513 m3 0:5 m3
= 0:0267
0:5 m3
volume % change = 2:7%
b. If the tank has D = 2 m, then V = r2 h = 3:14h:Therefore:

h20 = 0:159 m
h80 = 0:163 m
water level rise is 0:163 0:159 m = 0:004257 m = 4:26 mm

REVIEW
Density changes can result from temperature changes, as well as pressure changes.

5
2.6
Situation:
If the density, , of air increases by a factor of 1.4x due to a temperature change,
a. speci…c weight increases by 1.4x
b. speci…c weight increases by 13.7x
c. speci…c weight remains the same

SOLUTION
Since speci…c weight is the product g, if increases by a factor of 1.4, then speci…c
weight increases by 1.4 times as well. The answer is (a).

6
2.7
Situation:
The following questions relate to viscosity.
Find:
(a) The primary dimensions of viscosity and …ve common units of viscosity.
(b) The viscosity of motor oil (in traditional units).

SOLUTION

M
a) Primary dimensions of viscosity are [ LT ].
Five common units are:
i) Nm2s ; ii) dyn
cm2
s
; iii) poise; iv) centipoise; and v) lbf s
ft2

(b) To …nd the viscosity of SAE 10W-30 motor oil at 115 F, there are no tabular
data in the text. Therefore, one should use Figure A.2 (EFM11e). For traditional
units (because the temperature is given in Farenheit) one uses the left-hand axis to
report that = 1:2 10 3 lbfft2 s .
Note: one should be careful to identify the correct factor of 10 for the log cycle that
contains the correct data point. For example, in this problem, the answer is between
1 10 3 and 1 10 2 : Therefore the answer is 1:2 10 3 and not 1 10 2 .

7
2.8
Situation:
When looking up values for density, absolute viscosity, and kinematic viscosity, which
statement is most true for BOTH liquids
and gases?
a. all 3 of these properties vary with temperature
b. all 3 of these properties vary with pressure
c. all 3 of these properties vary with temperature and pressure

SOLUTION
Best answer is (a). The absolute viscosities of liquids and gases do not vary with
pressure.
Answer (c) is also acceptable, because kinematic viscosity does vary with pressure
(because density does).

8
2.9
Situation:
Kinematic viscosity (select all that apply)
a. is another name for absolute viscosity
b. is viscosity/density
c. is dimensionless because forces are canceled out
d. has dimensions of L2 /T

SOLUTION
The answers are (b) and (d).

9
2.10
Situation:
Change in viscosity and density due to temperature.
T1 = 10 C, T2 = 90 C.
patm = 101 kN= m2 (standard atmospheric pressure)
Find:
Change in viscosity and density of water.
Change in viscosity and density of air.
Properties:
See Plan, below.

PLAN
Use tabular data; use subtraction to calculate changes in property values.
For water, use data from Table A.5 (EFM11e). For air, use data from Table A.3
(EFM11e).

SOLUTION
Changes in viscosity and density of water

90 = 3:15 10 4 N s= m2
10 = 1:31 10 3 N s= m2
= 9: 95 10 4 N s= m2

90 = 965 kg/m3
3
10 = 1000 kg/m
= 35 kg/ m3

Changes in viscosity and density of air

90 = 2:13 10 5 N s/m2
10 = 1:76 10 5 N s/m2
= 3:70 10 6 N s= m2

90 = 0:97 kg/m3
3
10 = 1:25 kg/m
= 0:28 kg/ m3

10
2.11
Situation:
Air at certain temperatures.
T1 = 10 C, T2 = 50 C.
Find:
Change in kinematic viscosity.
Properties:
5
From Table A.3 (EFM11e), 50 = 1:79 10 m2 /s, 10 = 1:41 10 5
m2 /s.

PLAN
Use properties found in Table A.3 (EFM11e).

SOLUTION

5
vair,10!50 = (1:79 1:41) 10
vair,10!50 = 3.8 10 6 m2 /s

11
2.12
Situation:
Viscosity of SAE 10W-30 oil, kerosene and water.
T = 50 C
Find:
Dynamic and kinematic viscosity of each ‡uid.

PLAN
Use property data found in Fig. A.2, Fig. A.2, and Table A.5 (all in EFM11e).

SOLUTION

Oil (SAE 10W-30) kerosene water

2
(N s/m ) 4.0 10 2 (Fig. A-2) 1.0 10 3 (Fig. A-2) 5.47 10 4 Table A.5
(m2 /s) 4.5 10 5
(Fig. A-3) 1.5 10 6
(Fig. A-3) 5.53 10 7
Table A.5

Note to instructor:
Expect only accuracy to 1 signi…cant …gure on the oil and kerosene data, because of
di¢ culty interpolating on a log-scale …gure. Students should, however, be able to
report the correct order of magnitude (power of 10) for the 2 forms of viscosity for
these 2 ‡uids.

12
2.13
Situation:
Comparing properties of air and water at standard atmospheric pressure
Find:
Ratio of dynamic viscosity of air to that of water.
Ratio of kinematic viscosity of air to that of water.
Properties:
Air (20 C; 1 atm), Table A.3 (EFM11e), = 1:81 10 5 N s/m2 ; = 1:51 10 5

m2 /s
Water (20 C; 1 atm), Table A.5 (EFM11e), = 1:00 10 3 N s/m2 ; = 1:00
10 6 m2 /s

SOLUTION
Dynamic viscosity
5
air 1:81 10 N s= m2
= 3 N s= m2
water 1:00 10
air 2
= 1:81 10
water

Kinematic viscosity
5
air 1:51 10 m2 = s
= 6 m2 = s
water 1:00 10
air
= 15.1
water

REVIEW

1. Water at these conditions (liquid) is about 55 times more viscous than air (gas).

2. However, the corresponding kinematic viscosity of air is 15 times higher than

the kinematic viscosity of water. The reason is that kinematic viscosity includes
density and air water :

3. Remember that

(a) kinematic viscosity ( ) is related to dynamic viscosity ( ) by: = = :

(b) the labels "viscosity," "dynamic viscosity," and "absolute viscosity" are
synonyms.

13
2.14
Situation:
Properties of air and water.
T = 40 C, p = 170 kPa:
Find:
Kinematic and dynamic viscosities of air and water.
Properties:
5
Air data from Table A.3 (EFM11e), air = 1:91 10 N s/m2
Water data from Table A.5 (EFM11e), water = 6:53 10 4 N s/m2 , water = 992
kg/m3 .

PLAN
Apply the ideal gas law to …nd density. Find kinematic viscosity as the ratio of
dynamic and absolute viscosity.

SOLUTION
A.) Air
Ideal gas law
p
air =
RT
170; 000 Pa
=
(287 J= kg K) (313:2 K)
= 1:89 kg/m3

5 N s
air = 1:91 10 m2

1:91 10 5 N s= m2
=
1:89 kg= m3
5
air = 10:1 10 m2 = s
B.) water
5
water = 6:53 10 N s/m2

6:53 10 4 N s= m2
=
992 kg= m3
7
water = 6:58 10 m2 /s

14
2.15
Situation:
Oxygen at 50 F and 100 F.
Find:
Ratio of viscosities: 100
.
50

SOLUTION
Because the viscosity of gases increases with temperature 100 = 50 > 1. Correct
choice is (c) .

15
2.16
Situation:
Speci…c gravity (select all that apply)
a. can have units of N/m3
b. is dimensionless
c. increases with temperature
d. decreases with temperature

SOLUTION
Correct answers are b and d. Speci…c gravity is a ratio of the density of some liquid
divided by the density of water at 4 C: Therefore it is dimensionless. As temperature
goes up, the density of the liquid in the numerator decreases, but the denominator
stays the same. Therefore the SG decreases as temperature increases. See Table 2.2
in §2.2 of EFM11e.

16
2.17
Situation:
If a liquid has a speci…c gravity of 1.7,
a) What is the density in slugs per cubic feet?
b) What is the speci…c weight in pounds force per cubic feet?

SOLUTION

SG = 1:7
l
SG =
water;4C

a)

slug
l = 1:7 1:94
ft3
l = 3.3 slug
ft3

b)

32:17 lbm = 1 slug

Therefore

3:3 slug 32:17 lbm

= = = 106 lbf
ft3
g ft3 1 slug

17
2.18
Situation:
What are SG, , and for mercury?
State you answers in SI units and in traditional units.

SOLUTION

From table A.4 (EFM11e)

SI Traditional
SG 13.55 13.55
133,000 N= m 847 lbf= ft3
3

13,550 kg= m3 26.3 slug= ft3

18
2.19
Situation:
If you have a bulk modulus of elasticity that is a very large number, then a small
change in pressure would cause
a. a very large change in volume
b. a very small change in volume

SOLUTION
Examination of Eq. 2.4 in §2.3 EFM11e shows that the answer is b.

19
2.20
Situation:
Dimensions of the bulk modulus of elasticity are
a. the same as the dimensions of pressure/density
b. the same as the dimensions of pressure/volume
c. the same as the dimensions of pressure

SOLUTION
Examination of Eq. 2.4 in §2.3 EFM11e shows that the answer is c.
The volume units in the denominator cancel, and the remaining units are pressure.

20
2.21
Situation:
Bulk modulus of elasticity of ethyl alcohol and water.
Eethyl = 1:06 109 Pa:
Ewater = 2:15 109 Pa:
Find:
Which substance is easier to compress?
a. ethyl alcohol
b. water

PLAN
Use bulk modulus of elasticity equation.

SOLUTION
The bulk modulus of elasticity is given by:
V p
E= p =
V d =
This means that bulk modulus of elasticity is inversely related to change in density,
and to the negative change in volume.
Therefore, the liquid with the smaller bulk modulus is easier to compress.
Correct answer is a. Ethyl alcohol is easier to compress because it has the smaller bulk modulus of e
bulk modulus of elasticity is inversely related to change in density.

21
2.22
Situation:
Pressure is applied to a mass of water:
V = 4300 cm3 , p = 4 106 N= m2 :
Find:
Volume after pressure applied (cm3 ).
Properties:
From Table A.5 (EFM11e), E = 2:2 109 Pa

PLAN
1. Use modulus of elasticity equation to calculate volume change resulting from
pressure change.
2. Calculate …nal volume based on original volume and volume change.

SOLUTION
1. Elasticity equation
V
E = p
V
p
V = V
E
(4 106 ) Pa
= 4300 cm3
(2:2 109 ) Pa
= 7:82 cm3

2. Final volume

V f inal = V+ V
= (4300 7:82) cm3

V f inal = 4290 cm3

22
2.23
Situation:
Liquid fresh water is subjected to an increase in pressure.
Find:
Pressure increase needed to reduce volume by 3%.
Properties:
From Table A.5 (EFM11e), E = 2:2 109 Pa:

PLAN
Use modulus of elasticity equation to calculate pressure change required to achieve
the desired volume change.

SOLUTION Modulus of elasticity equation

V
E = p
V
V
p = E
V
0:03 V
= 2:2 109 Pa
V
= 2:2 109 Pa (0:03)
= 6:6 107 Pa

p = 66 MPa

23
2.24
Situation:
Shear stress has dimensions of
a. force/area
b. dimensionless

SOLUTION
The answer is (a). See Eq. 2.9 in EFM11e, and discussion.

24
2.25
Situation:
The term dV/dy, the velocity gradient
a. has dimensions of L=T
b. has dimensions of T 1

SOLUTION
h i
dV
dy
= TL L1 = 1
T
h i
dV
dy
=T 1

dV 1
Therefore the answer is (b); dy
has dimensions of T

25
2.26
Situation:
For the velocity gradient dV/dy
a. The coordinate axis for dy is parallel to velocity
b. The coordinate axis for dy is perpendicular to velocity

SOLUTION
The answer is (b). See Fig. 2.12 in EFM11e, and related discussion.

26
2.27
Situation:
The no-slip condition
a. only applies to ideal ‡ow
b. only applies to rough surfaces
c. means velocity, V, is zero at the wall
d. means velocity, V, is the velocity of the wall

SOLUTION
The answer is (d); velocity, V, is the velocity of the wall.

27
2.28
Situation:
Common Newtonian ‡uids are:
a. toothpaste, catsup, and paint
b. water, oil and mercury
c. all of the above

SOLUTION
The answer is (b). Toothpaste, catsup, and paint are not Newtonian, but are shear-
thinning; see Fig. 2.14 in EFM11e.

28
2.29
Situation:
Which of these materials will ‡ow (deform) with even a small shear stress applied?
a. a Bingham plastic
b. a Newtonian ‡uid

SOLUTION
The answer is (b); see Fig. 2.14 in EFM11e.

29
2.30
Situation:
4
At a point in a ‡owing ‡uid, the shear stress, , is 3 10 psi, and the velocity
gradient is 1 s 1 .
Find:
a. What is the viscosity in traditional units (in lbf, in2 ; and s)?
b. Convert this viscosity to standard SI units.
c. Is this ‡uid more, or less, viscous than water?

SOLUTION
a.
dV
=
dy
3 10 4 lbf s
= =
dV =dy in2 1
4 lbf s 2 lbf s
= 3 10 in2
or = 4:32 10 ft2

b. Convert to SI units, using grid method

3 10 4 lbf s 144 in2 (3:281)2 ft2 4:448 N

=
in2 1 ft2 1 m2 1 lbf
= 2:069 Nm2s

c. The ‡uid is more viscous than water, based upon a comparison to tabulated values
for water. The viscosity of water ranges from 2:8 10 4 to 1:8 10 3 Nm2s depending
upon temperature (Table A.5, EFM11e).

30
2.31
Situation:
SAE 10W30 motor oil is used as a lubricant between two machine parts.
Assume Couette ‡ow.
= 1 10 4 lbf s= ft2
dV = 4 ft= s
2
max = 2 lbf= ft

Find:
What is the required spacing, in inches?

PLAN
dV
Use the de…nition of visosity, = dy
, where dy is the required spacing.

SOLUTION
Find dy
dV
dy =
1 10 4 lbf s 4 ft ft2
= 2
ft s 2 lbf
12 in
= (2 10 4 ft)
1 ft
3
dy = 2:4 10 in

3
The spacing needs to be equal to, or wider than 2:4 10 in in order for the shear
stress to be less than 2 lbf= ft2 :

31
2.32
Situation:
Water ‡ows near a wall. The velocity distribution is
y 1=6
u(y) = a
b
a = 10 m= s, b = 2 mm and y is the distance (mm) from the wall.
Find:
Shear stress in the water at y = 1 mm.
Properties:
3
Table A.5 (EFM11e); water at 20 C: = 1:00 10 N s= m2 .

SOLUTION
du
Take the derivative of the velocity equation to get dy

du d y 1=6
= a
dy dy b
a 1
= 1=6 5=6
b 6y
5=6
a b
=
6b y

du/dy (at y = 1 mm)

5=6
du a b
=
dy 6b y
5=6
10 m= s 2 mm
=
6 0:002 m 1 mm
= 1485 s 1

Shear Stress
du
y=1 mm =
dy
3 N s 1
= 1:00 10 1485 s
m2
= 1:485 Pa

(y = 1 mm) = 1:49 Pa

32
2.33
Situation:
Velocity distribution of crude oil between two walls.
= 8 10 5 lbf s= ft2 , B = 0:1 ft.
u = 100y(0:1 y) ft= s; T = 100 F.
Find:
Shear stress at walls.

SOLUTION
Velocity distribution
u = 100y(0:1 y) = 10y 100y 2
dV =dy = derivative of the equation for velocity

du=dy = 10 200y
(du=dy)y=0 = 10 s 1 and (du=dy)y=0:1 = 10 s 1

Shear stress
du
0 = = (8 10 5 ) 10
dy
4
0 = 8 10 lbf/ft2
4
0:1 = 8 10 lbf/ft2

Plot, where distance is in ft, and velocity is in ft/s.

0.10

0.08
Distance

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00

Velocity

33
2.34
Situation:
A liquid ‡ows between parallel boundaries.
y0 = 0:0 mm, V0 = 0:0 m= s.
y1 = 1:0 mm, V1 = 1:0 m= s.
y2 = 2:0 mm, V2 = 1:99 m= s.
y3 = 3:0 mm, V3 = 2:98 m= s.
Find:
(a) Maximum shear stress.
(b) Location where minimum shear stress occurs.

SOLUTION
(a) Maximum shear stress

= dV =dy
max ( V = y) next to wall
max = (10 3 N s/m2 )((1 m/s)=0:001 m)
max = 1.0 N/m2

(b)The minimum shear stress will occur midway between the two walls . Its mag-
nitude will be zero because the velocity gradient is zero at the midpoint.

34
2.35
Situation:
Glycerin is ‡owing in between two stationary plates. The velocity distribution is
1 dp
u= By y2
2 dx
dp=dx = 1:2 kPa= m, B = 5 cm:
Find:
Velocity and shear stress at a distance of 11 mm from wall (i.e. at y = 11 mm).
Velocity and shear stress at the wall (i.e. at y = 0 mm).
Properties:
Glycerin (20 C), Table A.4 (EFM11e): = 1:41 N s= m2 .

PLAN
Find velocity by direct substitution into the speci…ed velocity distribution.
Find shear stress using the de…nition of viscosity: = (du=dy), where the rate-of-
strain (i.e. the derivative du=dy) is found by di¤erentiating the velocity distribution.

SOLUTION
a.) Velocity (at y = 11 mm)
1 dp
u = By y 2
2 dx
1
= 1200 N= m3 (0:05 m) (0:011 m) (0:011 m)2
2 (1:41 N s= m2 )
m
= 0:1826
s
u (y = 11 mm) = 0:183 m= s
dV =dy (general expression)
du d 1 dp
= By y 2
dy dy 2 dx
1 dp d
= By y 2
2 dx dy
1 dp
= (B 2y)
2 dx
dV =dy (at y = 11 mm)
du 1 dp
= (B 2y)
dy 2 dx
1 N
= 2
1200 3 (0:05 m 2 0:011 m)
2 (1:41 N s= m ) m
1
= 11:91 s

35
Use de…nition of viscosity to get shear stress
du
=
dy
N s 1
= 1:41 11:91 s
m2
= 16:80 Pa
(y = 11 mm) = 16:8 Pa
b.) Velocity (at y = 0 mm)
1 dp
u = By y 2
2 dx
1
= 1600 N= m3 (0:05 m) (0 m) (0 m)2
2 (1:41 N s= m2 )
m
= 0:00
s
u (y = 0 mm) = 0 m= s
dV =dy (at y = 0 mm)
du 1 dp
= (B 2y)
dy 2 dx
1 N
= 1200 (0:05 m 2 0 m)
2 (1:41 N s= m2 ) m3
= 21:28 s 1
Shear stress (at y = 0 mm)
du
=
dy
N s 1
= 1:41 21:28 s
m2
= 30:00 Pa
(y = 0 mm) = 30:0 Pa

REVIEW

1. As expected, the velocity at the wall (i.e. at y = 0) is zero due to the no slip
condition.
2. As expected, the shear stress at the wall is larger than the shear stress away
from the wall. This is because shear stress is maximum at the wall and zero
along the centerline (i.e. at y = B=2).

36
2.36
Situation:
Oil (SAE 10W30) …lls the space between two plates.
y = 1=4 = 0:25 in, u = 12 ft= s.

Lower plate is at rest.

Find:
Shear stress in oil.
Properties:
4
Oil (SAE 10W30 @ 150 F) from Figure A.2 (EFM11e): = 5:2 10 lbf s=ft2 :
Assumptions:
1.) Assume oil is a Newtonian ‡uid.
2.) Assume Couette ‡ow (linear velocity pro…le).

SOLUTION
dV =dy - linear velocity pro…le

du u
=
dy y
12 ft= s
=
(0:25=12) ft
du 1
= 576 s
dy
Newton’s law of viscosity - Newtonian ‡uid

du
=
dy
4 lbf s 1
= 5:2 10 576
ft2 s
lbf
= 0:300
ft2
lbf
= 0:300 ft2

37
2.37
Situation:
Sliding plate viscometer is used to measure ‡uid viscosity.
A = 50 100 mm, y = 1 mm.
V = 22 m= s, F = 1 N.
Find:
Viscosity of the ‡uid.
Assumptions:
Linear velocity distribution.

PLAN
1. The shear force is a force/area.
2. Use equation for viscosity to relate shear force to the velocity distribution.

SOLUTION
1. Calculate shear force
F orce
=
Area
1N
=
50 mm 100 mm
= 200 N= m2

2. Find viscosity

=
dV
dy

200 N= m2 1m
=
[22 m= s] = [1 mm] 1000 mm

3N s
= 9:09 10 m2

38
2.38
Situation:
Laminar ‡ow occurs between two horizontal parallel plates.
dp
ds
is constant, and its sign is negative.
The velocity distribution is given by
1 dp y
u= Hy y2 ut
2 ds H
Pressure p decreases with distance s, and the speed of the upper plate is ut . Note
that ut has a negative value to represent that the upper plate is moving to the left.
Moving plate: y = H:
Stationary plate: y = 0:
Find:
(a) Whether shear stress is greatest at the moving or stationary plate.
(b) Location of zero shear stress.
(c) Derive an expression for plate speed to make the shear stress zero at y = 0:
Sketch:
ut

u
H y

PLAN
By inspection, the slope of the velocity pro…le (du=dy) is larger at the moving plate.
Thus, we expect shear stress to be larger at y = H: To check this idea, …nd shear
stress using the de…nition of viscosity: = (du=dy). Evaluate and compare the
shear stress at the locations y = H and y = 0:

SOLUTION

Part (a)
1. Shear stress, from de…nition of viscosity
du
=
dy
d 1 dp y
= Hy y 2 + ut
dy 2 ds H
H dp y dp ut
= + +
2 ds ds H
(H 2y) dp ut
(y) = +
2 ds H
39
Shear stress at y = H

(H 2H) dp ut
(y = H) = +
2 ds H
H dp ut
= + (1)
2 ds H

2. Shear stress at y = 0

(H 0) dp ut
(y = 0) = +
2 ds H
H dp ut
= + (2)
2 ds H

Since pressure decreases with distance, the pressure gradient dp=ds is negative. Since
the upper wall moves to the left, ut is negative. Thus, maximum shear stress occurs
at y = H because both terms in Eq. (1) have the same sign (they are both negative.)
In other words,
j (y = H)j > j (y = 0)j
:

Maximum shear stress occur at y = H .

Part (b)
Use de…nition of viscosity to …nd the location (y) of zero shear stress

du
=
dy
dp ut
= (1=2 ) (H 2y) +
ds H
dp ut
= (1=2) (H 2y) +
ds H
Set = 0 and solve for y

dp ut
0 = (1=2) (H 2y) +
ds H
H ut
y=
2 Hdp=ds

Part (c)

40
 du
= = 0 at y = 0
dy
du dp ut
= (1=2 ) (H 2y) +
dy ds H
dp ut
Then, at y = 0 : du=dy = 0 = (1=2 ) H +
ds H
dp
Solve for ut : ut = (1=2 ) H 2
ds
dp
Note : because < 0; ut < 0:
ds

41
2.39
Situation:
A cylinder falls inside a pipe …lled with oil.
d = 100 mm, D = 100:5 mm.
` = 200 mm, W = 15 N.
Find:
Speed at which the cylinder slides down the pipe.
Properties:
SAE 20W oil (10o C) from Figure A.2 (EFM11e): = 0.35 N s/m2 :
Assumptions:
Assume that buoyant forces can be neglected.

SOLUTION

dV
=
dy
W Vfall
=
d` (D d)=2
W (D d)
Vfall =
2 d`
15 N(0:5 10 3 m)
Vfall = 1
(2 0:1 m 0:2 m 3:5 10 N s= m2 )
Vfall = 0:17m/s

42
2.40
Situation:
A disk is rotated very close to a solid boundary with oil in between.
! a = 1 rad= s, r2 = 2 cm, r3 = 3 cm.
! b = 2 rad= s, rb = 3 cm.
H = 2 mm, c = 0:01 N s= m2 .
Find:
(a) Ratio of shear stress at 2 cm to shear stress at 3 cm.
(b) Speed of oil at contact with disk surface.
(c) Shear stress at disk surface.
Assumptions:
Linear velocity distribution: dV =dy = V =y = !r=y:

SOLUTION
(a) Ratio of shear stresses

dV !r
= =
dy y
2 1 2=y
=
3 1 3=y
2 2
=
3 3

(b) Speed of oil

V = !r = 2 0:03
V = 0:06m/s

(c) Shear stress at surface

dV 0:06 m= s
= = 0:01 N s= m2
dy 0:002 m
= 0:30 N/m2

43
2.41
Situation:
A disk is rotated in a container of oil to damp the motion of an instrument.
Find:
Derive an equation for damping torque as a function of D; S; ! and :

PLAN
Apply the Newton’s law of viscosity.

SOLUTION
Shear stress

dV
=
dy
r!
=
s
Find di¤erential torque— on an elemental strip of area of radius r the di¤erential
shear force will be dA or (2 rdr). The di¤erential torque will be the product of
the di¤erential shear force and the radius r.

dTone side = r[ (2 rdr)]

h r! i
= r (2 rdr)
s
2 ! 3
= r dr
s
r ! 3
dTboth sides = 4 r dr
s
Integrate

ZD=2
4 !
T = r3 dr
s
0
1 !D4
T =
16 s

44
2.42
Situation:
One type of viscometer involves the use of a rotating cylinder inside a …xed cylinder.
Tmin = 50 F, Tmax = 200 F:
Find:
(a) Design a viscometer that can be used to measure the viscosity of motor oil.
Assumptions:
Motor oil is SAE 10W-30. Data from Fig A-2 (EFM11e): will vary from about
4 2 3 2
2 10 lbf-s/ft to 8 10 lbf-s/ft :
Assume the only signi…cant shear stress is developed between the rotating cylinder
and the …xed cylinder.
Assume we want the maximum rate of rotation (!) to be 3 rad/s.
Maximum spacing is 0.05 in.

SOLUTION
One possible design solution is given below.
Design decisions:

1. Let h = 4:0 in. = 0.333 ft

2. Let I.D. of …xed cylinder = 9.00 in. = 0.7500 ft.

3. Let O.D. of rotating cylinder = 8.900 in. = 0.7417 ft.

Let the applied torque, which drives the rotating cylinder, be produced by a force
from a thread or small diameter mono…lament line acting at a radial distance rs :
Here rs is the radius of a spool on which the thread of line is wound. The applied
force is produced by a weight and pulley system shown in the sketch below.

Pulley

h r
c W
∆r

The relationship between ; rs ; !; h; and W is now developed.

T = rc Fs (1)

where T = applied torque

45
rc = outer radius of rotating cylinder
Fs = shearing force developed at the outer radius of the rotating cylinder but Fs =
As where As = area in shear = 2 rc h
= dV =dy V = r where V = rc ! and r = spacing
Then T = rc ( V = r)(2 rc h)
rc !
= rc ( )(2 rc h) (2)
r
But the applied torque T = W rs so Eq. (2) become
h
W rs = rc3 !(2 )
r
Or
W rs r
= (3)
2 !hrc3
The weight W will be arbitrarily chosen (say 2 or 3 oz.) and ! will be determined by
measuring the time it takes the weight to travel a given distance. So rs ! = Vfall or
! = Vfall =rs : Equation (3) then becomes
W rs2 r
=
Vf rc3 2 h
In our design let rs = 2 in. = 0.1667 ft. Then
W (0:1667)2 0:004167
=
Vf (:3708)3 (2 :3333)
W 0:02779
=
Vf 0:05098
W
= (1:085 10 3 ) lbf s=ft2
Vf
Example: If W = 2oz. = 0.125lb. and Vf is measured to be 0.24 ft/s then
0:125
= (1:085 10 3 ) lbf s= ft2
0:24
= 0:564 10 4 lbf s= ft2

REVIEW
Other things that could be noted or considered in the design:
1. Specify dimensions of all parts of the instrument.
2. Neglect friction in bearings of pulley and on shaft of cylinder.
3. Neglect weight of thread or mono…lament line.
4. Consider degree of accuracy.
5. Estimate cost of the instrument.

46
2.43
Situation:
Surface tension: (select all that apply)
a. only occurs at an interface, or surface
b. has dimensions of energy/area
c. has dimensions of force/area
d. has dimensions of force/length
e. depends on adhesion and cohesion
f. varies as a function of temperature

SOLUTION
Answers are a, b, d, e, and f.

47
2.44
Situation:
Very small spherical droplet of water.
Find:
Pressure inside.

SOLUTION
Refer to Example 2.4 (EFM11e). The surface tension force, 2 r , will be resisted
by the pressure force acting on the cut section of the spherical droplet or

p( r2 ) = 2 r
2
p =
r
4
p=
d

48
2.45
Situation:
A spherical soap bubble.
Inside radius R, wall-thickness t, surface tension .
Special case: R = 4 mm.
Find:
Derive a formula for the pressure di¤erence across the bubble
Pressure di¤erence for bubble with R = 4 mm.
Assumptions:
The e¤ect of thickness is negligible, and the surface tension is that of pure water.

PLAN
Apply equilibrium, then the surface tension force equation.

SOLUTION
Force balance
2 x 2πRσ

Surface tension force

X
F = 0
p R2 2(2 R ) = 0

Formula for pressure di¤erence

4
p= R

Pressure di¤erence

4 7:3 10 2 N/m
p4mm rad. =
0:004 m
p4mm rad. = 73:0 N/m2

49
2.46
Situation:
A water bug is balanced on the surface of a water pond.
n = 6 legs, ` = 3 mm=leg.
Find:
Maximum mass of bug to avoid sinking.
Properties:
Surface tension of water, from Table A.4 (EFM11e), = 0:073 N/m.

PLAN
Apply equilibrium, then the surface tension force equation.
SOLUTION
Force equilibrium
Upward force due to surface tension = Weight of Bug
FT = mg
To …nd the force of surface tension (FT ), consider the cross section of one leg of the
bug:
Cross section
of bug leg

Surface tension
force on one
θ side of leg
F F
Assume θ is small
Then cos θ =1; F cos θ= F

Surface tension force equation is given by FT = `; here it is exerted on 2 sides of

each leg.

FT = (2=leg)(6 legs) `
= 12 `
= 12(0:073 N/m)(0:003 m)
= 0:00263 N
Apply equilibrium
FT mg = 0
FT 0:00263 N
m = =
g 9:81 m2 = s
= 0:268 10 3 kg
m = 0:268 g

50
2.47
Situation:
A water column in a glass tube is used to measure pressure.
d1 = 1=2 in, d2 = 1=8 in, d3 = 1=16 in:
Find:
Height of water column due to surface tension e¤ects for all diameters.
Assumptions:
Assume that = 0:
Properties:
From Table A.4 (EFM11e): surface tension of water is 0.005 lbf/ft.

SOLUTION
Surface tension force

4 4 0:005 lbf= ft 3:21 10 4 ft2

h = = =
d 62:4 lbf= ft3 d ft d ft
4 2
1 1 3:21 10 ft
d = in = ft; h = = 0:00769 ft = 0.0923 in
2 24 1=24 ft
1 1 3:21 10 4 ft2
d = in = ft; h = = 0:0308 ft = 0.369 in
8 96 1=96 ft
1 1 3:21 10 4 ft2
d = in = ft; h = = 0:0615 ft= 0.739 in
16 192 1=192 ft

51
2.48
Situation:
Two vertical glass plates
t = 1 mm
Find:
Capillary rise (h) between the plates.
Properties:
2
From Table A.4 (EFM11e), surface tension of water is 7:3 10 N/m.

PLAN
Apply equilibrium, then the surface tension force equation.

SOLUTION

Equilibrium

X
Fy = 0
Force due to surface tension = Weight of ‡uid that has been pulled upward
(2`) = (h`t)
Solve for capillary rise (h)

2 ` h`t = 0
2
h =
t
2 (7:3 10 2 N= m)
h =
9810 N= m3 0:001 m
= 0:0149 m
h = 14.9 mm

52
2.49
Situation:
A spherical water drop.
4
d = 0:75 mm; therefore R = 3:75 10 m
Find:
Pressure inside the droplet (N/m2 )
Properties:
2
From Table A.4 (EFM11e), surface tension of water is 7:3 10 N/m

PLAN
Apply equilibrium, then the surface tension force equation.

SOLUTION
Equilibrium (half the water droplet)

Force due to pressure = Force due to surface tension

pA = L
p R2 = 2 R

Solve for pressure

2
p =
R
2
2 7:3 10 N= m
p = 4 m)
(3:75 10
p = 389 N/m2

53
2.50
Situation:
A tube employing capillary rise is used to measure temperature of water
T0 = 0 C, T100 = 100 C
0 = 0:0756 N= m, 100 = 0:0589 N= m

Find:
Size the tube (this means specify diameter and length).
Assumptions:
Assume for this problem that di¤erences in ;due to temperature change, are negli-
gible.

PLAN
Apply equilibrium and the surface tension force equation.

SOLUTION
The elevation in a column due to surface tension is
4
h=
d

where is the speci…c weight and d is the tube diameter. For the change in surface
tension due to temperature, the change in column elevation would be
62
4 4 0:0167 N= m 6:8 10 6:8 mm2
h= = 3
= m2 =
d 9810 N= m d d m d mm

The change in column elevation for a 1-mm diameter tube would be 6.8 mm . Spe-
cial equipment, such the optical system from a microscope, would have to be used to
measure such a small change in de‡ection It is unlikely that smaller tubes made of
transparent material can be purchased to provide larger de‡ections.

54
2.51
Situation:
Capillary rise is the distance water will rise above a water table, because the intercon-
nected pores in the soil act like capillary tubes. This means that deep-rooted plants
in the desert need only grow to the top of the “capillary fringe”in order to get water;
they do not have to extend all the way down to the water table.
a. Assuming that interconnected pores can be represented as a continuous capillary
tube, how high is the capillary rise in a soil consisting of a silty soil, with pore diameter
of 10 m?
b. Is the capillary rise higher in a soil with …ne sand (pore d approx. 0.1 mm), or
in …ne gravel (pore d approx. 3 mm)?
c. Root cells extract water from soil using capillarity. For root cells to extract
water from the capillary zone, do the pores in a root need to be smaller than, or
greater than, the pores in the soil?

SOLUTION
a. Apply principals of surface tension, using Eq. 2.23 of EFM11e:
4
h=
d
2
From Table A.5 in EFM11e, bottom line, air=water = 7:3 10 N= m

4(7:3 10 2 ) N m3 1
h = 6
m 9810 N 10 10 m
h = 3:0 m

b. By inspection of Eq. 2.23 of EFM11e, the pore diameter, d, is in the denomina-

tor, so as d gets smaller, h increases. Therefore, capillary rise is higher in a clay
than in a gravel, because the pores are smaller.
c. In order to "wick" water from the soil, the pores in the roots need to be smaller
than the pores in the soil.

55
2.52
Situation:
A soap bubble and a droplet of water of equal diameter in air
d = 2 mm, bubble = droplet
Find:
Which has the greater pressure inside.

SOLUTION
The soap bubble will have the greatest pressure because there are two surfaces (two
surface tension forces) creating the pressure within the bubble. The correct choice is
a)

56
2.53
Situation:
A hemispherical drop of water is suspended under a surface
Find:
Diameter of droplet just before separation
Properties:
Table A.5 (EFM11e) (20 C): = 9790 N= m3 ; = 0:073 N= m:

SOLUTION
Equilibrium

Weight of droplet = Force due to surface tension

D3
= ( D)
12

Solve for D

12
D2 =
12(0:073 N/m) 5
= = 8: 948 10 m2
9790 N/m3
D = 9: 459 10 3 m

D = 9:46 mm

57
2.54
Situation:
Surface tension is being measured by suspending liquid from a ring
Di = 10 cm, Do = 9:5 cm
m = 10 g, F = 16 g g, where g is the acceleration of gravity
Find:
Surface tension ( N= m)

PLAN
1. Force equilibrium on the ‡uid suspended in the ring. For force due to surface
tension, use the form of the equation provided in the text for the special case of a
ring being pulled out of a liquid.
2. Solve for surface tension - all the other forces are known.

SOLUTION
1. Force equilibrium

(Upward force) = (Weight of ‡uid) + (Force due to surface tension)

F = W + ( Di + Do )

2. Solve for surface tension

F W
=
(Di + Do )
(0:016 0:010) kg 9:81 m= s2
=
(0:1 + 0:095) m
kg
= 9:61 10 2 2
s

= 0:0961 N/m

58
2.55
Situation:
If liquid water at 30 C is ‡owing in a pipe and the pressure drops to the vapor
pressure, what happens in the water?
a. the water begins condensing on the walls of the pipe
b. the water boils
c. the water ‡ashes to vapor

SOLUTION
The answer is (b), it boils. Answer (c) is not correct. Flash vaporization is an
industrial process used to separate volatile hydrocarbons; see the internet.

59
2.56

Find:
How does vapor pressure change with increasing temperature?
a. it increases
b. it decreases
c. it stays the same

SOLUTION
The answer is (a).

REVIEW Vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature. To get an every-

day feel for this, note from the Appendix that the vapor pressure of water at 212 F
(100 C) is 101 kPa (14.7 psia). To get water to boil at a lower temperature, you
would have to exert a vacuum on the water. To keep it from boiling until a higher
temperature, you would have to pressurize it.

60
2.57
Situation:
T = 30 C;‡uid is water.
Find:
The pressure that must be imposed to cause boiling

PLAN
Vapor pressure (Pv ) is the pressure at which water boils for a given temperature.

SOLUTION
Bubbles will be noticed to be forming when P = Pv :
Consult Table A.5 (EFM11e) for T = 30 C:

P = 4250 Pa abs

61
2.58
Situation:
Water in a closed tank
T = 20 C, p = 12; 300 Pa abs
Find:
Whether water will bubble into the vapor phase (boil).
Properties:
From Table A.5 (EFM11e), at T = 20 C, Pv = 2340 Pa abs

SOLUTION
The tank pressure is 12,300 Pa abs, and Pv = 2340 Pa abs for T = 20 C.
So the tank pressure is higher than the Pv : Therefore the water will not boil .

REVIEW
The water can be made to boil at this temperature only if the pressure is reduced
to 2340 Pa abs. Or, the water can be made to boil at this pressure only if the
temperature is raised to 50 C:

62
2.59
Situation:
The boiling temperature of water decreases with increasing elevation
p
T
= 3:1oC
kPa
:
Find:
Boiling temperature at an altitude of 3000 m
Properties:
T = 100o C, p = 101 kN= m2 .
z3000 = 3000 m, p3000 = 69 kN= m2 .
Assumptions:
Assume that vapor pressure versus boiling temperature is a linear relationship.

PLAN
Develop a linear equation for boiling temperature as a function of elevation.

SOLUTION
Let BT = "Boiling Temperature." Then, BT as a function of elevation is

BT
BT (3000 m) = BT (0 m) + p
p

Thus,

1:0 C
BT (3000 m) = 100 C + (101 69) kPa
3:1 kPa
BT (3000 m) = 89: 677 C

Boiling Temperature (3000 m) = 89:7 C

63