CHAPTER 1 – HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS

A. Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations Changed the Course of Science and Technology
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, and SOCIETY - an interdisciplinary course designed to examine the ways that science
and technology shape, and are shaped by, our society, politics, and culture. It explores the conditions under which
production, distribution and utilization of scientific knowledge and technological systems occur, and the effects of these
processes upon the entire society.
SCIENCE - an evolving body of knowledge that is based on theoretical expositions and experimental and empirical
activities that generates universal truths.
TECHNOLOGY - is the application of science and creation of systems, processes and objects designed to help humans
in their daily activities.
SOCIETY - is the sum total of our interactions as humans, including the interactions that we engage in to understand the
nature of things and to create things. It is also defined as a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or
a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory.
Science, technology and society is important to the public because it helps address issues and problems that are of
concern to the general population. Scientific and technological principles have been and continue to be applied to solve
problems that people experience in their day-to-day aspects of living.
The Role of Science and Technology:
1. Alter the way people live, connect, communicate and transact, with profound effects on economic development.
2. Key drivers to development, because technological and scientific revolutions underpin economic advances,
improvements in health systems, education and infrastructure.
3. The technological revolutions of the 21st century is emerging from entirely new sectors, based on micro-processors,
tele-communications, bio-technology and nano-technology. Products are transforming business practices across the
economy, as well as the lives of all who have access to their effects. The most remarkable breakthroughs will come
from the interaction of insights and applications arising when these technologies converge.
4. Have the power to better the lives of poor people in developing countries
5. Differentiators between countries that are able to tackle poverty effectively by growing and developing their
economies, and those that are not.
6. Engine of growth
7. Interventions for cognitive enhancement, proton cancer therapy and genetic engineering

B. Historical Antecedents in the World

From Ancient Times to 600 BC

• Involved practical arts like healing practices and metal tradition

• The heart of egyptian medicine was trial and error.
• The egyptian medicine was considered advanced as compared with other ancient nations because of one of the
early inventions of egyptian civilization – the papyrus.
• Papyrus - an ancient form of paper, made from the papyrus plant, a reed which grows in the marshy areas around
the nile river.
• The invention of this ancient form of paper revolutionized the way information was transmitted from person to
person and generation to generation.
• Before papyrus, egyptians, sumerians, and other races wrote on clay tablets or smooth rocks.
• Mesopotamians were making pottery using the first known potter’s wheel. Not long after, horse-drawn chariots
were being used.
The Advent of Science (600 BC to 500 AD)

• Ancient Greeks were the early thinkers.

• They were the first true scientists.
• They collected facts and observations and then used those observations to explain the natural world.
• This period produced substantial advances in scientific knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany,
mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy.
• An awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change
and its cause.
• A recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of
undertaking empirical research.
Islamic Golden Age

• A period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam

• This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786
to 809)
• scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate
All of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic language and subsequently development in various fields of
sciences began.
• Science and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from
contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while
making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions.
• Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially astronomy, mathematics,
and medicine.
• Scientific inquiry was practiced in other subjects like alchemy and chemistry, botany and agronomy, geography
and cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacology, physics and zoology.
• Islamic science was characterized by having practical purposes as well as the goal of understanding.
• Astronomy was useful in determining the Qibla, which is the direction in which to pray, botany is applied in
agriculture and geography enabled scientists to make accurate maps.
• Mathematics also flourished during the Islamic Golden Age with the works of Al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna and
Jamshid al Kashi that led to advance in algebra, trigonometry, geometry and Arabic numerals.
• Al-Biruni, and Avicenna produced books that contain descriptions of the preparation of hundreds of drugs made
from medicinal plants and chemical compounds.
• Islamic doctors describe diseases like smallpox and measles, and challenged classical Greek medical knowledge.
Science and Technology in Ancient China

• Ancient Chinese scientists and engineers made significant scientific innovations, findings and technological
advances across various scientific disciplines including the natural sciences, engineering, medicine, military
technology, mathematics, geology and astronomy.
• Four Great Inventions that include the compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing.
• The Four Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the technological interaction between East and West
• As stated by Karl Marx, "Gunpowder, the compass, and the printing press were the three great inventions which
ushered in bourgeois society.
The Renaissance

• Considered by many as the Golden Age of Science.

• Great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, anatomy, manufacturing, and
engineering.
• This initial period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness.
• There were no new developments in physics or astronomy, and the reverence for classical sources further
enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe.
 • Renaissance philosophy lost much of its rigor as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to
intuition and emotion.
• At the same time, Renaissance humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual creation
that was not governed by laws or mathematics. Science would only be revived later, with such figures as
Copernicus, Gerolamo Cardano, Francis Bacon, and Descartes.
• Development of printing, with movable metal type
The Enlightenment Period (1715 A.D. to 1789 A.D.)

• The Enlightenment Period or the Age of Reason was characterized by radical reorientation in science, which
emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith.
• This period produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions.
• The American and French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals and respectively marked
the peak of its influence and the beginning of its decline.
• Works that provided the scientific, mathematical and philosophical toolkit for the Enlightenment’s major
advances:
- Isaac Newton published his “Principia Mathematica” (1686)
- John Locke his “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1689)
• In this era dedicated to human progress, the advancement of the natural sciences is regarded as the main
exemplification of, and fuel for, such progress.
• The conception of nature, and of how we know it, changes significantly with the rise of modern science. It
belongs centrally to the agenda of Enlightenment philosophy to contribute to the new knowledge of nature, and to
provide a metaphysical framework within which to place and interpret this new knowledge.
Industrial Revolution

• Science of metallurgy permitted the tailoring of alloy steels to industrial specifications.

• Science of chemistry permitted the creation of new substances, like the aniline dyes, of fundamental industrial
importance, and that electricity and magnetism were harnessed in the electric dynamo and motor.
• Steam engine that posed the problems that led, by way of a search for a theory of steam power, to the creation of
thermodynamics.
• Complicated and intricate machinery
• As science turned from the everyday world to the worlds of atoms and molecules, electric currents and magnetic
fields, microbes and viruses, and nebulae and galaxies, instruments increasingly provided the sole contact with
phenomena. A large refracting telescope driven by intricate clockwork to observe nebulae was as much a product
of 19th-century heavy industry as were the steam locomotive and the steamship.
• Prospect of applying science to the problems of industry served to stimulate public support for science.
• Governments, in varying degrees and at different rates, began supporting science even more directly, by making
financial grants to scientists, by founding research institutes, and by bestowing honors and official posts on great
scientists.
• The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution were technological, socioeconomic, and cultural.
• Technological Changes:
- use of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel.
- use of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal, the steam engine,
electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine.
- invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that permitted increased
production with a smaller expenditure of human energy.
- new organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed increased division of labor and
specialization of function.
- important developments in transportation and communication, including the steam locomotive,
steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio.
- increasing application of science to industry
 • These technological changes made possible a tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass
production of manufactured goods.
20th Century Science: Physics and Information Age

• An important century in the history of the sciences.

• Generated entirely novel insights in all areas of research.
• Established an intimate connection between science and technology.
• Science is dealing now with the complexity of the real world.
• The scientific legacy of the 20th Century gave proof of the revolutionary changes in many areas of the sciences –
in particular, physics, biology, astronomy, chemistry, neurosciences and earth and environmental sciences – and
how they contributed to these changes.
• The epistemological and methodological questions as well as the interdisciplinary aspects become ever more
important in scientific research.
• The common denominator of the sciences is the notion of discovery, and discovery is an organized mode of
observing nature.
• Twentieth century cosmology greatly improved our knowledge of the place that man and his planet occupy in the
universe.
• The “wonder” that Plato and Aristotle put at the origin of thought, today extends to science itself.
• strongly marked by Einstein’s formulation of the theory of relativity (1905) including the unifying concept of
energy related to mass and the speed of light: E = mc2 (𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝟐 )
• development of the semi-conductor (transistor)
• developments in nanotechnology that led to great advances in information technology.
• discovery of sub-atomic particles provided a great leap forward.
• DNA, the carrier of genetic information
• Physics has enabled us to understand the basic components of matter
• Biology too, with the discovery of DNA and the development of genetics
• It is impossible to list the many other discoveries and results that have broadened our knowledge and influenced
our world outlook:
- from progress in computational logic to the chemistry of materials
- from the neurosciences to robotics.
Science and Technology in the Fourth Industrial Revolution

• The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a way of describing the blurring of boundaries between the physical, digital,
and biological worlds.
• It’s a fusion of advances in artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT), 3D printing, genetic
engineering, quantum computing, and other technologies.
- GPS systems that suggest the fastest route to a destination
- voice-activated virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri
- personalized Netflix recommendations
- Facebook’s ability to recognize your face and tag you in a friend’s photo
• As a result of this perfect storm of technologies, the Fourth Industrial Revolution is paving the way for
transformative changes in the way we live and radically disrupting almost every business sector. It’s all happening
at an unprecedented, whirlwind pace.
• Artificial intelligence (AI) describes computers that can “think” like humans.
• Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive digital experiences (using a VR headset) that simulate the real world, while
augmented reality merges the digital and physical worlds.
• Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop new technologies and products for a
range of uses, including developing new pharmaceuticals and materials, more efficient industrial manufacturing
processes, and cleaner, more efficient energy sources.
• Robotics refers to the design, manufacture, and use of robots for personal and commercial use.
 • 3D printing allows manufacturing businesses to print their own parts, with less tooling, at a lower cost, and faster
than via traditional processes. Plus, designs can be customized to ensure a perfect fit.
• The IoT describes the idea of everyday items — from medical wearables that monitor users’ physical condition to
cars and tracking devices inserted into parcels — being connected to the internet and identifiable by other devices.
• Energy capture, storage, and transmission represent a growing market sector, spurred by the falling cost of
renewable energy technologies and improvements in battery storage capacity.
C. Historical Development of Science and Technology in the Philippines
Pre-Spanish Era

• First inhabitants in the archipelago who settled in Palawan and Batangas around 40 000 years ago have made
simple tools or weapons of stone which eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling and polishing hard
stones.
• They have come to understand that when clay is mixed with 2 water and then shaped into something before sun
drying, it hardens to an object that can also be useful to them. And because clay is moldable, it can be shaped into
various objects.
• They have learned how to extract, smelt and refine metals like copper, gold, bronze and iron from nature and
consequently fashion them into tools and implements.
• As the inhabitants shifted from wandering from one place to another and learned to settle in areas near the water
source, they also learned how to weave cotton, engaged themselves in agriculture and are knowledgeable on
building boats for coastal trade.
Spanish Colonial Era

• As claimed by Caoili (1983), the beginnings of modern science and technology in the country can be traced back
to the Spanish regime because they established schools, hospitals and started scientific research that had important
consequences in the development of the country.
• Dr. Jose Rizal is the epitome of the Renaissance man in the Philippine context. He is a scientist, a doctor, an
engineer (he designed and built a water system in Dapitan), a journalist, a novelist, an urban planner and a hero.
• Being a doctor and scientist, he had extensive knowledge on medicine and was able to operate his mother’s
blinding eye. When he was deported in Dapitan, his knowledge on science and engineering was translated into
technology by creating a water system that improved the sanitation of households in the area.
• 1887, the Laboratorio Municipal de Ciudad de Manila was created and whose functions were to conduct
biochemical analyses for public health and to undertake specimen examinations for clinical and medico-legal
cases
• Its publication, probably the first scientific journal in the country was titled Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de
Filipinas showed the studies undertaken during that time.
• As the colonization of the Spaniards lengthened, they began to exploit the natural resources of the country
through agriculture, mining of metals and minerals and establishing various kinds of industries to further promote
economic growth.
• Manila has become a cosmopolitan center and modern amenities were introduced to the city.
• The Philippines had evolved into a primary agricultural exporting economy, and this is not because of the
researches undertaken on this field, but was largely because of the influx of foreign capital and technology which
brought modernization of some sectors, notably sugar and hemp production.
American Period

• Rapid growth during the American occupation and was made possible by the government’s extensive public
education system from elementary to tertiary schools.
• The establishment of various public tertiary schools like the Philippine Normal School and University of the
Philippines provided the needs for professionally trained Filipinos in building the government’s organization and
programs.
 • The growth and application of science were still concentrated on the health sector in the form of biochemical
analyses in hospitals.
• The government supported basic and applied research in the medical, agricultural and related sciences.
• American colonial government sent Filipino youths to be educated as teachers, engineers, physicians and lawyers
in American colleges to further capacitate the Filipinos in various fields.
• There was difficulty in recruiting students for science and technology courses like veterinary medicine,
engineering, agriculture, applied sciences and industrial-vocational courses. The enrollment in these courses were
dismal that the government had to offer scholarships to attract students. The unpopularity of these courses
stemmed from the Filipinos’ disdain toward manual work that developed from the 400 years under Spanish
colonization. The Filipinos then prefer prestigious professions at that time like priesthood, law and medicine.
• The government provided more support for the development of science and created the Bureau of Government
Laboratories in and was later changed to Bureau of Science.
- It was composed of a biological laboratory, chemical laboratory, serum laboratory for the production of
virus vaccine, serums and prophylactics, and a library.
• Bureau of Science served as the primary training ground for Filipino scientists and paved the way for
pioneering scientific research, most especially on the study of various tropical diseases that were prevalent during
those times like leprosy, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria and beri-beri.
• Another great contribution of the Bureau of Science to the development of science and technology in the country
was the publication of the Philippine Journal of Science. This scientific journal published researches done in
local laboratories and reported global scientific developments that had relevance to the Philippine society.
• The Bureau of Science became the primary research center of the Philippines until World War II.
• Lastly, on December 8, 1933, the National Research Council of the Philippines was established.
Commonwealth Period

• When the Americans granted independence and the Commonwealth government was established, the Filipinos
were busy in working towards economic reliance but acknowledge the importance and vital role of science and
technology for the economic development of the country by declaring that “The State shall promote scientific
research and invention”
• The short-lived Commonwealth Government was succeeded by the Japanese occupation when the Pacific war
broke out in 1941.
• The prevailing situations during the time of Commonwealth period to the Japanese regime had made
developments in science and technology practically impossible.
• This is also true when World War II ended and left Manila, the country’s capital, in ruins.
• The government had to rebuild again and normalize the operations in the whole country.
Science and Technology since Independence

• In 1946 the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute of Science and was placed under the Office of the
President of the Philippines.
• In a report by the US Economic Survey to the Philippines in 1950, there is a lack of basic information which were
necessities to the country's industries, lack of support of experimental work and minimal budget for scientific
research and low salaries of scientists employed by the government.
• In 1958, during the regime of President Carlos P. Garcia, the Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958
which established the National Science Development Board (NSDB).
• Likewise, during this time, rebuilding the country involved establishing more state funded manual and trading
schools which would eventually become the current state universities and colleges. The trade schools produced
craftsmen, tradesmen and technicians that helped in shaping a more technological Philippines while still being an
agricultural based nation. Eventually, when these trade schools were elevated to college and university status, they
produced much of the country’s professionals, although there was a great disparity on the low proportion of those
in agriculture, medical and natural sciences with those from teacher training and commerce/business
administration courses which had higher number of graduates.
 • The increase in the number of graduates led to the rise of professional organizations of scientists and engineers.
These organizations were formed to promote professional interests and create and monitor the standards of
practice.
• As summarized by Caoili, “There has been little innovation in the education and training of scientists and
engineers since independence in 1946. This is in part due to the conservative nature of self-regulation by the
professional associations. Because of specialized training, vertical organizations by disciplines and lack of liaison
between professions, professional associations have been unable to perceive the dynamic relationship between
science, technology and society and the relevance of their training to Philippine conditions.
Science and Technology in the 1960’s to 1990’s

• During these years, the government gave greater importance to science and technology. The government declared
in Section 9(1) of the 1973 Philippine Constitution that the “advancement of science and technology shall have
priority in the national development.”
• On April 6, 1968, Pres. Ferdinand Marcos proclaimed the 35-hectare land in Bicutan, Taguig as the site of the
Philippine Science Community.
• 1969, the government provided funds to private universities to encourage them to conduct research and create
courses in science and technology.
• In the 1970s, focus on science and technology was given to applied research and the main objective was to
generate products and processes that were supposed to have a greater beneficial impact to the society.
• Relative to this, several research institutes were established under the National Science Development Board
(NSDB):
- Philippine Coconut Research Institute
- Philippine Textile Research Institute.
• Moreover, the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission, another agency under NSDB, explored the uses of
atomic energy for economic development.
• To prepare the pool of scientists who will work on Philippine Atomic Commission, Pres. Marcos assisted 107
institutions in undertaking nuclear energy work by sending scientists abroad to study nuclear science and
technology, and providing basic training to 482 scientists, doctors, engineers and technicians.
• 1972, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 4, the National Grains Authority (NGA) was created and it was
tasked to improve the rice and corn industry and thereby help in the economic development of the country.
• This was followed by the creation of Philippine Council for Agricultural Research (PCAR) to support the
progressive development of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in the country.
• The Marcos administration also established the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical
Service Administration (PAGASA) under the Department of National Defense to provide environmental
protection and to utilize scientific knowledge to ensure the safety of the people through Presidential Decree No.
78, s. 1972.
• Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC) was created by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 334, s. 1973, to
promote industrial and economic development through effective and efficient use of energy sources.
• To strengthen the scientific culture in the country, the National Academy of Science and Technology was
established under Presidential Decree No. 1003-A, s. 1976.
• In 1982, NSDB was further reorganized into a National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA) composed
of four research and development Councils:
- Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD)
- Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research Development (PCIERD)
- Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD)
- National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP)
• NSTA has also eight research and development institutes and support agencies under it. These are actually the
former organic and attached agencies of NSDB which have themselves been reorganized.
• March 1983, Executive Order No. 889 was issued by the President which provided for the establishment of a
national network of centers of excellence in basic sciences.
• Six new institutes were created:
 - The National Institutes of Physics
- Geological Sciences
- Natural Sciences Research
- Chemistry
- Biology
- Mathematical Sciences
• Related to these efforts was the establishment of a Scientific Career System in the Civil Service (SCSCS) by
Presidential Decree No. 901 on 19 July 1983. This is designed to attract more qualified scientists to work in
government and encourage young people to pursue science degrees and careers.
• 1986, under the Aquino administration, the National Science and Technology Authority was replaced by the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST), giving science and technology a representation in the cabinet.
• With the agency's elevation to full cabinet stature by virtue of Executive Order 128 signed on 30 January 1987,
the functions and responsibilities of DOST expanded correspondingly to include the following:
- Pursue the declared state policy of supporting local scientific and technological effort.
- Develop local capability to achieve technological self-reliance.
- Encourage greater private sector participation in research and development. moreover, funding for the
science and technology sector was tripled from 464 million in 1986 to 1.7 billion in 1992.
• During President Fidel Ramos’s term, there was a significant increase in personnel specializing in the science
and technology field.
• In 1998, there was an estimated 3,000 competent scientists and engineers in the Philippines.
• The government provided 3,500 scholarships for students who were taking up professions related to S&T.
• Priority for S&T personnel increased when Magna Carta for Science and Technology Personnel (MCSTP)
(Republic Act No. 8439) was established. The award was published in order to give incentives and rewards for
people who have been influential in the field of S&T.
• DOST established the “Science and Technology Agenda for National Development (STAND)”, a program that
was significant to the field of S&T. It identified seven export products, 11 domestic needs, three other
supporting industries, and the coconut industry as priority investment areas.
• The 7 identified export products were:
- computer software
- fashion accessories
- gifts, toys, and houseware
- marine products
- metal fabrications
- furniture
- dried fruits.
• The 11 domestic needs identified:
- food
- housing
- health
- clothing
- transportation
- communication
- disaster mitigation
- defense
- environment
- manpower development
- energy
• 3 additional support industries:
- packaging
- chemicals
- metals
 • In the Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo administration, numerous laws and projects were implemented which concerns
both the environment and science to push technology as a tool to increase the country’s economic level.
• This is to help increase the productivity from Science, Technology and Innovations (STI) and help benefit the
poor people. Moreover, the term “Filipinnovation” was the coined term used in helping the Philippines to be an
innovation hub in Asia.
• The STI was developed further by strengthening the schools and education system such as the Philippine Science
High School (PSHS)
• Recently, the Philippines ranked 73rd out of 128 economies in terms of Science and Technology and Innovation
(STI) index, citing the country’s strength in research and commercialization of STI ideas (DOST, 2018).
Hopes in Philippine Science and Technology

• Despite the many inadequacies, from funding to human capital, there are some science and technology-intensive
research and capacity-building projects which resulted in products which are currently being used successfully
and benefits the society.
• One of these is the micro-satellite. In April 2016, the country launched into space its first micro-satellite called
Diwata-1.
• The Diwata (deity in English) satellite provides real-time, high-resolution and multi-color infrared images for
various applications, including meteorological imaging, crop and ocean productivity measurement and high-
resolution imaging of natural and man-made features.
• The country also has the Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards (NOAH), which uses the Lidar
(light detection and ranging) technology.
• Project NOAH was initiated in June 2012 to help manage risks associated with natural hazards and disasters. The
project developed hydromet sensors and high-resolution geo-hazard maps, which were generated by light
detection and ranging technology for flood modeling. Noah helps the government in providing timely warning
with a lead time of at least six hours in the wake of impending floods.
• Another hope lies in the so-called Intelligent Operation Center Platform (OCP). Established through a
collaboration between the local government of Davao City and IBM Philippines Inc., the center resulted in the
creation of a dashboard that allows authorized government agencies, such as police, fire and anti-terrorism task
force, to use analytics software for monitoring events and operations in real time.
Current Initiatives in Science and Technology in the Country

• DOST, in cooperation with HEIs and research institutions, established advanced facilities that seek to spur R&D
activities and provide MSMEs access to testing services needed to increase their productivity and competitive
advantage.
• One is the Advanced Device and Materials Testing Laboratories. The center houses advanced equipment for
failure analysis and materials characterization to address advanced analytical needs for quality control, materials
identification and R&D. Closely related to this facility is the Electronics Products Development Center, used to
design, develop and test hardware and software for electronic products.
• There are also high-performance computing facilities that perform tests and run computationally intensive
applications for numerical weather prediction, climate modeling, as well as analytics and data modeling and
archiving.
• The Philippines could also boast of its Genome Center, a core facility that combines basic and applied research
for the development of health diagnostics, therapeutics, DNA forensics and preventive products, and improved
crop varieties.
• The country also has drug-discovery facilities, which address the requirements for producing high-quality and
globally acceptable drug candidates. She said the Philippines also has nanotechnology centers, which provide
technical services and enabling environment for interdisciplinary and collaborative R&D in various
nanotechnology applications.
• There are also radiation processing facilities that are used to degrade, graft, or crosslink polymers, monomers, or
chemical compounds for industrial, agricultural, environmental and medical applications. The Philippines could
 also boast of its Die and Mold Solutions Center, which enhances the competitiveness of the local tool and die
sector through the localization of currently imported dies and molds
• These are reflections that we are advancing, albeit slowly, to a culture that embraces STI as a sure path to growth.
D. Paradigm Shift

• Paradigm - A scientific paradigm is a framework containing all the commonly accepted views about a subject,
conventions about what direction research should take and how it should be performed.
• The philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested that a paradigm includes “the practices that define a scientific
discipline at a certain point in time." Paradigms contain all the distinct, established patterns, theories, common
methods and standards that allow us to recognize an experimental result as belonging to a field or not.
• A paradigm dictates:
- what is observed and measured
- the questions we ask about those observations
- how the questions are formulated
- how the results are interpreted
- how research is carried out
- what equipment is appropriate
• The body of pre-existing evidence in a field conditions and shapes the collection and interpretation of all
subsequent evidence. The certainty that the current paradigm is reality itself is precisely what makes it so difficult
to accept alternatives
• Paradigm Shift - "The successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual
developmental pattern of mature science" - Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
CHAPTER 2 – INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY
Intellectual Revolution - a period where paradigm shifts occurred and where scientific beliefs that have been widely
embraced and accepted by the people were challenged and opposed.
The Birth of Modern Science

• Western science, like so many other aspects of Western Civilization, was born with the ancient Greeks. They were
the first to explain the world in terms of natural laws rather than myths about gods and heroes.
• They also passed on the idea of the value of math and experiment in science, although they usually thought only
in terms of one to the exclusion of the other.
• The most influential figure in Western science until the 1600's, was the philosopher, Aristotle, who created a body
of scientific theory that towered like a colossus over Western Civilization for some 2000 years.
• Aristotle's theories made sense when taken in a logical order.
• Several factors that worked both to overthrow Aristotle's theories and to preserve it:
- Aristotle's theories relied very little on experiment, which left them vulnerable to anyone who chose to
perform such experiments.
- The Church had grafted Aristotle's theories onto its theology, thus making any attack on Aristotle an
attack on the tradition and the Church itself.
Pattern of Development

• The combination of these factors generated a cycle that undermined Aristotle, but also slowed down the creation
of a new set of theories.
• New observations would be made that seemed to contradict Aristotle's theories. This would lead to new
explanations, but always framed in the context of the old beliefs, thus patching up the Aristotelian system.
• The first person who started this slow process of dismantling Aristotle's cosmology was Copernicus.
• His findings would reinforce the process of finding new explanations, which would lead to the work of Kepler
and Galileo. The work of these three men would lead to many new questions and theories about the universe until
Isaac Newton would take the new data and synthesize it into a new set of theories that more accurately explained
the universe.
Copernican Revolution

• Nicolas Copernicus was a Polish scholar working at the University of Padua in northern Italy.
• The problem he wrestled with was the paths of planetary orbits. Through the centuries close observations had
shown that the heavens do not always appear to move in perfect, uninterrupted circles. Rather, they sometimes
seem to move backwards in what are known as retrogradations. In order to account for these irregularities,
astronomers did not do away with Aristotle's theory of perfectly circular orbits around the earth.
• Instead, they expanded upon it, adding smaller circular orbits (epicycles) that spun off the main orbits. These
more or less accounted for the retrogradations seen in orbits. Each time a new irregularity was observed, a new
epicycle was added.
• By the 1500's, the model of the universe had some 80 epicycles attached to ten crystalline spheres (one for the
moon, sun, each of the five known planets, the totality of the stars, a sphere to move the other spheres, and
heaven).
• The second century Greek astronomer, Ptolemy was the main authority who put order to and passed this
cumbersome system of epicycles to posterity.
• Copernicus' solution was basically geometric. By placing the sun at the center of the universe and having the earth
orbit it, he reduced the unwieldy number of epicycles from 80 to 34. His book, Concerning the Revolutions of
the Celestial Worlds, published in 1543
• However, Copernicus' intention was not to create a radically new theory, but to get back to even older ideas by
such Greeks as Plato and Pythagoras who believed in a heliocentric (sun centered) universe. Once again,
ancient authorities were set against one another, leaving it for others to develop their own theories.
 • It took some 150 years after Copernicus' death in 1543 to achieve a new model of the universe that worked. The
first step was compiling more data that tarnished the perfection of the Ptolemaic universe and forced men to re-
evaluate their beliefs.
Johannes Kepler

• At this time, Tycho Brahe, using only the naked eye, tracked the entire orbits of various stars and planets.
• Previously, astronomers would only track part of an orbit at a time and assume that orbit was in a perfect circle
• Brahe kept extensive records of his observations, but did not really know what to do with them. That task was left
to his successor, Johannes Kepler.
• Kepler was a brilliant mathematician who had a mystical vision of the mathematical perfection of the universe
that owed a great deal to the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras.
• Despite these preoccupations, Kepler was open minded enough to realize that Brahe's data showed the planetary
orbits were not circular. Finally, his calculations showed that those orbits were elliptical.
Galileo

• He was the first to successfully use math to define the workings of the cosmos.
• The combination of Brahe's observations and Kepler's math helped break the perfection of the Aristotelian
universe. However, it was the work of an Italian astronomer, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), armed with a new
invention, the telescope, which would further shatter the old theory and lead the way to a new one.
• Using his telescope, Galileo saw the sun's perfection marred by sunspots and the moon's perfection marred by
craters.
• He also saw four moons orbiting Jupiter. In his book, The Starry Messenger (1611), he reported these disturbing
findings and spread the news across Europe.
• Most people could not understand Kepler's math, but anyone could look through a telescope and see for himself
the moon's craters and Jupiter's moons.
• The Church tried to preserve the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic view of the universe by clamping down on Galileo
and his book and made him promise not to preach his views.
• 1632, Galileo published his next book, Dialogue on the Great World Systems, which technically did not preach
the Copernican theory (which Galileo believed in), but was only a dialogue presenting both views "equally".
• Galileo got his point across by having the advocate of the Church and Aristotelian view named Simplicius
(Simpleton).
• He was quickly faced with the Inquisition and the threat of torture. Being an old man of 70, he recanted his views.
However, it was too late. Word was out, and the heliocentric heresy was gaining new followers daily.
• Galileo's work was the first comprehensive attack on the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic cosmic model.
Isaac Newton

• Newton realized, that the same force pulling the apples to earth was keeping the moon in its orbit.
• In order to prove this mathematically, Newton had to invent a whole new branch of math, calculus, for figuring
out rates of motion and change.
• The implications of Newton's theory of gravity can easily escape us, since we now take it for granted that physical
laws apply the same throughout the universe.
• To the mentality of the 1600’s, which saw a clear distinction between the laws governing the terrestrial and
celestial elements, it was a staggering revelation.
• His three laws of motion were simple, could be applied everywhere, and could be used with calculus to solve any
problems of motion that came up.
• Newton's work also completed the fusion of math promoted by Renaissance humanists, Aristotelian logic pushed
by medieval university professors, and experiment to test a hypothesis pioneered by such men as Leonardo da
Vinci and Galileo into what we call the scientific method.
• This fusion had gradually been taking place since the Renaissance, but the invention of calculus made math a
much more dynamic tool in predicting and manipulating the laws of nature.
 • The printing of Newton's book, Principia Mathematica, in 1687 is often seen as the start of the Enlightenment
(1687-1789). It was a significant turning point in history, for, armed with the tools of Newton's laws and calculus,
scientists had an unprecedented faith in their ability to understand, predict, and manipulate the laws of nature for
their own purposes.
• This sense of power popularized science for other intellectuals and rulers in Europe, turning it into virtual religion
for some in the Enlightenment.
• Even the geometrically trimmed shrubbery of Versailles offers testimony to that faith in our power over nature.
The Darwinian Revolution

• The publication in 1859 of The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin ushered in a new era in the intellectual
history of humanity.
• Darwin is deservedly given credit for the theory of biological evolution: he accumulated evidence demonstrating
that organisms evolve and discovered the process, natural selection, by which they evolve.
• Darwin completed the Copernican revolution by drawing out for biology the notion of nature as a lawful system
of matter in motion. The adaptations and diversity of organisms, the origin of novel and highly organized forms,
even the origin of humanity itself could now be explained by an orderly process of change governed by natural
laws.
• The origin of organisms and their marvelous adaptations were, however, either left unexplained or attributed to
the design of an omniscient Creator.
• The English theologian William Paley in his Natural Theology (1802) elaborated the argument-from-design as
forceful demonstration of the existence of the Creator.
• The Bridgewater Treatises, published between 1833 and 1840, were written by eminent scientists and
philosophers to set forth "the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God as manifested in the Creation."
• The structure and mechanisms of man's hand were, for example, cited as incontrovertible evidence that the hand
had been designed by the same omniscient Power that had created the world.
• The advances of physical science had thus driven humanity's conception of the universe to a split-personality state
of affairs, which persisted well into the mid-nineteenth century.
• Scientific explanations, derived from natural laws, dominated the world of nonliving matter, on the earth as well
as in the heavens.
Freudian Revolution

• Sigmund Freud was born in 1856, before the advent of telephones, radios, automobiles, airplanes, and a host of
other material and cultural changes that had taken place by the time of his death in 1939.
• Freud saw the entirety of the first World War–a war that destroyed the empire whose capital city was his home for
more than seventy years–and the beginning of the next.
• Freud's most obvious impact was to change the way society thought about and dealt with mental illness.
• Before psychoanalysis, which Freud invented, mental illness was almost universally considered 'organic
• The conviction that physical diseases of the brain caused mental illness meant that psychological causes–the kinds
that Freud would insist on studying– were ignored.
• It also meant that people drew a sharp dividing line between the "insane" and the "sane."
• Insane people were those with physical diseases of the brain.
• Sane people were those without diseased brains.
• Freud changed all of this. Despite his background in physicalism (learned during his stay in Ernst Brücke's
laboratory), his theories explicitly rejected the purely organic explanations of his predecessors.
• There are at least two reasons:
- The first is purely practical: psychoanalysis has enormous historical significance. Mental illness affects
an large proportion of the population, either directly or indirectly, so any curative scheme as widely
accepted as was Freud's is important to our history in general.
- The second, more important, reason is that Freud gave people a new way of thinking about why they
acted the way they did. He created a whole new way of interpreting behaviors: one could now claim that
 a person had motives, desires, and beliefs–all buried in the unconscious–which they knew nothing about,
but which nonetheless directly controlled and motivated their conscious thought and behavior.
Scientific Revolution in Mesoamerica

• The most advanced Mesoamerican civilization was the Maya civilization that was well on its way to develop true
science.
• They knew how to make paper and had pictorial script called Maya hieroglyphs that allowed them to record all
knowledge on long strips of paper folded harmonica-style into books.
• One of the three books recovered called The Dresden Codex contains predictions of solar eclipses for centuries
and a table of predicted positions of Venus.
• Maya developed the most accurate calendar ever designed.
• The Aztec followed the same road.
• They kept their own script and languages but assimilated all they could learn from Maya society.
• Their manuscripts describe how the Maya performed their astronomical observations.
• The manufacture of rubber was one of the earliest inventions, documented by the use of a rubber ball in the ball
game tlachtli, a game played by Meso-American civilizations from earliest times.
• In architecture the Maya were the first to use pitched ceilings in their buildings after the invention of the
corbelled vault.
• Aztec city builders also understood the need for public sanitation; public latrines were found along all highways,
and to prevent pollution of Lake Texcoco canoes transported the sewage from Tenochtitlán to the mainland
every morning.
• American people were gifted horticulturalists and cultivated crop plants from the earliest times.
• Among the plants that originated in Meso-America are corn(maize), papaya, avocado and cocoa.
• Maize is the only cultivated plant that was developed so early in human history that its wild ancestor is no longer
known. It can, however, still be crossed with two other plants found only on the Yucatan Peninsula.
• Several sculptures found at Meso-American sites in 1975, 1979 and 1983 and dating back to 2000 - 1500 BC
have clear magnetic properties.
• In some of these sculptures the north and south poles are in most conspicuous positions
• Another magnetic object found in 1966 was shaped as if it was to be used to indicate direction.
• These finds strongly suggest that the early Meso-American civilizations knew about and used magnetism.
Asian Scientific Revolution

• Aside from China, there were other Asian countries that contributed to the development of science and technology
in the world, although it varied depending on country and time, specially in the present times.
• Currently, Japan is probably the most notable country in Asia in terms of scientific and technological
achievement, particularly in terms of its electronics and automobile products.
• Together, the points raised throughout this article proves Asia is truly a crucible of innovative technological
development; a continent that will play an incredibly important role in the evolution of our digital age.
Scientific Revolution in Middle East

• Of all the accomplishments of the ancient Middle East, the invention of the alphabet is probably the greatest.
• While pre-alphabetic systems of writing in the Old World became steadily more phonetic, they were still
exceedingly cumbersome, and the syllabic systems that gradually replaced them remained complex and difficult.
• Early Hyksos period (17th century BC) the Northwestern Semites living in Egypt adapted hieroglyphic
characters—in at least two slightly differing forms of letters—to their own purposes.
• Thus, was developed the earliest known purely consonantal alphabet, imitated in northern Syria, with the addition
of two letters to designate vowels used with the glottal catch.
• This alphabet spread rapidly and was in quite common use among the Northwestern Semites (Canaanites,
Hebrews, Aramaeans, and especially the Phoenicians) soon after its invention.
Scientific Revolution in Africa

• The history of the sciences in Africa is rich and diverse. The applied sciences of agronomy, metallurgy,
engineering and textile production, as well as medicine, dominated the field of activity across Africa.
• So advanced was the culture of farming within West Africa, that ‘New World‘ agricultural growth was spawned
by the use of captives from these African societies that had already made enormous strides in the field of
agronomy.
• Africa’s areas of scientific investigation include the fields of astronomy, physics, and mathematics.
• In the field of Mathematics, Nubian builders calculated the volumes of masonry and building materials, as well as
the slopes of pyramids, for construction purposes. Bianchi points to a Nubian engraving at Meroe, in ancient
Sudan, dated to the first century B.C.E., which reflects “a sophisticated understanding of mathematics.”
• In the field of medicine, common patterns and trends emerged across the continent. These included scientifically
proven methods, as well as techniques and strategies which were culturally specific and psychologically
significant.
• Various types of metal products have been used over time by Africans, ranging from gold, tin, silver, bronze,
brass, and iron/steel.
• In Southern Africa, the kingdom of Monomotapa (Munhumutapa) reigned supreme as a major gold producer. In
the various spheres of metal production, specific techniques and scientific principles included: excavation and
ore identification; separation of ore from non-ore bearing rock; smelting by the use of bellows and heated
furnaces; and smithing and further refinement.
• The use of multishaft and open-shaft systems facilitated circulation of air in intense heating processes, while the
bellows principle produced strong currents of air in a chamber expanded to draw in or expel air through a valve.
• Builders integrated the concepts of the arch, the dome, and columns and aisles in their constructions.
Information Revolution

• Information revolution is a period of change that describes current economic, social and technological trends
beyond the Industrial Revolution.
• The information revolution was fueled by advances in semiconductor technology, particularly the metal-oxide-
semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and the integrated circuit (IC) chip, leading to the
Information Age in the early 21st century.
• Computer technology is at the root of this change, and continuing advancements in that technology seem to
ensure that this revolution would touch the lives of people.
• Computers are unique machines; they help to extend the brain power.
• The key development that made personal computers possible was the invention of the microprocessor chip at Intel
in 1971
• The information revolution led us to the age of the internet, where optical communication networks play a key
role in delivering massive amounts of data.
• New ideas keep coming from the information transport community. Since the first edition of Undersea Fiber
Communication Systems in 2002, the optical fiber communication industry moved into the “coherent” era.
Impact of Information Revolution

• e-commerce—that is, the explosive emergence of the Internet as a major, perhaps eventually the major,
worldwide distribution channel for goods, for services, and, surprisingly, for managerial and professional jobs.
• This is profoundly changing economies, markets, and industry structures; products and services and their
flow; consumer segmentation, consumer values, and consumer behavior; jobs and labor markets.
• New and unexpected industries will no doubt emerged:
- Biotechnology
- fish farming
CHAPTER 3 – SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY and NATION BUILDING
Philippine Government Science and Technology Agenda

• Scientists and technologists are the backbone of an industrialized nation that propels socioeconomic gain and
national progress. They are the key players and lifeblood of research and innovation and plays an important role
in the industry and manufacturing sector.
• In the Philippines, the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is tasked to oversee and manage
national technology development and acquisition, undertake technological and scientific research and promote
public consciousness of science and technology.
• In 2017, DOST launched the Science for the People thru Administrative Order No. 003 s. 2017. This is in
response to the government’s call to address inequity in developments within and among countries and is aligned
with the national goals and plans.
• STIPULATED IN THE STRATEGIC PLAN ARE THE SEVEN OUTCOMES THAT THE AGENCY STRIVES
TO ACHIEVE:
1. Innovation and stimulus
2. Technology and adoption promoted and accelerated
3. Critical mass of globally competitive STI human resources developed
4. Productivity and efficiency of communities and the production sector, particularly MSMEs improved
5. Resiliency to disaster risks and climate change ensured
6. Inequality in STI capacities and opportunities reduced
7. Effective STI governance achieved
• ELEVEN POINT AGENDA:
1. Agenda 1: Pursue R&D to address pressing national problems.
▪ Highlights the latest advancements in research and development geared towards the shared goal
of improved nutrition and health for all.
2. Agenda 2: Conduct R&D to enhance productivity and improve management of resources.
▪ Enhancing the capacity of marginalized 49 sub-sectors and people groups to use better and new
technologies can expand their access to participate in economic activities and progress.
3. Agenda 3: Engage in R&D to generate and apply new knowledge and technologies across sectors.
▪ Engages R&D in emerging scientific and technological platforms which lay the inroads to the
development of new products, services, and industries.
4. Agenda 4: Strengthen and utilize regional R&D capabilities.
▪ Focuses in strengthening institutional capacity to undertake research and development and
contribute to regional development.
5. Agenda 5: Maximize utilization of R&D results through technology transfer and
commercialization.
▪ This agenda aims to promote R&D to maximize it's utilization.
6. Agenda 6:Develop STI human resources and build a strong STI culture.
▪ Intends to create and promote the culture of Science Technology and Innovation.
7. Agenda 7:Upgrade STI facilities and capacities to advance R&D activities and expand S&T
services.
▪ It emphasize various of S&T facilities that provides technical services for achieving research and
development.
8. Agenda 8: Expand STI assistance to communities and the production sector, particularly MSMEs.
▪ Concentrates on S&T assistance that was given to improve the productivity and efficiency of
Micro, Small and medium enterprises.
9. Agenda 9: Provide STI-based solutions for disaster risks and climate change adaptation and
mitigation.
▪ Highlights the role of the Department in building a disaster-resilient community through the
provision of accurate and timely information.
 10. Agenda 10: Strengthen industry-academe-government and international STI collaboration.
▪ Focuses on the linkages and networks being pursued by the Department in terms of S&T
collaboration. In 2017, the Department took part in 24 bilateral engagements and participated in a
number of activities which involved 14 international organizations.
11. Agenda 11: Enhance effectiveness of STI governance.
▪ (Enhance effectiveness of STI governance) provides the policy framework that governs the
implementation of the programs, projects and activities of the Department in contribution to
national development and progress.
Major Development Programs and Personalities in Science and Technology in the Philippines

• The Science for Change Program (S4CP) was created by the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) to
accelerate STI in country in order to keep up with the developments in our time wherein technology and
innovation are game changers. S4CP focuses on Accelerated R&D Program for Capacity Building of R&D
Institutions and Industrial Competitiveness which is composed of four (4) Programs namely:
- Niche Centers in the Regions for R&D (NICER) Program - capacities Higher Education Institutions
(HEIs) in the regions to make significant improvement in regional research by integrating its
development needs with the existing R&D capabilities and resources. It provides institutional grants for
HEIs in the regions for R&D capacity building to improve their S&T infrastructure.

- R&D Leadership (RDLead) Program - provides the mechanism to bring in experts and highly skilled
professionals with strong leadership, management and innovative policy-making proficiencies to be in
charge of strengthening the research capabilities of the HEIs, National Government Agencies (NGAs)
and Research Development Institutions (RDIs) in the regions.

- Collaborative R&D to Leverage PH Economy (CRADLE) for RDIs and Industry Program -
specifically designed to foster collaboration between academe and local companies. The Program aims to
address a problem of a Filipino company using R&D to develop innovative solutions. To date, the DOST
has already provided almost Php 125 M of funding to 29 academe-industry collaborations all over the
country.

- Business Innovation through S&T (BIST) for Industry Program - aims to level up the innovation
capacity of the Philippine Industrial Sector through R&D by helping private companies and industries
acquire novel and strategic technologies, such as state of-the-art equipment and machinery, technology
licenses and patent rights among others. The program will cover up to 70% of the total eligible cost of
the needed technology at zero percent interest.
• A Steering committee for CRADLE and BIST Programs was created through the DOST Special Order No.
0276 which was approved on 02 April 2018
• The committee performs the following functions:
- Review and formulate policies
- Provide advice and guidance
- Other functions necessary for the successful implementation.
Personalities in Science and Technology in the Philippines
AISA MIJENO - To light up the rest of the Philippines sustainably was the vision of Filipina scientist Aisa Mijeno when
she made the Sustainable Alternative Lighting (SALt) lamp.
RAMON C. BARBARA - He is a Filipino scientist, inventor and horticulturist who is known for his successful
experiment on the inducement of flowering of mango trees by spraying them with ethrel and potassium nitrate.
Barba also developed a tissue culture procedure for the banana plant and sugar cane which enabled production of large
quantities of planting materials that were robust and disease-free.
FE V. DELMUNDO - She is known as the Mother of Pediatrics, a very great scientist and a symbol of female
empowerment in medicine, both in the Philippines and abroad. The first Asian woman admitted into Harvard, she pursued
graduate Degrees in America after receiving her medical degree from the University of the Philippines.
MARIA Y. OROSA - Advances in modern Filipino food technology owe a great deal to the creative researches and
salutary inventiveness of a woman chemist and pharmacist from Batangas. She produced the “calamansi nip”. The most
notable of her food inventions, is “Soyalac”.
ANGELA ALCALA - he established the first artificial reef around the coastline of the Philippines, greatly boosting the
ecosystem's health and viability.
Science Education in the Philippines

• The role and goal of science in education should always be the same. Since science is considered both knowledge
and method, operating independent of time and place, the benefits of science anywhere can only be the same. The
value of science lies not only in the knowledge that it imparts and bequeaths to the learner but also in its methods
and techniques that inculcate in the learner’s scientific habits, skills, and attitudes.
• The general benefits of science have greatly challenged education of the Philippines. There has been a
corresponding increase in knowledge and understanding of natural and social phenomena covered by all the
disciplines of science available now. It is this education that has been largely credited for the development of
science in the Philippines.
Early Efforts to Improve Science Education

• As early as the decade of the 1950s, scientists were concerned with the state of science education in the schools.
Leading scientists made Philippine authorities aware that the teaching of science from grade school level to
college levels in both public and private schools was very inadequate. In 1957, the Philippine government made
the teaching of science compulsory in all elementary and secondary schools. A National Committee for Science
Education was set up in 1958 to formulate objectives for the teaching of science education at all levels and to
recommend steps that would upgrade the teaching of science.
The BSCS Adaptation Project

• In 1959, biological sciences curriculum study (BSCS) project was launched by American Institute of Biological
Science, university of Colorado in order to improve biology education in secondary schools.
• The BSCS project was started to design high school biology course with the objectives:
- To provide recent and latest knowledge in biological sciences
- To develop understanding of the conceptual structure of biological sciences
- To develop skills and processes of biology among the students
- To create an opportunity to use inquiry approach in teaching and learning of biology.
- To prepare rich supplementary or support materials to enrich learning experiences in biological sciences
and present current status of biological sciences.
The Science Education Project

• These institutions disseminated many of the curriculum materials by the UP Science Education Center. Second,
quality science and math education programs in the recipient-sponsor institutions through new and/or improved
course offerings and a generally improved teacher education program.