The speaker shares close and personal information with
friends, classmates or colleagues. This ordinarily occurs
OralCom Reviwer
Factors affected by a shift in Speech Context Speech
Style, Speech Act, and Communicative Strategy
Language Form
This refer to the formality or informality of the language
used, and it involves the choice of words and how
sentences or utterances are structured.
Formal Language
Is used when talking with professionals or persons in
authority in a formal, official or ceremonial occasion,
situation, gathering or event. Talking with a lawyer, a
doctor or even with your teacher often creates a formal
ambiance in communication.
Informational Form
Is used without much consideration to rules of
convention or etiquette. It is casual and mostly not well-
thought-of or prepared because it is used to
communicate with people with whom you have close
association with like parents, siblings and friends.
Duration of Interaction
This refers to the amount of time a conversation takes
between and among communicators.
Relationship of Speaker
This refers to the amount of time a conversation takes
between and among communicators.
Intimate Style
the speaker talks to family members, best friends or
romantic partners. This may comprise private
conversation or personal interactions.
Frozen
the speaker talks to family members, best friends or
romantic partners. This may comprise private
conversation or personal interactions.
Consultative
The speaker communicates with a person whom he/she
may have to clarify things, discuss a problem, or seek
advice.
Casual
in everyday life.
Formal
The speaker has to deliver a pre-planned or written
speech to address a crowd of people such as giving
opening remarks during a seminar, or the president
making a public announcement or delivering SONA.
Role and Responsibility of Speaker
This refer to the role and responsibility of the speaker
which will depend on the purpose and context of
communication.
The speaker may be a person who gives information
and additional knowledge to another person or an
audience, someone who convinces others for a cause or
an individual who provokes laughter for diversion and
fun.
Hence, his responsibility depends on his purpose for
communication which may be to inform, to persuade,
or to entertain.
Message
This involves the content of the message. The message
may be facts, opinion, feelings, order suggestions, and
question.
Delivery
This refers to the manner of delivery involving verbal
and nonverbal cues made by the speaker. Delivery can
be classified as:
Extemporaneous- speaking with limited preparation and
guided by notes or outline;
Impromptu-speaking without advanced preparation or
unrehearsed speech.
Memorized- planned and rehearsed speech;
Manuscript- reading aloud a written message
Types of Communicative Strategy
Nomination
A speaker carries out nomination to collaboratively and
productively establish a topic.
Examples: You may start off with making inquiries,
giving compliment, asking for opinion, or offering help.
This could efficiently signal the beginning of a new topic
in the conversation.
Restriction
Restriction in communication refers to any limitation
you may have as a speaker.
Example In your class, you might be asked by your
teacher to brainstorm on peer pressure or deliver a
speech on digital natives. In this case, you cannot decide
to talk about something else.
Turn-Taking
It pertains to the process by which people decide who
takes the conversational floor
Example you can employ this strategy by making your
response shorter yet informative enough to express
your ideas and feelings.
Topic-Control
Topic control covers how procedural formality or
informality affects the development of topic in
conversations.
Examples: During a board meeting, the director
manages the communication and directs who may
speak to collectively develop the topic of conversation.
Topic Shifting
Topic shifting involves moving from one topic to
another.
Examples You may use conversational transitions that
indicate a shift like “By the way...”, “Before I forget...”,
“Which reminds me of,” and the like.
Repair
Repair refers to how speakers address the problems in
speaking, listening, and comprehending that they
encounter in a conversation.
Examples: Speaker may use recasting or changing the
form of message to a more understandable one using
the following expressions:
Termination
Termination refers to the conversation participants’
close-initiating expressions that end a topic in a
conversation This strategy is used to end an interaction
or close a topic. Most of the time, the topic initiator or
the person who opened the topic takes responsibility to
signal the end of the discussion as well.
Example “It’s nice catching up with you. I must be
going.”
PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE SPEECH WRITING AND
DELIVERY
Audience Profile
Knowing your Audience specifically their general
age, gender, educational level, religion, language,
culture, and group membership is one of the most
important aspects in developing your speech. Basically
this is done so that you can tailor-fit your speech
content and delivery to your audience. Analyzing your
audience will help you discover the information you can
use to build a connection between you and members of
your audience
- Who is the audience?
- How many?
- What does the audience know about the
subject
- Why should they be interested?
Logical Organization
The logical organization or arrangement of
thoughts when it comes to speech writing can be
defined as all aspects of your writing that help the
reader move smoothly from one sentence to the next,
and from one paragraph to another. Thus, carefully
planning the content of your speech is necessary.
the written speech has three parts: the introduction,
body, conclusion. The role of introduction presents the
main idea of your speech, while the conclusion
reiterates the main idea. The body offers definitions,
examples or any information that can help you convey
your intent and clarify the main concept of your speech.
The Introduction
The introduction is the most crucial part of the
speech. It is generally only 10-15% of the time the
speaker spends speaking. According to Wrench(2012)
A good introduction serves five functions:
- You should be able to gain audience attention
and interest,
- It states the purpose of your speech
- It establishes your credibility
- It should provide reasons for your audience to
listen
- Your introduction should preview the main idea
of your speech
The Body
The body of the speech is the core part of the speech
that addresses the main ideas and principles of the
speech. It consists of the main points. This is presented
using methods of organization(Flores 2016)
1. Problem Solution Order
It explains the problem and suggests a possible solution.
Example: Cleaning up Laguna de Bay
2. categorical/Topical Order
It explains the problem and suggests a possible solution.
Example: Cleaning up Laguna de Bay
3. Chronological Order
A historical or time approach which is from the past to
the present. It presents idea in time order.
Example: The significant development of the province
of Laguna from Spanish period to present.
4. Comparison and Contrast Order
It presents comparison and contrast of two or three
points.
Example: Comparison between living in the city and life
in the province.
5. Spatial/Geological Order
Going from one place to another, from one direction to
another.
Example: Traveling around the wonders of Batanes
islands.
6. Casual Order
It involves a discussion of both cause and effect of an
issue.
Example: The fish kill in Laguna de Bay
Conclusion
After writing the body of your speech following the
methods of organization, the last thing that you need to
work on how to end it. The conclusion functions as the
summarizer of the entire speech. The conclusion has to
be written using different strategies:
- Present a summary
- Repeat the key ideas presented
- Repeat the central idea for emphasis
- Go back to the strategy used in the introduction
Signal the end of your speech
- End with an impact:
- Thought-provoking
- Humor
- Quotation
- A call for action
Duration
No matter how long the speech is, divide it into
five parts: An introduction, The body (paragraph 2, 3,
and 4) and a conclusion. This format is adaptable to a
speech of almost any length, By doing this, you can
actually monitor the time and length of your speech or
the so-called duration.
Most experts say that the ideal length of speech is up to
20 minutes
Introduction: 2 minutes (250 words)
Body: Points 1: 5 minutes (625 words)
Points 2: 5 minutes (625 words)
Points 3: 5 minutes (625 words)
Conclusion: 3 minutes (375 words)
Word Choice
There are lot of vocabularies available to describe one’s
idea. However, the speaker should carefully use the
correct word in writing a speech. The use of
conversational language helps put the audience feel at
ease and creates a special bond between the speaker
and the audience. However, there are things you
should consider.
The following should be avoided in speech:
- Jargons or technical terms specific only for a
group of people
- Redundancy or excessive repetition of words
- Language inappropriate for the audience
- Language inappropriate for the occasion
Grammatical Correctness
Using correct grammar when you give a speech is
important to prevent misunderstanding and
misinterpretation between you and the audience. Good
command of the language helps listeners understand
you quickly. Grammar inconsistencies slow down the
communication process and generate negative
impressions for the audience, as your ideas and
thoughts are not clear and coherently conveyed.

Speech Act
Is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an
intended effect.
Speech act are performed when a person offers an
apology, greeting, request, complaints, invitation
compliment or refusal. Speech act is an act of
communication.
As we communicate with others, we use language
without minding whether to use complete sentence or
not. The number of words in a single utterance does not
matter so long as we can get our message across.
Three Types of Speech Act
According to J. L. Austin (1962) a philosopher of
language and the developer of the Speech Act Theory,
There are three Types of acts in every utterance, given
the right circumstances or context These are;
Locutionary
LOCUTIONARY ACT: is the basic act of utterance; an act
of saying something; literal and direct meaning of the
utterance. (UTTERANCE)
ILLOCUTIONARY ACT: understanding a communication
act on the basis of the speaker’s intention; has social
function in mind. (INTENTION)
PERLOCUTIONARY ACT: is the result/effect of the
utterance on the listener, reveals the effect the speaker
wants to exercise over the hearer. (RESPONSE
21st Reviewer
World Literature-It refers to any written literary genre
that exemplifies the most outstanding characteristics of
particular national literatures.
reading approach-an approach wherein students are
demanded to read more to improve knowledge
extensive reading-It is reading a longer text, usually for
pleasure.
Skimming-This technique is useful when the students
are seeking specific information rather than reading for
comprehension.
Scanning-It is used by the reader to find answers to
questions
Southeast Asia-The Philippines is on the Asian
continent. If the Philippines is part of it, which specific
region on Asia does the Philippines belong
Gitanjali-It is incomparable for the beauty of its imagery
as a form of devotion to God and in appreciation for the
wonders of nature.
In another world I want my children to tame
grasshoppers in the field, to play with their dolls in the
living room,
to inhale the fragrance of flowers waving as wind blows,
to see the birds measure the sky with their wings.
These lines expressed the earnest wish of a father.
What do you think these wishes mean?
The family is suffering from war.
Fable-It is a brief story illustrating a moral or revealing
general truths about human nature.
Information and Communication Technology-To
produce a literary adaptation of a story, one needs to
apply his ICT skills. ICT means _____.
Flash Fiction-It refers to an imaginative literature of
extreme brevity. It could range from a word to a
thousand (Gacusan 2018).
Complete Plot-It has a beginning, middle and ending of
the story
Brevity-Flash fiction presents the story with fewest
words as possible.
Surprising Ending-The successful hallmark of a flash
fiction is its twist at the end of the story.
Angels and Blueberries-An example of a flash fiction
that tells a story of various explanations for the color of
the sky that involves angels and blueberries by Tara
Campbell.
Reading Approach:
Teachers use reading approach as one of the methods
in teaching English. This approach is one way of solving
students’ reading problems. Students are demanded to
read more to improve their knowledge and get new
ideas. Inferencing, guessing, and predicting are
important skills developed in reading. By reading,
students will know about the different of culture by
reading across cultural understanding, and they will
learn how to pronounce the words correctly. In reading
approach, students are expected to improve their
English skills.
Skimming:
In skimming, the main idea of a text is quickly identified.
The goal is to read shorter texts to extract accurate
detailed information. Skimming is done at a speed three
to four times faster than regular reading. People often
skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited
amount of time. Some students will read the first and
last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other
organizers as they move down the page or screen. Some
might also read the title, subtitles, subheadings, and
illustrations. Other people consider reading the first
sentence of each paragraph. Skimming works well to
find dates, names, and places. It might be used to
review graphs, tables, and charts. This technique is
useful when you are seeking specific information rather
than reading for comprehension.
Scanning:
Scanning is quickly reading a text to get the summary of
it. It is a technique wherein students search for
keywords or ideas. Scanning involves moving eyes
quickly down the page seeking specific words and
phrases. Scanning is also used for the reader to find
answers to questions. Once a student scanned the
document, they will go back and skim it.
Extensive reading:
Extensive Reading is an approach to language learning,
including foreign language learning, by means of a large
amount of reading. The reader’s view and review of
unfamiliar words in a specific context will allow the
reader to infer the word’s meaning, to learn unknown
words. Extensive Reading is the free reading of books
and other written material that is not too difficult for
readers. Extensive Reading is sometimes called Free
Voluntary Reading.
Flash fiction is imaginative literature of extreme brevity.
It could range from a word to a thousand (Gacusan
2018). It is known as micro stories, postcard fiction,
nanotales and short shorts. According to Sustana
(2020), most of the flash fictions have these common
characteristics.
1. Brevity. Flash fiction presents the story with fewest
words as possible.
2. Complete plot. Flash fiction emphasizes the
development of plot. Itt has a beginning, middle, and
ending of the story.
3. Surprising ending. The successful hallmark of a flash
fiction is its twist at the end of the story. Here are some
of the flash fictions:
1. “Angels and Blueberries” by Tara Campbell is a story
of various explanations for the color of the sky that
involves angels and blueberries.
First line: “Why is the sky blue?” you ask. Well, it is all
depends on who’s answering.
2. “Taylor Swift” by Hugh Behm-Steinberg tells a weird
story of how anyone can order a perfectly clone of
Taylor Swift at his doorsteps.
First line: “You’re in love; it’s great, you swipe on your
phone and order: the next day a Taylor Swift clone
shows up at your house.”
3. “Unnecessary Things” by Tatyana Tolstaya is a story
of finding an old and torn teddy bear, “unnecessary
things” (items that do not serve any useful purpose),
that she adored as a child.
First line: This Teddy bear once had amber eyes made
from special glass- each one had a pupil and an iris. The
bear itself was gray and stiff, with wiry fur. I adored him.
Graphic fiction or a graphic novel is a comic book
narrative that is equivalent in form and dimension to
the prose novel (Campbell 200, 81). The pictures are
arranged in sequenced in image panels and dialogues
are written in speech bubbles. The illustrations allow
the readers to imagine and experience the characters
and events in the story. Some of the examples of
graphic novels are the following:
1. “In the Shadow of No Towers: 9/11” by Art
Spielgelman in 2004 which tells the story about the
terrorist attack on September 11, in America. This also
depicts the traumatic and tragic experience of American
people during the 9/11 terrorist attack.
2. “The Barn Owl’s Wondrous Capers” by Sarnath
Banerjee in 2009 portrays 18th Century Calcutta
exploiting the myth of the “Wandering Jew.”
3. “Louis Riel” by Chester Brown in 2003 is a
fictionalized violent rebellion in the 19th Century on the
Canadian prairie who led by Riel.
mask one’s sorrow’- Pretend to be sad.
‘etched in his heart’- to be always remembered
Plot- considered as the most significant element of a
story for it presents the series of events and characters’
actions in the story
flash fiction- also referred to as a short-short story
climax- refers to the time and place the story takes
place
 gaiety- emotion felt with the loss of a loved one
exposition - known as the inciting incident where the
author introduces the characters, identifies where the
story is happening, and establishes the main conflict
flashback- writing technique is used for an episodic plot
time - When the story transpires on a particular period
of time such as an hour, a day, a week, a month or even
a year, it is a plot movement in __________?
Resolution- considered as the solution to the problem in
a story
Earth Science Reviewer
WEATHERING Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are
broken down into smaller pieces without changing their
chemical composition due to several factors like
fluctuating temperatures and pressure, and biological
activity.
Chemical weathering is a process wherein rock materials
are changed into other substances that have different
physical and chemical compositions.
Factors Affecting Weathering of Rocks Weathering of rocks
is influenced by numerous factors
such as climate in the area, mineral composition, and
texture of rocks.
Key Points
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks either
mechanically or chemically. Weathering of rocks is caused
by numerous factors such as climate, surface area and
topographic relief, and rock composition.
What is the process of gradual breaking down of rocks into
smaller pieces?
Weathering is the process of breaking down of rocks into
smaller pieces called sediments.
Which of the following processes occurs when rocks
disintegrate without the change in chemical composition
and mainly depends on factors such as fluctuating
temperatures and biological activity?
Mechanical weathering. Hydrolysis is a process which
involves water’s reaction with a mineral to form a new
mineral resulting to the incorporation of water into its
crystal structure. This process is often involved in the
weathering of common minerals.
Which of the following phenomena involves hydrolysis?
Weathering of potassium feldspar to clay
Which of the following conditions will hasten weathering
in an area?
Weathering of rocks is influenced by numerous factors
such as climate in the area, mineral composition, and
texture of rocks. Weathering occurs faster in hot, wet
climates while slower in very cold, dry places. It also occurs
rapidly when there is a large surface area exposed to
surface processes. The higher the elevation of an area the
more the susceptible it is to weathering since it is more
exposed to wind, sudden change in temperature, and
other factors. Rocks composed of least stable minerals
such as olivine and pyroxene is also more likely to weather
faster.
Granite and basalt are exposed at Earth’s surface in a
hot, wet region. Which rock will weather at a faster
rate?
Remember that granite is composed of minerals such as
plagioclase, feldspar, and quartz. Based on the Goldich
stability series, quartz is the most stable mineral on
Earth's surface. Granite has large amounts of quartz and
therefore will most likely resist weathering. On the
other hand, basalt is composed of the least stable
minerals such as amphibole, plagioclase, and even small
amounts of olivine. These minerals are more susceptible
to weathering.
EROSION
Key Points
Erosion is the movement of sediments and particles
through the help of transporting media such as glacial
ice, water, and wind.
Water erosion is a type of erosion where water carries
the sediments to different bodies of water such as
rivers.
Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as
small rocks and pebbles, are carried by the wind to
different places
Glacial erosion happens when a glacier or a river of
highly-compact ice moves downhill due to its own
weight.
Which process refers to the movement of weathered
rocks with the aid of a transporting
medium?
Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks with
the help of different transporting agents. It is a constant
recycling of Earth’s materials under the rock cycle.
Erosional forces such as wind and water carry the soil
components and sediments from one place to another.
Which of the following group correctly identifies the
agents of erosion?
Water, wind, ice, and gravity are the agents of erosion.
Erosional forces such as wind and water carry the soil
components and sediments from one place to another.
Glacial erosion
Which type of erosion can transport large amount of
sediments and can create spectacular landforms due to
its erosive power?
happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks
chunks of rocks and causes scraping between the ice
and the rock. Plucking and scraping can lead to the
development of other landforms if, for example, the
glaciers hit a mountain and erode it. Due to its erosive
power glaciers can can carve a valley and change the
previous landform in an area.
In addition to that, there is also an evident increase in
runoffs, accelerated erosion,
and decrease in soil quality in areas affected by erosion.
What happens to an area which is experiencing soil
erosion?
Erosion has a large effect not only in agriculture but in
other areas as well. Water pollution due to siltation,
high amount of sedimentation, and contamination from
chemicals are also rampant.
How does grazing affect the soil?\
Overgrazing by livestock or by indigenous animals may
remove vegetation leaving the soil more vulnerable to
erosion. It also removes the nutrients from the topsoil
which is the most nutrient- filled part of the soil.It can
leave the area vulnaerable to different types of erosion.
MASS WEATHERING Key Points
Mass wasting is the movement of sediments due mainly
to gravity.
Mass wasting can be categorized based on the rate of
movement (rapid or slow), type of movement (falling,
sliding, or flowing), and the type of material involved
(rock, soil,
or debris).
Which of the following processes refers to the
movement of material downward without a need for a
transporting medium?
Mass wasting is a downslope movement of rock,
regolith, and soil under the influence of gravity. It is
different from erosion because mass wasting does not
need any transporting medium such as wind, water, or
glacial ice.
What is the slowest type of mass wasting?
Creep is the slow, downhill movement of rock or soil
under the influence of gravity. Each particle moves
independently and does not move as one mass of
debris. It typically moves at a rate of 1 centimeter per
year but may move faster when saturated with water
What happens to the angle of repose in a pile of quartz
sand as the amount of water increases? INCREASES
THEN DECREASES
Slightly wet unconsolidated materials exhibit a very high
angle of repose due to the surface tension created by
water as it holds the grain together. If the amount of
water is too much (saturated), angle of repose becomes
very small and creates fluid-like motion for the grains.
Addition of water in a pile of quartz first increases its
angle of repose but as the material becomes saturated,
it will start to decrease.
Which of the following factors will not increase the rate
of mass wasting in a hillside?
The angle of repose for dry materials increases with the
size of the grains but is also affected by the amount of
water present.
Slightly wet unconsolidated materials exhibit a very high
angle of
repose but if the amount of water is too much
(saturated), that’s the time that the area will be
more susceptible to the downward movemen
rate of mass wasting processes.
t. All the other options may cause an increased
In which specific environments will mass wasting most
likely to occur?
A very gradual slope in a heavily vegetated tropical
rainforest
without
A steep hillside composed of alternating layers of rocks
located in an area with dry and rainy seasons. The layers
are oriented parallel to the slope.
With.A steep hillside composed of clay in a rainy
environment in an active earthquake zone.WITH MASS
WASTING.
A mountainous region located in a cold polar region
with areas of permafrost.
with
For mass wasting to occur, several factors should be
considered such as the angle of the slope,
the amount of water present in the area, the presence
of vegetation, the type of rocks present,
the presence of weak zones parallel to the dip of the
slope, the climate in an area and even the
occurrence of triggering events. The three
environments have one or two factors that can
hasten mass wasting while the other environment has a
gradual slope and a large amount of
vegetation reducing its susceptibility to mass wasting.
Sediments Key Points
Sedimentation is the process of deposition once the
sediments are transported.
The Wentworth scale describes detrital or clastic
sediments by assigning names to
particular size ranges.
Which of the following processes produce sediments?
Sediments are loose, unconsolidated, solid particles
from any of the three processes
weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks, (2)
precipitation of minerals dissolved in water,
1)
and (3) remains of plants and animals.
Sedimentatio
The solidification of molten material forms igneous
rocks. When these igneous rocks are weathered, that is
the only time that sediments are
formed from it.\
Which of the following processes refers to the
deposition of a solid material after it is carried by
different agents of sediment transport such as water
and wind.?
n is a process of deposition of a solid material after it is
transported by different agents of sediment transport
such as water and wind.
Which of the following processes refers to the
increased amount of suspended sediments and to the
accumulation of fine particles at the bottom of a body
of water?
Siltation is a type of pollution that occurs when silt or
clay dominates a body of water. It refers to the
increased amount of suspended sediments and to the
accumulation of fine particles at the bottom of a
stream, for example. This is mainly caused by soil
erosion or excess amount of sediments.
Which of the following phenomena are reliable proofs
of excessive sedimentation of silt and clay?
Corals are mostly affected when there is excessive
sedimentation. Since corals do not move, sediments
simply lie on top of it and later on killing it. High
amount of sediments also increases the turbidity level
of the water which later on hinders the amount of light
needed for
photosynthesis of marine plants.
A stream is observed to flow from the top of a rocky
mountain and transports sediments into the sea. At the
foot of the mountain, angular boulders are found. As it
flows toward the sea, the size of the sediments occur
from fine sand to silt-size. Based on the information
given, what can you conclude about the flow rate of
the stream?
Unit 11
EARHT INTERNAL HEAT Key Points
Earth’s internal heat is produced by residual heat
(extraterrestrial impacts and gravitational contraction)
and radiogenic heat.
Earth’s thermal budget is the measure of the amount of
heat that is released at the surface and produced in the
interior.
Which of the following describes geothermal gradient?
Geothermal gradient is the increase in temperature
with respect to the increase in depth
Which of the following are the main sources of Earth’s
internal heat? Earth’s internal heat is produced by
extraterrestrial impacts, gravitational contraction of
Earth’s interior, and radioactivity of isotopes
Which of the following is true about heat flow on
Earth’s interior? The heat flow from Earth’s interior
powers the convection within the mantle and the core
and contributes little to the heat balance or convection
in the atmosphere and oceans.
Which of the following elements are used to compute
Earth’s thermal budget?
The thermal budget is computed through the study of
energy emitted by the four major isotopes that produce
heat namely uranium-238, uranium-235, thorium-232,
and potassium-40 According to the nebular theory, how
was heat energy produced?
According to the nebular theory, heat energy was
produced when great amount of kinetic energy
produced by moving objects was converted to heat
energy. Also, during the accretion of particles, it led to
an increase in the gravitational attraction causing the
contraction of Earth into a smaller volume. This resulted
in the conversion of gravitational energy into heat
energy. Finally, the process of radioactive decay
produces heat as a by-product.
MAGMATISM :HOW MAGMA IS FORMED
Magma
Magma is defined as molten rock material produced by
the partial melting of the mantle and crust. It contains
liquids, gases, crystals, and rock fragments.
Magma can be produced by increase in temperature,
decrease in pressure, and addition of volatiles.
o Temperature increases with depth.
o As pressure is decreased, melting temperatures of
materials decrease.
o Rock's melting temperature decreases when more
volatiles are introduced.
Magmatism
Magmatism occurs along plate boundaries or margins
and sometimes within the plate.
Hot mantle rock penetrates the crust and becomes
magma.
Classification of Magma
Tholeiitic magmas or tholeiites are produced by large
degree of melting.
Calc-alkaline basalts form along convergent plate
boundaries above subduction zones.
Alkaline basalts form from smaller degree of partial
melting, which results in alkali-rich
and silica depleted magma of diverse compositions.
• Carbonatites are the only magmas that are not
produced by silicate source rock.
Which of the following describes magmatism?
Magmatism is the activity or the motion of magma.
Magmatism occurs along plate boundaries or margins
and sometimes within the plate. movement of magma.
What is the most abundant element in magma?
In general, magma is composed of oxygen, silicon, iron,
aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and potassium.
Oxygen is the most abundant element in magma
followed by silicon, and then, aluminum.
In which of the following does decompression melting
happens?
Decompression melting occurs in divergent boundaries
where tectonic plates moves apart from each other.
In flux melting, what cause the rocks to partially melt?
Decompression melting occurs in divergent boundaries
where tectonic plates moves apart from each other.
Why is magma formed from partial melting?
Magma is formed from the partial melting of existing
rocks. Partial melting means that only some parts of
rocks melt. This is because most rocks are made of
various minerals which do not have the same melting
temperature.
VOLCANOES AND VOLCANISM
Key Points
Volcanism is the process where magma rises to the
surface of Earth as lava.
A volcano is a hill or mountain where lava, pyroclastic
materials, and gases erupt. It can form along plate
boundaries or within the plate.
Lava flows may be classified as pahoehoe and aa.
Which of the following describes volcanism?
Volcanism is the process where magma rises on the
surface of Earth as lava. It can be viewed as a
destructive event as it could damage facilities and cause
injuries or as a constructive process that transformed
the early Earth through release of volcanic gases and
formed several islands through volcanic processes.
Which of the following parts of volcano serves as an
engine?
The magma chamber is the reservoir where magma is
stored. It serves as the “engine” of the volcano that is
situated in the crust, just below the volcano.
Which of the following are true about explosive
eruption?
Explosive eruptions are characterized by fragmented
lava spewing out from the vent of the volcano. This
occurs due to the expansion of dissolved gases in the
magma within the vent. As the magma rises into the
surface, pressure inside it weakens, forming gas
bubbles. As the magma approaches the surface, bigger
bubbles form. As a result, great pressure inside the
bubbles are formed than the surrounding magma.
Composite volcanoes consist of alternating layers of
pyroclastic materials and lava flows. Which of the
following volcanoes is an example of a composite
volcano?
Mayon volcano
Which of the following are true about this volcano?
Mount Amorong is a potentially active volcano and is
considered as one of a cluster of small lava domes.
Therefore, it is young in morphology and has no
historical record of eruption. Also, since it is a lava
dome, it is quite unstable and may collapse under their
own weight or may also impose danger when pressure
underneath cause these bodies to explode.
Plutonism Key Points
The term plutonic can be used to classify rocks which
formed in the interior of Earth. This is the opposite of
volcanic rocks that form on the crust.
They vary in sizes and shape and may be classified
as discordant or concordant structures.
Who proposed the theory of plutonism?
In the 18th century, James Hutton proposed the theory
of plutonism.
Which of the following describes plutonism?
Plutonism states that rocks were formed from heat
driven processes. This heat comes from the interior of
Earth.
Which of the following are true about plutons?
As magma rises to the crust, it can displace the host or
country rock (rock native to an area) to form structures
called plutons. A pluton is a solidified body of plutonic
rocks that crystallized when the magma slowly cooled
below Earth’s surface. Geologic processes such as uplift
and erosion expose these structures.
What are the differences between plutonic rocks and
volcanic rocks?
Plutonic rocks form in Earth’s interior while volcanic
rocks form on the crust. Also, they have grains that are
much coarser compared to volcanic equivalents.
Which of the following are examples of concordant
plutons?
Concordant plutons are those that are injected parallel
to features in the country rock such as sedimentary
beds. Examples of concordant plutons are sills and
laccoliths.
UNIT 12
ROCK FORMATION
Key Points
A rock is an aggregate of mineral or minerals which may
or may not contain organic matter.
The rock cycle is a model that shows how each type of
rock is formed from each other.
The three types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks.
•
o Igneous rocks form from cooling magma or lava. It can
be classified as intrusive or extrusive, depending on
where they cool down.
o Sedimentary rock formation starts with weathering,
which is the breakdown of rocks and minerals into
sediments through mechanical or chemical means.
o Metamorphic rocks are formed from preexisting rocks
which have undergone changes in its mineral content
and texture. Metamorphic rocks can be classified as
foliated which have clear layers, and nonfoliated, which
have no defined layers.
What is the term used to refer to aggregate of mineral
or minerals which may or may not contain organic
matter?
A rock is an aggregate of mineral or minerals which may
or may not contain organic matter. It is formed through
several processes caused by different conditions within
and
on Earth’s surface.
Which of the following is not considered as one of the
three main classification of rocks?
Rocks are classified into three namely, igneous,
sedimentary, and igneous rocks. Rock cycle shows how
the formation of the three types of rock and the
processes that they undergo before, during and after
their formation.
.What is the main difference between felsic and mafic
rock?
Rocks composed of almost entirely light minerals are
described as felsic and often referred to as granitic
rocks. Basaltic rocks are mafic in composition, meaning,
it is composed mainly of
dark minerals. Both of these igneous rocks can undergo
fast and slow rate of cooling. In result, both types can
occur as fine and coarse-grained.
. process of phase change?
Which of the following is not considered as one of the
three main classification of rocks?
Conglomerate and sandstone are examples of
sedimentary rocks. Andesite is an igneous rocks with an
intermediate composition. Slate is a type of foliated
metamorphic rock.
By referring to the figure of three different rocks below,
which of the following statements are true?
X can be categorized as a metamorphic rock due to the
presence of foliation or alignment of
minerals while mafic rocks are composed of dark
minerals
Felsic rocks are composed entirely of light
minerals. Y is an igneous rock because of its crystalline
structure and the random arrangement of the said
crystals. Lastly, Z is a sedimentary rocks because of the
presence of fossils. Fossils can only be found in this
type of rock due to the involvement of surface
processes during its formation.
WHAT IS METARMORPHISM?
Key Points
The protolith is the preexisting rock that undergoes
metamorphism.
Metamorphism changes the texture and mineralogy of
the protolith and involves
processes such as recrystallization, neocrystallization,
phase change, pressure solution, and plastic
deformation.
What is the process of changing the characteristics of a
rock caused by changes in temperature, pressure, or
volatile content?
Metamorphism comes from the Greek words ‘meta’
meaning to change and ‘morph’ which means form. It is
the process of changing the characteristics of a rock as a
result of changes in temperature, pressure, or volatile
content.
What is the correct term used to refer to the preexisting
rock that undergoes metamorphism?
The preexisting rock that undergoes metamorphism is
called the protolith. The protolith can be
igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic.
Which of the following statements is true during the
Phase change is characterized by a change in mineral
structure while retaining the same chemical
composition. Minerals involved in this process are called
polymorphs of one another. Polymorphs are minerals
which can occur in more than one structure.
What happens to rocks during plastic deformation?
Usually, when rocks are subjected to deformational
forces, they break. In some instances, when
temperature is high, minerals can behave like plastic
and stretch instead of break. This process is called
plastic deformation.
The metamorphic rock below was identified to be slate.
It was said to come from a sedimentary rock called
mudstone which usually forms on the seafloor. Which
feature of the slate proves this fact?
The presence of the fossil of a sea-creature proves that
this metamorphic rock was once a sedimentary rock
found in the seafloor. The presence of fine-grained
crystals, layers and folded bands may be caused by the
pressure from underlying rocks or layers but it do not
signify that the parent rock came from the seafloor.
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM. Regionally metamorphosed rocks usually occur in the
cores of fold/thrust mountain belts or in eroded
Key Points mountain ranges. Compressive stresses result in folding
Metamorphic grade refers to the relative temperature of rock and thickening of the crust, which tends to push
and pressure conditions during the formation of rocks to deeper levels where they are subjected to
metamorphic rocks. higher

Prograde metamorphism takes place when pressure temperatures and pressures.

and temperature are increased.
Factors Controlling Metamorphism Key Points
Retrograde metamorphism takes place when pressure
• The process of metamorphism is controlled by four
and temperature are decreased.
factors: temperature, pressure, chemically active fluids,
Types of metamorphism include contact, burial, and time.
dynamic, regional, hydrothermal,
o Temperature is affected by heat or thermal energy,
and shock. which can come from two sources: igneous intrusions
and Earth’s geothermal gradient.
Which refers to the relative temperature and pressure
conditions during the formation of metamorphic rocks? o Pressure increases with depth and can be classified
Metamorphic grade refers to the relative temperature into two types: uniform stress and differential stress.
and pressure conditions during the formation of the
o Chemically active fluids enhance chemical reactions
metamorphic rocks.
that alter the composition of rocks.
Which of the following processes occurs when
o Metamorphic rocks that contain large crystals need
temperature and pressure are decreased and
time to form, on a scale of tens of millions of years.
begins to require addition of hydrothermal fluids or
Which of the following factors controls metamorphism?
water?
The process of metamorphism is controlled by four
Metamorphic grade refers to the relative temperature
factors: temperature, pressure, chemically active fluids,
and pressure conditions during the formation of the
and time. These factors determine the degree of
metamorphic rocks.
metamorphism the protolith will experience.
n which type of metamorphism does foliation usually
What are the sources of heat or thermal energy that
occur?
produces metamorphism?
Metamorphic grade refers to the relative temperature
and pressure conditions during the formation of the Thermal energy that causes metamorphism comes from
metamorphic rocks. two sources. First is the heat that
What happens to rocks during shock or impact comes from ascending magmas as in the case of contact
metamorphism? metamorphism. Intrusive bodies alter the texture and
mineralogy of surrounding rocks to form metamorphic
When meteorites reach Earth, their kinetic energies are
rocks. Another source of heat comes from Earth’s
transformed into a large amount of heat. The impact of
geothermal gradient. Rocks on the surface may
these bodies causes rocks in contact to melt or even
experience increase in temperature of they are
vaporize. Metamorphic rocks may form in the process
subjected to burial.
of shock metamorphism. In this type of metamorphism,
high-pressure polymorph of quartz is usually formed. Which of the following factors should you change to
This includes coesite and stishovite. make the rocks ductile?
Which of the following statements best describe the
Regional metamorphism is said to occur over large
importance of chemically active fluids in
areas that experience differential stress. This type of
metamorphism?
stress is produced by deformational zones caused by
Any existing open space between mineral grains in a
the collision of two rock bodies with one another. Given
rock can potentially contain a fluid. This fluid is mostly
the said conditions, in which tectonic setting will
water, but contains dissolved ions. The fluid phase is
regional metamorphism occur?
important because chemical
reactions that involve changing a solid mineral into a
new solid mineral can be greatly speeded up by having
dissolved ions transported by the fluid.
Rocks tend to be brittle at low temperature and
pressure. Given the said condition, in which part of
Earth is most prone to brittle deformation?
UNIT 13 COMPISITIONAL LAYEARS OF EARTH OVERVIEW
OF THE LAYERS OF EARTH Compositional Layers of Earth
• Crust is the outermost layer which is primarily
composed of granitic and basaltic igneous rocks.
Mantle is about 84% of Earth’s volume which is mainly
composed of silicates.
Core is innermost layer which is mainly composed of
iron and nickel.
Mechanical Layers of Earth
Lithosphere is the rigid outermost layer composed of
crust and the uppermost mantle.
Asthenosphere is the plastic layer of the mantle which
enables the movement of slabs
in the lithosphere.
Mechanical Layers of Earth
Mesosphere is a semisolid layer below the
asthenosphere.
Outer core is the liquid innermost layer of Earth.
Inner core is the solid innermost layer of Earth.
Andrija Mohorovičić
Andrija Mohorovičić, a Croatian meteorologist, and
seismologist was the first to discover Earth’s interior.
He hypothesized that different densities of rocks caused
the waves to bend or refract and that a boundary
existed between the lighter crust and the denser
mantle. This boundary was subsequently called as the
Mohorovičić discontinuity or simply Moho discontinuity
which is located between the mantle and the crust.
Key Points
The layers of Earth can be classified into mechanical and
compositional.
The compositional layers of Earth include crust, mantle,
and core.
The mechanical layers of Earth are lithosphere,
asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer
core, and inner core.
What was the instrument used to study Earth’s interior?
Scientists were able to study Earth’s interior when
seismographs were discovered.
Which of the following describes the Mohorovicic
discontinuity?
The Mohorovicic discontinuity is the boundary between
the mantle and the crust.
Which of the following layers of Earth formed by cooling
of magma?
The crust is mainly composed of granites and basalts.
These are igneous rocks that are formed by the cooling
of magma, a mixture of molten or semi-molten rocks
found beneath Earth’s surface.
Which of the following Earth’s layers is composed of
basalts and constantly formed through tearing of
tectonic plates?
The crust is mainly composed of granites and basalts.
These are igneous rocks that are formed by the cooling
of magma, a mixture of molten or semi-molten rocks
found beneath Earth’s surface.
Which of the following are true about the lithosphere?
The crust is mainly composed of granites and basalts.
These are igneous rocks that are formed by the cooling
of magma, a mixture of molten or semi-molten rocks
found beneath Earth’s surface.
THE CRUST
General Characteristics of Crust
The crust is the outermost layer of Earth and is the only
layer where organisms are found.The crust is the
outermost rocky layer of Earth which is mainly
composed of granitic and basaltic igneous rocks. It can
be classified as a continental crust or oceanic crust.
Continental crust is composed of granite wherein it can
either be in the form of mountain belts or stable
interior
Oceanic crust are composed of basaltic rocks and is
denser than continental.
Which of the following describes the crust?
The crust is the outermost layer of Earth. This layer
makes up only 1% of Earth’s total volume.
Which of the following are the major parts of the crust?
The crust is divided into two parts: the continental crust
and the oceanic crust.
Which of the following is true about shields?
shields are flat regions composed of deformed
crystalline rocks.
Which of the following is true about continental shelf?
The continental shelf refers to the gently sloping
platform extending seaward from the shore.
These are flooded extensions of the continents.
Biscay abyssal plain is an example of an underwater
plain on the deep ocean floor. It is located in the
northern part of the Atlantic ocean. Which of the
following is true about this example?
deep ocean basins lie between continental margins and
oceanic ridges. Abyssal plains are found in these
regions.
THE MANTLE
General Characteristics of Mantle
The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth’s total
volume.
It is located in between the crust and the core which is
about 2900 km deep.
The temperature of Earth’s interior increases with
depth.
o The rate of increase in temperature with respect to
the depth is called the geothermal gradient
Mantle Convection
• It is the process by which the mantle moves as it
transfers heat from the core to the lithosphere.
This involves convection currents formed from the
upward and downward motions of the materials caused
by the difference in temperature. Seismic Waves
• Body waves are seismic waves that can travel through
Earth’s interior and can be categorized into two: P-
waves and S-waves.
o The primary or P-waves can travel both in solids and
liquids. o Secondary or S-waves is limited to solids
media only.
Layers of the Mantle
The upper part of the mantle is not uniform. Its rigid
uppermost layer is similar to the crust. Together with
the crust, this layer makes up called the lithosphere.
Asthenosphere is the denser part of the mantle located
below the lithosphere. In this layer, the materials are
more plastic and flow slowly.
Layers of the Mantle
A transition zone is a region where rocks undergo a
complete change.
The mesosphere is referred to as the lower mantle
which lies below the asthenosphere.
In this region, the materials are semisolid.
Mantle makes up about 84% percent of Earth’s volume
and is mainly composed of silicates.
Mohorovičić discontinuity is the boundary between the
crust and the mantle.
Gutenberg discontinuity is located between the mantle
and the core.
Convection is the process of sinking cold material and
rising hot material due to the
difference in density.
Which of the following describes a transition zone?
Which of the following describes the lithosphere?
The lithosphere is the solid uppermost part of the
mantle and the crust. This is where the boundary
between the crust and the mantle are located.
Which of the following materials are found in the
mesosphere?
The lithosphere is the solid uppermost part of the
mantle and the crust. This is where the boundary
between the crust and the mantle are located.
Which of the following is true about geothermal
gradient?
The temperature of Earth’s interior increases with
depth. The rate of increase in temperature with respect
to the depth is called the geothermal gradient. At the
first 100 km, the gradient is around 15 to 30°C/km. This
temperature gradient drops off through the mantle and
increases quickly at the base of the mantle.
How does convection currents transfer heat from the
core to the lithosphere?
Mantle convection is the transfer of heat from the core
to the lithosphere. It involves
convection currents which transfer the magma to the
lithosphere through the plate boundaries
and certain hot spots.
THE CORE
General Characteristics of the Core
The core is the innermost layer of Earth.
Earth’s core is believed to be formed from sinking dense
iron and nickel metals during
the early stages of Earth’s formation, an event known as
the iron catastrophe.
Layers of the Core
The outer core is about 2300 km thick and has a
temperature that ranges from 4500 °C to 5500 °C.
The inner core is a solid ball of iron which has a radius of
1200 km, and its temperature
is about 5000 to 5200 °C.
The Rotation of Earth’s Inner Core.
• Scientists believe that the inner core rotates opposite
the direction of the flow of the outer core, creating a
geodynamo effect that generates Earth’s magnetic field.
• pressure in the inner core which prevents the iron from
Earth's Magnetic Field
Key Points
• Magnetic field is very important in protecting Earth
from the charged particles emitted by the solar winds.
The core is the innermost layer of Earth which is mainly
composed of iron and nickel.
Outer core is the innermost liquid layer of Earth.
Inner core is the innermost solid layer of Earth.
Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the
mantle and the core.
Lehmann discontinuity is located between the outer
and inner core.
Which of the following refers to innermost layer of
Earth?
The core is the innermost layer of Earth. It is considered
as the center of Earth.
Which of the following describes Earth’s core?
Earth’s core is believed to be formed from the sinking of
denser iron and nickel metals during
the early stages of the formation of Earth.
Which of the following are true about the outer core?
The outer core is composed primarily of iron and nickel.
It is considered a liquid layer, with very
low viscosity, making the materials malleable and easily
deformed. The outer core is also a
region where violent convection occurs.
Which of the following properties causes the metals in
the inner core maintain their solid
form?
The pressure inside the inner core of about 330–360
gigapascals allows the metals to stay in its
solid form.
Why do outer and inner core differ in their states of
matter?
The difference between the states of matter of the
inner and outer core is due to the intense
melting, even though its temperature is
way too high. Therefore, the inner core is able to keep
its solid form.
UNIT 14
THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
During the early times, the prior knowledge of most
geologists is that all continents and ocean basins are in
fixed position.
However, this idea was changed after the they have
discovered that Earth’s continents are gradually moving
resulting to the collision of continental blocks, splitting
apart of landmasses, and continuous creation and
destruction of oceanic basins.
The continental drift hypothesis was proposed by
German meteorologist named Alfred
Wegener.Continental drift hypothesis states that all
known landmasses on Earth were once joined in one
supercontinent known as Pangaea (meaning “all-
lands”). It is surrounded by a huge ocean known as
Panthalassa.
Evidence Supporting the Continental Drift Hypothesis
Continental Fit: Even before Wegener’s hypothesis,
several people already noticed that some continents
remarkably fit especially Africa and South America.
Fossil Evidence: Wegener recorded cases wherein fossil
organisms were found in a separate landmass.
Similarity of Rock Types and Mountain Ranges: Another
evidence that Wegener found is the presence of 2.2-
billion-year-old igneous rocks in Brazil that is similar to
the rocks found in Africa.
Glacial Evidence: Wegener learned that there was
evidence showing the presence of a glacial period dated
about 300 million years ago in South Africa, South
America, Australia, and India.
A more comprehensive explanation of the movement
of continent and ocean floor, known as the theory of
plate tectonics states that the lithosphere (includes the
uppermost mantle and the overlying crust) behaves as
a strong, rigid layer which is broken into segments
known as plates.
The lithosphere is broken into several irregularly-
shaped segments called lithospheric plates or tectonic
plates that are in constant motion with respect to each
other.
There are seven major plates which include North
America, South American, Pacific, African, Eurasian,
Australian-Indian, and Antarctic plates.
Evidence Supporting the Plate Tectonic Theory
Ocean drilling: The Deep Sea Drilling Project was used
to collect data from the seafloor to establish its age.
The data showed that the ocean floor increases in age
as it moved farther away from the ridge crest which
supports the seafloor spreading hypothesis.
Hotspots: Radiometric dating of the Hawaiian Island-
Emperor Seamount chain proves
that volcanoes increase in age as they move away from
the hot spot.
Paleomagnetism: It is the study of magnetism of
ancient rocks. Several paleomagnetic
data were collected in rocks to determine the direction
of the magnetic poles at a
specific time.
Apparent polar wandering: Data from paleomagnetism
of rocks in Europe and North
America showed that there was an apparent change in
position of magnetic poles over time.
Mechanism of Plate Motion
• Mantle convection is driven by a combination of
thermal processes. There are two models of plate-
mantle convection proposed to explain the mechanism
of plate motion:
o Some researchers proposed that the mantle is divided
into two zones of convection which is a thin layer in the
upper mantle and a thick layer located below. This
model is known as “layer cake” model.
o Other researchers support the whole mantle
convection where denser oceanic lithosphere sinks and
may even reach the core-mantle boundary.
• Aside from this heat-driven in the movement of
plates, some geologists also believe that there are also
gravity-driven mechanisms referred to as “slab-pull”
and “ridge-push”.
Key Points
Continental drift hypothesis proposed that known
landmasses were once joined in one supercontinent
known as Pangaea (meaning “all- lands”) and began to
break into smaller landmasses about 200 million years
ago.
Plate tectonics combines the idea of the continental
drift and seafloor spreading, stating that Earth is divided
into several lithospheric plates that move relative to
each other. It is supported by data obtained from ocean
drilling project, paleomagnetism, and apparent polar
wandering.
Mantle convection is the rising of warm material and
sinking of cold material in the mantle. There are two
models of the mantle known as the layer cake model
and whole mantle convection.
Gravity-driven mechanism includes slab pull and ridge
push.
o Slab pull is the force which causes the oceanic plates
to move downward at subduction zones.
o Meanwhile, ridge push is the force that causes warm
and less dense material to force itself up through a
ridge.
Who proposed the theory of continental drift?
In 1915, a German meteorologist named Alfred
Wegener wrote The Origin of Continents and
Oceans, which discussed his hypothesis called
continental drift.
Which of the following concepts refers to the idea that
200 million years ago Pangaea began
to break in smaller masses and gradually move to their
present positions? Wegener suggested
that there was once a supercontinent called Pangaea
comprising all of Earth’s landmasses. He
added that this supercontinent began to break into
smaller landmasses about 200 million years
ago. These landmasses gradually drifted to their present
positions in a span of millions of
years.continental drift
Which of the following statements best differentiate
continental drift hypothesis from plate
tectonics theory?
Continental drift claims that there was a supercontinent
called Pangaea comprised of all the
Earth’s landmasses. This supercontinent began to break
into smaller landmasses about 200
million years ago and drifted to their present positions.
Plate tectonics, however, explains that
the lithosphere behaves as a strong, rigid layer which is
broken into segments called plates.
These plates are in constant motion over the weak
region in the mantle, the asthenosphere.
Why was Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis
criticized? Continental drift claims that there
was a supercontinent called Pangaea comprised of all
the Earth’s landmasses. This
supercontinent began to break into smaller landmasses
about 200 million years ago and drifted
to their present positions. Plate tectonics, however,
explains that the lithosphere behaves as a
strong, rigid layer which is broken into segments called
plates. These plates are in constant
motion over the weak region in the mantle, the
asthenosphere.
Based on the figure below, what can you conclude
about the movement of plates in point A?
As seen in the figure, the two convection cells
responsible for the tectonic activity in point A are
circulating in opposite directions. This causes the
lithosphere to break and create a rift. As time
goes by, the lithospheric plates will move farther away
from each other.
THE FORMATION OF FAULTS AND FOLDS
Types of Stress
Stress is a force exerted on an object, in this case, a
rock. There are two general types of stress.
Confining stress takes place when a rock or sediment is
buried and acts uniformly in all direction.
Directed stress only acts in one direction and is most
likely associated with tectonic activities. There are three
types of directed stress, namely: compressive,
tensional, and shear stress.
Types of Rock Deformation
A rock undergoing elastic deformation goes back to its
original size and shape once the stress is removed.
Ductile deformation is a condition where moves in
plastic manner that could lead to permanent change in
shape and size yet do not involve breakage of rock.
Brittle deformation occurs when rocks surpassed its
elastic limit leading formation of fractures.
A fold is composed of various parts.
A fold arching upward is called an anticline while one
arching downward is a syncline.
Limbs are the sides of the fold.
The imaginary plane symmetrically separating the fold
into two is called the axial plane.
The fold axis is the line dividing the fold into its two
limbs, and it passes through either
the crest or the trough of the fold.
Types of Folds
Folding of rocks could also result in other land
formation.
If rock ages are unidentified, syncline and anticline are
called
as synforms and antiforms, respectively.
Faults: General Characteristics and its Parts
A fault is a fracture or a discernible displacement where
rocks grind or slide past each other. There are two parts
of a fault:
A fault line is the trace of fracture on rocks
A fault block is those that interact during faulting of rock
layers which can either be a
o hanging wall where miners usually hung over their
heads. o footwall where the miners usually walk
Key Points
Stress is a force exerted on an object, in this case, a
rock. The different types of stress include confining
stress and directed stress, which is further subdivided
into tensional, compressional, and shear stress.
Rock deformation involves changes shape and/or size
which can either be permanent or temporary. The
different types rock deformation include elastic, brittle,
and ductile deformation.
Folds are series of wavelike ripples or bends which is
mostly formed when rock layer is subjected to
compressive stress. It is composed of upward fold
known as anticline while downward fold as syncline.
Fault is a fracture or a discernible displacement where
rocks grind or slide past each other. This different types
of faults include normal dip-slip fault, reverse dip-slip
fault, strike-slip fault, and oblique fault
Which type of stress is characterized by two forces
acting in a parallel but opposite directions
which causes the rocks to simply slide past each other?
Shear stress acts in parallel but opposite direction. This
type of stress causes one rock to slide
past another as seen in transform fault boundary.
What type of deformation occurs if the rocks subjected
to stress is brittle?
If the rocks are brittle ,it will start to fracture or crack
once it is subjected to a certain amount of
stress that may produce discernable displacement or
faults
What are the typical behaviors of rocks at greater
depths?
At greater depths, there is a higher temperature and
pressure condition making the the original
rock behave as ductile and plastic. In this way, it can be
easily folded or compressed instead of
automatically breaking.
What structure is formed when the block between two
normal faults are down-dropped?
Graben is formed when a wedge-shaped block of rock
dropped downward between a pair of
normal faults. This occurs when tectonic forces in an
area are enough to produce a series of
normal faults.
Which part in the figure below is the tree located?
Hanging wall, The overlying side of the fault is called the
hanging wall and is named as such
because miners noticed that it is usually the side that
hung over their heads. The side beneath
the fault and most of the time where the miners walked
is called footwall. As seen in the figure,
the tree is located in the hanging wall of the reverse
fault.
THE SEA FLOOR SPREADING
The seafloor spreading hypothesis was proposed by
Harry Hess, a petrologist at Princeton University, and
Robert Dietz, an oceanographer in the US Coast and
Geodetic Survey. Hess suggested that the oceanic crust
together with overlying continental crust are moving.
In line with this, paleomagnetism is used as evidence of
seafloor spreading. This is because basaltic lavas contain
iron-bearing minerals which record the magnetic
orientation of Earth once the lava cooled.
This discovery leads to the conclusion of geologists that
there is a sequence of events that lead to the
alternating bands of normal and reversed polarity of the
oceanic crust.
This mechanism leads the scientists to the concept of
seafloor spreading that explains the source of new
oceanic crust. The seafloor spreading hypothesis and
the plate tectonic theory greatly helped the geologist in
explaining the origin and the features of the mid-
oceanic ridge which is Earth’s largest mountain chain.
Transform faults are extensive in the mid-oceanic ridge
dividing it into several short segments that are slightly
offset from each other.
Parts of the Ocean Floor
High-temperature geothermal vents called smokers are
also found near or along the mid-oceanic ridge.
Meanwhile, the greatest oceanic depths are found in
oceanic trenches.
Seamounts and volcanic islands are also formed in
ocean basins.
Key Points
• Seafloor spreading hypothesis states the seafloor
moves away from the ridge crest and towards the
trenches and are constantly melted and recycled in the
subduction zones
towards the mantle.
Paleomagnetism and data from Deep Sea Drilling
Project supported seafloor spreading
hypothesis. Mid-oceanic ridge is the longest underwater
mountain range which
comprises 20% of the earth’s surface.
The different features of ocean floor include abyssal
plain, seamount, guyot, trench,
smoker, and volcanic island.
Who proposed the seafloor spreading hypothesis?
The seafloor spreading hypothesis was proposed by
Harry Hess, a petrologist at Princeton
University, and Robert Dietz, an oceanographer in the
US Coast and Geodetic Survey.
What is the longest mountain range in the world?
The longest mountain range on Earth is called the mid-
oceanic ridge with a length of 40 389
miles. This is a product of a divergent plate boundary.
The mid-oceanic ridge is comprised of
thousands of individual volcanoes or volcanic ridge
segments which erupt periodically.
What is being formed in the mid-oceanic ridge?
New oceanic crust is being formed from the continuous
flowing of fresh basaltic magma along the ridge. As this
magma cools, it spreads outward the ridge and forms a
new ocean floor
Which geologic feature divides the mid-oceanic ridge
system into shorter segments?
Transform faults divides the extensive mid-oceanic ridge
into several short segments that are
slightly offset from each other. Offsets from the ridge
may range from less than a kilometer to hundreds of
kilometers.
During group discussion, one of your classmates argued
that since the seafloor is continuously spreading then
Earth must be getting bigger each day. How will you
correct your classmate’s misconception?
FORMATION OF LANDFORMS
Transform faults divides the extensive mid-oceanic ridge
into several short segments
that are slightly offset from each other. Offsets from the
ridge may range from less than a
kilometer to hundreds of kilometers.
Types of Plate Boundaries
• Divergent boundaries are formed when two plates
move away from each other resulting in the rising of the
molten material.
This type of boundary is also known as constructive
margins because new ocean seafloor is created during
the processes.
Types of Plate Boundaries
• Convergent boundaries are formed when two plates
move toward each other. Moreover, this type of
boundary is also called subduction zone which is an area
where denser lithospheric plate descends into the
mantle.
Three Types of Plate Convergence
1. In oceanic-continental convergence, the continental
crust remains buoyant while the oceanic crust starts to
sink into the mantle. This creates continental volcanic
arc.
2. In oceanic-oceanic convergence, the denser oceanic
crust sinks beneath the other oceanic crust then creates
a volcanic island arc. In continental-continental
convergence, the seafloor sediments that comprised
the old oceanic crust where the were trapped between
the closing continents and were pushed upward to form
mountain ranges.
Types of Plate Boundaries
• Transform fault boundaries happen when two plates
simply slide horizontally past each other. This is also
known as conservative margins since there is neither
destruction nor formation of new lithosphere.
Key Points
There are three different plate boundaries namely:
divergent boundary, convergent boundary, and
transform fault boundary
Divergent boundary is formed when two plates move
apart. This is also known as constructive margins. Rift,
ridge, and new seafloor are the land formations created
from plate divergence.
Convergent boundary is formed when two plates move
toward each other. This is also
known as destructive margins. Mountains, island arcs,
and volcanic arcs are formed due
to the convergence of plate.
• Transform plate boundary happens when two plates
simply slide horizontally past each
other. Fault zones are formed in transform plate
boundary.
Which plate boundary is present when two tectonic
plates move toward each other?
Convergent boundaries are formed when two plates
move toward each other. This is also called
as destructive margins.
Which type of plate boundary exists when there is no
destruction or formation of new
lithosphere?
Transform fault boundaries happen when two plates
simply slide horizontally past each
other without the destruction or formation of new
lithosphere. This is also known as
conservative margins.
Which of the following plate boundaries enables
shallow earthquakes to occur?
Occurrence of earthquakes and volcanic mountain
ranges happen in subduction zones
found in convergent plate boundaries. These
earthquakes occur at depths shallower than 70
kilometers caused by the grinding and pushing of the
cold, brittle descending plate against the
other plate
Which of the following processes is not included in the
formation of long folded mountain
ranges?
Mountain range formation usually starts with the
subduction of oceanic crust under the
continental crust. When all of the oceanic crust has
descended, both continental crusts collide
with each other, compressed, and pushed upward.
These folding and uplifting process occur
because both continental crusts are less dense
therefore both will not be able to subduct.
Using the figure below, what geologic features are you
going to find near and on
continents A and B?
In between continents A and B, there is a divergent
boundary. Near the two continents
are subduction zones where the spreading oceanic crust
starts to descend. These subduction
zones create a long and deep feature known as a
trench. Since there is also an occurrence of
partial melting in this type of plate convergence, there
will also be a high possibility of volcanic
formation.
UNIT 15
HOW LAYERS OF ROCKS ARE FORMED
fossil in Sedimentary Rocks
Fossils are remains of organisms that lived prior to the
last glacial period about 10 000 years ago.
This may include skeletons, tracks, impressions, and
casts and are primarily associated with sedimentary
rocks.
Therefore, fossils are never formed in sedimentary
rocks, these were just embedded
and preserved in between rock layers.
• Layers of sedimentary rocks are products of
stratification. These layers of rock were
formed due to changes in composition or texture of the
deposited sediments.
Steno's Law
Principles of Stratigraphy
Nicolaus Steno formulated a set of principles describing
layers of sedimentary rocks.
Stratigraphy refers to the branch of geology that studies
stratified or layered rocks in
terms of time and space
Stratification is the layering that occurs in most
sedimentary rocks. Each stratum
contains certain rock type and may also enclose fossils.
Law of original horizontality states that sediments are
generally deposited horizontally.
Principle of lateral continuity states that layers of
sediments spread out laterally in all directions until they
thin out at the edge of the depositional basin or they
grade into a
different kind of sediments.
Law of superposition states that in an undisturbed
sequence of sedimentary rocks, beds
on top are younger than the beds found below and that
each layer is younger than the
one beneath it.
Principle of cross-cutting relationship states that
geologic features that cut across rocks
are younger than the rocks which they cut through.
Key Points
Fossils are remains of organisms that lived prior to the
last glacial period about 10 000 years ago.
Nicolaus Steno formulated principles describing layers
of sedimentary rocks.
Stratigraphy refers to the branch of geology that studies
stratified or layered rocks in
terms of time and space.
Stratification is the layering that occurs in most
sedimentary rocks.
There are four general principles of stratigraphy,
namely: law of original horizontality,
principle of lateral continuity, law of superposition, and
principle of cross-cutting relationship.
o Law of original horizontality states that sediments are
generally deposited horizontally.
o Principle of lateral continuity states that layers of
sediments spread out laterally in all directions until they
thin out at the edge of the depositional basin.
o Principle of cross-cutting relationship states that
geologic features that cut
o Law of superposition simply states that in an
undisturbed sequence of
sedimentary rocks, beds on top are younger than the
beds found below and that
each layer is younger than the one beneath it.
across rocks are younger than the rocks which they cut
through.
Who formulated the principles describing the layers of
sedimentary rocks?
In the year 1669, a Danish anatomist, geologist, and
priest Niels Stensen who is known in his
Latin name Nicolaus Steno, formulated the principles
describing layers of sedimentary rocks.
Which of the following describe a stratum?
Which of the following describes the principle of lateral
continuity?
Which of the following describes the principle of cross-
cutting relationship?
What do ripple marks signify?
A stratum, or strata in plural form, is used to describe
rocks that form layers of rocks or
stratified rocks.
The principle of lateral continuity states that a layer can
be traced laterally in all directions but
terminates on edges of the basin of deposition
The principle of lateral continuity states that a layer can
be traced laterally in all directions but
terminates on edges of the basin of deposition
Ripple marks in a sediment are characteristic of
deposition of the inorganic materials in shallow
water and are caused by forces such as wave-related
forces or wind-related forces that leave
ripples of sand as exemplified by the marks evident on
beach sand or on the bottom of a
shallow stream.
RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING Relative Dating
Relative dating uses a sequence of rocks to get a grasp
on the succession of events that took place in the past.
These dates do not tell the duration of the event but
gives an idea on what followed or preceded the event.
To put it simply, relative dating can only determine if a
rock layer is young or old but does not state the exact
age of the layer.
Absolute Dating
Key Points
Which of the following describes relative dating?
Relative dating gives the arrangement of events based
on rock sequence.
Which of the following describes absolute dating?
Relative dating gives the arrangement of events based
on rock sequence.
Absolute dating allows the determination of the exact
numerical age of rocks and fossils.
The absolute date of rocks is obtained through
radiometric methods.
It is also known as numerical dating.
Comparison of Relative and Absolute Dating
Relative dating uses sequence of rocks to get a grasp on
the succession of events that took place in the past.
Absolute dating allows the determination of the exact
numerical age of rocks and fossils.
Which of the following describe the law of
superposition?
The law of superposition
states that in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary
rocks, beds on top are younger than the
beds found below and that each layer is younger than
the one beneath it
. It is important in the
interpretation of Earth's history because it indicates the
relative age of the rock layers and
fossils.
Which of the following is true about the principle of
cross-cutting relationship? The
principle of cross-cutting relationship states that
geologic features that cut across rocks are
younger than the rocks which they cut through. Igneous
intrusions are the best example for this
where the intruding body is younger than the host rock.
Why is it important to calibrate the geologic time scale?
By calibrating the geologic time scale, geologists are
able to provide up to date geologic
time scale showing the geologic time intervals which
describe the relationships between the
events that happened throughout Earth’s history.
GUIDE FOSSILS AND GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
Principal of Fossil Succession
In the late eighteenth century, French paleontologists,
Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, together with
an English geologist William Smith, published the first
geologic maps.
They have recognized that rocks of the same age, even
if separated by long distance, may contain the same
fossils.
Smith’s field observation helped in formulating a basic
principle called the principle of fossil succession.
o It states that fossils succeed one another in a definite
order and any time period can be recognized by the
fossils present.
Index Fossils
Fossils that are distributed in a wide area and existed
for limited time periods are called index fossils.
Their short time frame makes them useful in dating
rocks.
To be considered a good index fossil, the fossil has to
be geographically widely distributed, limited in a short
span of geologic time, distinct and easily recognizable,
and abundant. Use of Index Fossils in Determining
Geologic Time Scale
Key Points
• Principle of fossil succession states that fossils succeed
one another in a definite order and any time period can
be recognized by the fossils present.
Fossils that are distributed in a wide area and existed
for limited time periods are called index fossils.
A good index fossil has to be widespread in distribution
geographically, limited in a short span of geologic time,
distinct and easily recognizable, and abundant.
Through the help of index fossils, geologists were able
to create a geologic time scale.
Which of the following suggested that inorganic life-like
shapes grew within rocks?
Around 300 B.C., Aristotle suggested that inorganic life-
like shapes grew within rocks.
Which of the following published the first geological
maps?
Which of the following characteristics make a good
index fossil?
In the late eighteenth century, French paleontologists
Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart
and English geologist William Smith published the first
geologic maps.
To be considered a good index fossil, four major
characteristics should be considered. First, the
fossil has to be widespread in distribution
geographically. Second is that they have to be limited
in a short span of geologic time. Third, the index fossil
has to be distinct and easily recognizable.
And finally, it has to be abundant.
Which of the following are examples of index fossils?
One very popular example of an index fossil are the
trilobites. Other examples of index fossils are the
ammonites, crinoids, rugose corals, and mollusks.
Others are in the form small, microscopic planktons that
float in the oceans
Rock A is located 10 km away from Rock B. They have
the same age.
Which of the following describes this scenario? Rocks of
the same age, even if they are separated by long
distance, may contain the same fossils.
EARTH HISTORY FROM GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
Geologic Time Scale
Eons
• Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago.
• The geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras,
periods, and epoch.
The Phanerozoic eon began 542 million years ago. The
term means ‘visible life’ and is assigned to rock units
that bear abundant fossils.
The other earlier 4 billion years of Earth’s history is
called Precambrian. Precambrian refers to the time
between the birth of the planet and the appearance of
life forms.
Era
Each era is marked by major changes in the fossil
record. Eras are subdivided into periods. This
subdivision of geologic time is generally based on the
life form existing in each period.
The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras, namely:
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
o Paleozoic meaning ‘ancient life’ refers to as the ‘age of
invertebrates’ because life forms during this era are
mostly animals without backbones including trilobites
and corals. It is divided into six periods.
o Mesozoic meaning ‘middle life’ is often called the ‘age
of reptiles’. o Cenozoic means ‘recent life’ is also called
‘age of mammals’.
of years. Using the scale, one can determine Earth’s
history by knowing what event
corresponds to each unit.
Epochs are the shortest subdivision marked by changes
in life form and may vary from continent to continent.
The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras.
Paleozoic era is referred to ‘as the age of invertebrates’,
Mesozoic era is often called the ‘age of reptiles’, and
Cenozoic era is also called ‘age of mammals’.

Epochs Which of the following periods showed the ‘explosion’

of life?
Key Points
How are the subdivisions of the geologic time scale
determine Earth’s history?

• Periods are further subdivided into epochs, the Cambrian is the period where ‘explosion’ of life
shortest subdivision. Epochs are marked by changes in occurred. All the existing phyla came into being
life form and may vary from continent to continent.
during this period. Oxygen level rose in this time and
Events that took place on the planet in its vast history the dominant animals include trilobites
can be better understood using the geologic time scale.
and brachiopods. The name Cambrian is derived from
Eons represent the greatest expanse of time. The Cambria, Roman name for Wales where
Phanerozoic eon began 542 million years ago while the
rocks from this period were first studied.
other earlier 4 billion years of Earth’s history is called
Precambrian. A geologic time scale is a two-fold scale subdividing all
the time since the formation of Earth
The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras namely
Paleozoic meaning ‘ancient life’, and all the rocks formed ever since. The time span for
each of events can be seen in the
Mesozoic ‘middle life’, and Cenozoic ‘recent life’. Eras
are subdivided into periods. geologic time scale. Some range from thousands of
years while others range to up to millions of
Periods are further subdivided into epochs, the shortest
subdivision. Epochs are marked years. Using the scale, one can determine Earth’s
history by knowing what event corresponds
by changes in life form and may vary from continent to
continent. to each unit.
Which of the following describe a geologic time scale?
Which of the following describes an epoch?
Which of the following are true about eras?
A geologic time scale is a two-fold scale subdividing all
the time since the formation of Earth
and all the rocks formed ever since. The time span for
each of events can be seen in the
geologic time scale. Some range from thousands of
years while others range to up to millions