Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Whenever a current carrying

conductor is placed inside a magnetic
field, a force acts on the
conductor, in a direction
perpendicular to both the
directions of the current and the magnetic
field.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

Whenever a conductor moves inside a magnetic field, there will be an induced current in it.
If this conductor gets forcefully moved inside the magnetic field, there will be a relation
between the direction of applied force,
magnetic field and the current.

Lenz’s law states that: “The polarity

of induced emf in a closed

loop is such that it tends to

produce a current which

opposes the change in the

magnetic flux that produces

it.”
Coulomb’s Law
The amount of force between two stationary, electrically charged particles (known as
the electrostatic force.

Colomb’s law states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion
between two electrically charged bodies is directly proportional to the product of the charge
of the charged bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
center of the charged bodies.

Faraday’s law of ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTON:

Faraday’s First Law:

 Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that “Whenever a

conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an EMF gets
induced across the conductor”.

Faraday’s Second Law:

 Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that “the magnitude of

induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage”.
 What is Magnetic Permeability?
Magnetic permeability is a material property that describes the change in the magnetic
field inside a material compared with the magnetization field in which it is located [1]
[2].
In other words, it indicates how easily a material is affected by an induced magnetic field.
The use of this material property has a high significance in diverse industries. Applications
such as electromagnets, transformers, and inductors use materials with significantly high
magnetic permeability values.
In this article, you will learn about:
 What magnetic permeability is
 How materials classify based on their magnetic permeability
 Magnetic permeability measurements
 Current and future applications of magnetic permeability

What is magnetic permeability?

When a material is subjected to a magnetic field, it tends to reorient in the direction of the
applied field, which generates an induced magnetization process. The effect of in the induced
magnetization into the magnetic flux can be described using the magnetic permeability as
follows:
μ=BHμ=BH
where μμ is the absolute permeability of the medium, BB is the magnetic flux, and HH is the
induced magnetic field [1][2]. The value of m also represents the slope of the B-H curve,
known as the magnetization curve [3]. The magnetic properties are also usually represented
by the concept of relative magnetic permeability, defined as μr=μμ0μr=μμ0, where μ0μ0 is
the permeability of the free space with a value of 4π×10−74π×10-7 weber per ampere-meter
(Wb/A.m) [1]. For free-space or vacuum, the value of the relative magnetic permeability
is μr=1μr=1. The concept of relative magnetic permeability helps to quantify the change of
the induced magnetization in the magnetic flux [2][3].
Classification of materials based on magnetic permeability
Materials can be classified based on their relative magnetic permeabilities as: 
 Non-permeable
 Diamagnetic
 Paramagnetic
 Ferromagnetic
Description and examples of materials based on this classification are shown in the table
below [1][2].
 Table 1. Material classifications based on their relative magnetic permeability.
Relative magnetic Examples of
Material Type Description
permeability Materials

Copper
Aluminium
Platinum
Hydrogen
Repel or provide
Non- Glass
opposition to the μr=1μr=1
permeable Diamond
induced magnetic field
Teflon
Concrete (dry)
Wood
Air

Bismuth
Weakly attracted by the Graphite
magnetic field with Sapphire
Diamagnetic constant relative μr<1μr<1 Copper
permeability values Pyrolytic carbon
lower than 1 Water
Superconductors

Magnesium
Strongly attracted by the
Molybdenum
magnetic field with
Tantalum
Paramagnetic constant relative 1<μr<1001<μr<100
Ferrite (Nickel
permeability values
Zinc)
slightly higher than 1
Lithium

Iron
Strongly attracted by the
Nickel
magnetic field with
Ferromagnetic μr≥100μr≥100 Cobalt
nonlinear relative
Steel
permeability values
Alloys

Applications of magnetic permeability

The main application of magnetic permeability is the characterization of magnetic materials.
Magnetic materials are defined by their magnetization curve (B vs. H) and relative magnetic
permeability (μrμr). Magnetic materials are generally associated with ferromagnetic
materials as these exhibit significantly high magnetic permeability values μr≥100μr≥100.
Magnetic materials constitute key pieces in technology applications for industries, such as
[5]:
 Generation, distribution and conversion of energy
 Storage and retrieval of information
 Media and telecommunications
Magnetic Permeability is a value that expresses how a magnetic material responds to an
applied magnetic field. 
If a material's internal dipoles become easily oriented to an applied magnetic field, that
material is regarded as being a high-permeability material.  If the material's internal dipoles
do not become easily oriented to an applied magnetic field, it is a low-permeability magnetic
material.
Magnetic Permeability is simply the ability of the material to form an internal magnetic field
within itself under the influence of an applied magnetic field. 

Another way to understand it is that Permeability is the ability of a material to become

magnetized when exposed to a magnetic field.

But there's an even easier way to think of permeability.  If you ask the question, "How easily
does the material become magnetized?", the answer has to do with the permeability of the
material. The easier it is magnetized, the more permeable it is.  Keep in mind that "ease of
magnetization" is different from "strength of magnetization" because most materials that
become easily magnetized are not strong magnets.

The assumption is that you are trying to magnetize a material that is practical for magnetic
purposes.  We could talk about the magnetic permeability of air, or of a vacuum.  The
permeability of air or vacuum can be measured.  The permeability is very low, since air and
vacuum don't have much mass.  However, the permeability of hard magnetic materials is
also low, and there is plenty of mass.  So then, what accounts for the difference?  That will
be explained below in the Permeability of Hard Magnetic Materials section.

Let's try to understand permeability better.  When we create a magnetic field with an
electromagnetic coil, we have a choice to make regarding the core that goes inside the coil.
If the core is made of air- or even a vacuum- there isn't much material there to become
magnetized.

Permeability of Soft Magnetic Materials

If you make the core out of a soft magnetic material like silicon steel, it is easy to magnetize,
so silicon steels are regarded as very permeable.  In fact, many electromagnets and solenoids
have cores made of iron or silicon steel, precisely because these materials are so permeable.
Here is a short list of soft magnetic materials:
Iron
Low-carbon steel
Silicon steel
Iron-aluminum-silicon alloys
Nickel-iron alloys
Iron-cobalt alloys
Ferrites, and amorphous alloys.

But that's not the whole story.  The permeability equation is as follows:

µ = B/H

Where:
µ = permeability
B = Flux Density, measured in Teslas or Gauss
H = Magnetizing Force, measured in Oersteds

So we can see that permeability is the flux density divided by the magnetizing force.  This
means that if the Flux Density is high and the Magnetizing Force is low, the Permeability is
low.  If the Flux Density is low and the Magnetizing Force is high, then the Permeability is
high. 
While we're on the subject, iron and silicon steels also have low Remanence and
low Coercivity, additional factors that make them great core materials.  They magnetize
easily (low Coercivity) and then demagnetize easily (Low Remanence) in part because they
are permeable.  Also, the silicon addition to silicon steels reduces eddy currents and
improves the long-term stability of the steel so its characteristics remain the same for a long
time.

Permeability of Hard Magnetic Materials

NdFeB rare earth magnets -for example-have very low permeability, because they have
strong magnetic dipoles that resist an external magnetic field.  This means that these magnets
strongly resist external magnetic fields, which means that they will not easily re-orient their
domains while under the influence of an external magnetic field.
NdFeB magnets also have a high coercive force (Coercivity) which makes it difficult to
demagnetize them.

It is typical then for low-permeability materials to be used as permanent magnets, and for
high-permeability materials to be used as soft magnetic materials.  If we look at Figure 1
(below) we see typical hysteresis curves for both hard- and soft magnetic materials.

Here is a short list of hard magnetic materials:

NdFeB (Neodymium)
SmCo (Samarium Cobalt)
Ferrite
Alnico (Aluminum, Nickel, Cobalt Alloy)

B-H Curve of Magnetic Material. As we follow

the letters from a through g we generate important magnetic data about the material that
helps us understand the material's magnetic properties.

Permeability and the Hysteresis Loop

We can learn a lot about permeability of a material just by looking at the hysteresis loop.
Generally, a highly permeable material will have a tall, narrow hysteresis loop, while a low
permeability material will have a wider hysteresis loop.

The shape of the hysteresis loop is governed by a variety of factors that influence the
material's magnetic characteristics.  A magnetic material with a narrow hysteresis loop
generally has higher permeability while a material with a wider hysteresis loop will have
lower permeability. 

But a number of additional factors influence a material's hysteresis loop and identify that

material's magnetic characteristics.  For example, materials with a wider hysteresis loop
generally exhibit the following properties:
 Higher Remanence (Residual Magnetism)
 Lower Permeability
 Higher Retentivity
 Higher Coercive Force (Coercivity)
 Higher Reluctance
 Materials with a thinner hysteresis loop have:
 Lower Remanence (Residual Magnetism)
 Higher Permeability
 Lower Retentivity
 Lower Coercive Force (Coercivity)
 Lower Reluctance

Why Do We Care About Magnetic Permeability?

A non-permeable material (think of air or even a vacuum) will allow magnetic field lines to
enter it's space.  It has virtually no effect on its surroundings.  It does not store any energy.
A hard magnetic permeable material will not allow external field lines to enter its domain.
Hard magnets have very strongly oriented dipoles that do not easily change their orientation,
while soft magnets will more easily change their orientation in the presence of an applied
field.

Permeability of Selected Materials

If we view the relative permeability values of a few materials, we can make some fascinating
observations.  Some materials that seem very similar actually have very different
permeability values.  Highly purified iron, for example, has the highest permeability on the
chart, and it's permeability is 50X's that of electrical steel.  At the other end of the spectrum
is Neodymium (actually Nd2Fe14B) magnets.  It's interesting to note that the Relative
Permeability of Neodymium magnets -at 1.05- is very similar to the Relative Permeability of
air at 1.00.Relative Permeability of Selected Materials

Relative Permeability of Selected Materials. It's surprising

to note that the permeability of an NdFeB Magnet is
similar to air until we consider what is happening with the
diples.

Let's Talk About Dipoles

How can we best understand these Relative Permeability
values?  Remember that permeability is the ability of the
material to form an internal magnetic field within itself under the influence of an applied
magnetic field.  So materials that can easily orient their dipoles in the presence of an external
magnetic field are permeable, and materials that do not easily orient their dipoles are not so
permeable.
Pure iron (a soft magnetic material) re-orients it's dipoles easily in the presence of a magnetic
field, but a Neodymium magnet maintains those dipoles in their orientation even under the
influence of a strong external magnetic field. 
What's even more interesting is that the permeability of a Neodymium magnet is very close
to the permeability of air.  So we have to ask the question -"How can the permeability of a
dense permanent magnet material be so close to air -where there is so little mass?" 
The answer to this question comes back to our earlier premise about how materials orient
their dipoles.  Neodymium magnets do not easily re-orient their dipoles in the presence of an
applied magnetic field.  Air -since there is so little mass- does not have many dipoles to
orient. 
So we can see that the reason Neodymium magnets have nearly the same Permeability as air
is that while Neodymium magnets have a lot more dipoles than air, they only allow a very
small amount of those dipoles to align to an external magnetic field.  The result is that
Neodymium magnets have virtually the same Permeability as air.

Magnetic Reluctance

Magnetic Reluctance is the opposite of Magnetic Permeability.  We can think of it as

magnetic resistance.  Materials that are highly permeable will have low reluctance.
Conversely, materials with low Permeability (μ) Relative
Material
permeability will generally have low (H.m-1) Permeability (μr)

Air 1.257 × 10-6 1.000

Copper 1.257 × 10-6 0.999

Vacuum 4π × 10-7 1

Water 1.256 × 10-6 0.999

Wood 1.257 × 10-6 1.00

reluctance.

DEFINITION
Permittivity (electric permittivity)
Permittivity, also called electric permittivity, is a constant of proportionality that exists
between electric displacement and electric field intensity. This constant is equal to
approximately 8.85 x 10-12 farad per meter (F/m) in free space (a vacuum). In other
materials it can be much different, often substantially greater than the free-space value,
which is symbolized eo.

In engineering applications, permittivity is often expressed in relative, rather than in

absolute, terms. If eo represents the permittivity of free space (that is, 8.85 x 10 -12 F/m)
and e represents the permittivity of the substance in question (also specified in farads per
meter), then the relative permittivity, also called the dielectric constant er, is given by:

er = e / eo
= e (1.13 x 1011)

Various substances have dielectric constants er greater than 1. These substances are generally

called dielectric materials, or simply dielectrics. Commonly used dielectrics include glass,
paper, mica, various ceramics, polyethylene, and certain metal oxides. Dielectrics are used in
capacitors and transmission lines in alternating current (AC), audio frequency (AF), and
radio frequency (RF) applications.

Permittivity Vs Permeability

Parameters Permittivity Permeability

A measure of the opposition offered It is the measure of the extent

Definition by any material for against the to which magnetic field lines
formation of an electric field can enter substance.

Permittivity=ElectricdisplacementEl
Formula
ectricfieldintensity
Permeability=Magnitudeofmag
neticinduction(B)Intensityofma
gneticfield(H)

Represented by ϵ μ

SI Unit Farad/metre or F/m Henries/metre or H/m

The value in free The permittivity of Free Space ϵ 0= The permeability of free space
space 8.85✕ 10-12 Farad/metre μ0 = 4𝝅×10-7 H/m

Field Electric field Magnetic field

Principle involved Polarisation of electric charges Magnetization

Transformer core and

Application Capacitors
Inductors