Chemical Process Equipment – Design
Organization of a ChE Plant Design Project
- It always begin with customer need, and
someone willing to invest in a business to
cater to the customer need.
Phase 1
- Process design – setting the design
objective and basis, initial selection of the
process to be used up to issuing flow-
sheets and also includes the selection,
specification and chemical engineering
design of equipment, preliminary economic
evaluation.
- Acted upon by the process design group
Phase 2
- Plant design – detailed mechanical design
of equipment, structural, civil, electrical
design, specification and design of ancillary
services, detailed economic evaluation,
optimization
- Done by the specialist design groups.
Phase 3
- Procurement and construction
Project Specification – the design objective (the
need)
- All designs start with a perceived need –
public need for the product
o Commercial opportunity as foreseen
by sales and marketing organization
- Designer should obtain complete and
unambiguous statement of the design
requirements
o “should haves” – parts of initial
requirements but can be relaxed if
required as design develops
o “must haves” – basic design
requirement
- Designer should work as closely as possible
with the sales department or customers
directly to have as clear as possible an
understanding of the customer’s needs.
Project Specification – setting the design basis
- Translating the customer need into a
chemical engineering design basis
o More precise statement of the
problem, includes production rate
and purity specifications, together
with constrains information that will
influence:
 National, local, or company
codes to be followed
 Details of raw materials are
available
 Information of potential plant
location, climate, seismic,
infrastructure availability
 Utility services availability,
price – fuel gas, steam,
cooling water, process air,
electricity
Generation of possible design concepts
- Creative part of the design process where
possible solutions to the problem are
generated so that these could be analyzed,
evaluation and selected from.
- Most designers largely rely on previous
experience (their own and of others)
- The majority of process designs created are
based on designs that previously existed
- It is doubtful if any design is entirely novel:
o Consider: modern distillation
process have developed from
ancient stills used to produce
alcoholic spirits
The design projects classified according to
degree of novelty
- Modifications, additions to existing plants
- New production capacity to meet growing
sales demand and the sale of established
processes by contractors
- New processes, developed from laboratory
research, through pilot plant to commercial
processes. Even here, most of the unit
operations and process equipment will use
established designs
Generation of possible design concepts, selection
- 1st step in devising new process design:
o Sketch out a rough block diagram
showing the main process stages,
listing the primary function and
constraints for each stage
- Design concept generation is simultaneous
with selection; some ideas will be rejected
as impractical as soon as they are
conceived
Material and energy balances
- Based on the design basis (e.g. production
rate), the materials and energy flows across
the selected process are calculated
- Applications of stoichiometry, kinetics,
thermodynamics, heat and mass transfer,
separation processes
- Material balance – determining quantities -
> important to equipment sizing
- Energy balance – determine
heating/cooling/power requirements
(utilities)
Equipment design & Specification
- For each process step (unit process or unit
operation), the suitable equipment is
selected, designed, to obtain the basic
important specifications
- the specifications will dictate the cost of
equipment
Process flow sheet generation
- Once the equipment specifications are
resolved, better process flow diagrams is
generated
- Reflect mass, energy flows, process
conditions, specific equipment type and
number
Economic evaluation
- Starts with equipment costing
- Estimation of total capital investment, total
product cost, projected income, profitability
indexes
- If found favorable, detailed design follows
Detailed design, procurement, start-up
- An iteration of the first stage or preliminary
design
- The preliminary design is improved,
previous “shortcuts” are worked out in more
detail
- Specialist designers are now needed (e.g.
mechanical engineer, control
- engineer, etc)
- With much better knowledge of mass,
energy flows,
- Equipment design and specifications, piping
and
- Instrumentation, etc., optimization
calculations can be
- Implemented to refine design decisions
- Procurement, construction, start-up, full
business operation
Summary
- Process equipment design is only a
component of the chemical plant design
project
- There are 3 phases of chemical plant
design project: (1) process design (2) plant
design and (3) procurement, construction
and start-up
 - This course is about preliminary eqpt
selection, specification and design – a
component of phase 1
- Design process is iterative, what is done in
phase 1 is repeated in phase 2 but in more
detail and depth
- All design processes start with customer
need
- We need to know more about these
concepts: eqpt selection, specification and
design
Process Equipment
- Machineries and/or installations that
implement unit processes or unit operations
Selection
- The decision to choose one type of
equipment over another for a common
purpose/function
Specification
- Setting the equipment’s characteristics such
as materials of construction, size, capacity,
compatible materials that can be handled,
operating temperature/pressure range, etc.
Design
- The process of devising a system,
component, or process to meet desired
needs
- It is a decision-making process (often
iterative), in which the basic sciences,
mathematics, and the engineering sciences
are applied to convert resources optimally to
meet these stated needs
Categories of process equipment
- Proprietary equipment
o Proprietary equipment, such as
pumps, compressors, filters,
centrifuges and dryers, is designed
and manufactured by specialist
firms.
o A system of “standard sizes/rated
capacities” of the equipment may be
created by a specialist firm, but this
is not a real standard since it may
slightly vary from firm to firm
o Use of standard equipment,
whenever possible, will reduce costs
- Nonproprietary or custom-designed
equipment
o Nonproprietary or custom-designed
equipment is designed as special,
one-off items for applications that
are not amenable to standardization
o Examples: reactor, distillation
columns, and heat exchangers
o Distillation columns, vessels and
tubular heat exchangers, though
non-proprietary items, will be
designed to conform to recognized
standards and codes
o Adhering to standards and codes
reduces the amount of design work
involved
Chemical Engineer’s Involvement in equipment
design
- Proprietary equipment
o Unless employed by a specialist
equipment manufacturer, the
chemical engineer is not normally
involved in the detailed design of
proprietary equipment.
o CHE’s job will be to select and
specify the equipment needed for a
particular duty; consulting with the
vendors to ensure that the
equipment supplied is suitable.
o The CHE may be involved with the
vendor’s designers in modifying
standard equipment for particular
applications;
 e.g., a standard tunnel dryer
designed to handle
particulate solids may be
adapted to dry synthetic
fibers
- Non-proprietary equipment
o The ChE’s part in the design of “non-
proprietary” equipment is usually
limited to selecting and “sizing” the
equipment.
o For example, in the design of a
distillation column his work will
typically be to determine the number
of plates; the type and design of
plate; diameter of the column; and
the position of the inlet, outlet and
instrument nozzles.
 o This information would then be
transmitted, in the form of sketches
and specification sheets, to the
specialist mechanical design group,
or the fabricator’s design team, for
detailed design.
Specification Sheets in Chemical Engineering
Process
- A tabulation of selected characteristics of
the equipment that are significant in the
process point of view
- Usually includes sketches or drawings
- On a pump, for instance, process design will
specify the operating conditions, capacity,
pressure differential, NPSH, materials of
construction in contact with process liquid
- Other details that are not needed by the
process engineer to proceed to equipment
costing (e.g., wall thickness of the casing,
stuffing box type, foundation dimensions)
are not included in the specifications
- BUT: most of these omitted items eventually
must be known before a plant is ready for
construction.
- Standard specification forms are available
for most proprietary kinds of equipment and
for summarizing the details of all kinds of
equipment
Equipment Specifications
- Preliminary equipment specifications should
ideally show
o Identification
o Function
o Operation
o Materials handled
o Basic design data (dimensions,
capacity, etc)
o Special info & details e.g. matls of
construction, special design details,
comments
o Essential controls
o Insulation requirements
o Allowable tolerances
Source of Information
- Book/encyclopedic sources on the general
information about chemical manufacturing
processes are Kirk-Othmer, Shreve’s, etc.
- Extensive physical property and
thermodynamic data are available
throughout the literature (ex.: solubilities,
vapor pressures, phase equilibria, transport,
and thermal properties)
- Information about equipment sizes,
configurations, and sometimes performance
is best found in manufacturers’ catalogs and
manufacturers’ web sites, and from
advertisements in the journal literature, such
as Chemical Engineering and Hydrocarbon
Processing
Codes, Standards, and Recommended
Practices
- A large body of rules has been developed
over the years to ensure the safe and
economical design, fabrication, and testing
of equipment, structures, and materials.
- Codification of these rules has been done
by associations organized for just such
purposes, by professional societies, trade
groups, insurance underwriting companies,
and government agencies.
- Engineering contractors and large
manufacturing companies usually maintain
individual sets of standards so as to
maintain continuity of design and to simplify
maintenance of plant.
- Typical items that are standardized in the
field of engineering are:
o limitations on the sizes and wall
thicknesses of piping,
o specifications of the compositions of
alloys,
o stipulation of the safety factors
applied to strengths of construction
materials,
o testing procedures for many kinds of
materials, and so on.
Design Safety Factors
- A number of factors influence the
performance of equipment and plant.
- There are elements of uncertainty and the
possibility of error, including inaccuracy of
physical data, basic correlations of behavior
such as pipe friction or column tray
efficiency or gas-liquid distribution.
- Further, it is often necessary to use
approximations of design methods and
calculations, unknown behavior of materials
of construction, uncertainty of future market
 demands, and changes in operating
performance with time.
- The solvency of the project, the safety of the
operators and the public, and the reputation
and career of the design engineer are at
stake, thus safety factors are always
applied.
- Just how much of a factor should be
applied in a particular case cannot be stated
in general terms because circumstances
vary widely
- Safety factors must be judiciously applied
and should not be used to mask inadequate
or careless design work.
- The design should be the best that can be
made in the time economically justifiable,
and the safety factors should be estimated
from a careful consideration of all factors
entering into the design and the possible
future deviations from the design conditions
Materials, Selection, and Fabrication
Factors Contributing to Corrosion
Corrosion of metals specifically applies to chemical
or electrochemical attack.
- Corrosion confined to the metal surface but
sometimes along grain boundaries or
other metal weaknesses because of a
difference in resistance to attack or local
electrolytic action.
- Deterioration of plastics and other
nonmetallic materials are physiochemical:
swelling, crazing, softening and/or
decomposition.
-
There are both localized and structural aspects of
corrosion.
- Corrosive action in localized level occurs at
crevices, intergranular boundaries,
oxygen-deficient cells, or stress
activated surfaces.
- Corrosive action in structural corrosion
includes three different types of material
damage.
o Graphitic corrosion – involves gray
cast iron in which metals is
converted to graphite mixed with iron
corrosion products.
o Dezincification – corrosion of a
brass alloy containing zinc in which
the principal product of corrosion is
metallic copper.
o Biological corrosion – metabolic
activity of microorganisms can either
directly or indirectly cause
deterioration of a metal by corrosion
processes.
 Biological activity in a fluid
can produce a corrosive
environment, create
electrolytic concentration
cells on the metal surface,
alter the resistance of surface
films, have an influence on
the rate of anodic or cathodic
reaction, or alter the
environmental composition.
Corrosive action can be initiated by galvanic
action, impingement, cavitation, or hydrogen
attack.
- Galvanic action corrosion
o Electric potential can be set up
between two different metals in
contact with a conducting fluid.
o When dissimilar metals are used in
contact with each other and are
exposed to an electrically
conducting solution, combinations
of metals that are close as possible
in the galvanic series should be
selected.
o Galvanic corrosion can be prevented
by insulating the metals from each
other.
Corrosion rate affected by pH
- Metals such as aluminum and zinc dissolve
rapidly in either acidic or basic solutions
while noble metals are not appreciably
affected by pH.
- Oxidizing agents often are powerful
accelerators of corrosion.
o Oxidizing power of a solution may be
the most important single property
associated with the corrosion
activity.
o Oxidizing agents may accelerate the
corrosion of one class of metals and
retard the corrosion of another class
of metals by the formation of a
protective oxide on the surface.
  Chromium – responsible for
the principal corrosion-
resisting characteristics of
stainless steel.
Corrosion affected by rising temperature
- Temperature has a secondary effect
through its influence on the solubility of
air (oxygen) – the principal oxidizer
influencing corrosion.
Rate of corrosion increases as velocity of the
corrosive solution relative to the metal surface
increase.
Combating Corrosion
- Best source of guidance for such a decision
is well-documented experience from an
identical process unit.
- Minimization of corrosion process with a
change in the operating environment,
use of an inhibitor, cathodic or anodic
protection, substitution of less corrosive
materials, or the use of a permissible
corrosion rate in the design of certain
equipment if the corrosion is anticipated and
properly allowed for in the thickness
calculation.
- Simple changes in an environment may
make an appreciable difference in the
corrosion of metals and need to be
considered as a means of combating
corrosion.
o Oxygen is an important factor, and
its removal or addition can result in
marked changes in corrosion.
o Treatment of boiler feedwater to
remove oxygen greatly reduces the
corrosiveness of the water on the
chamber and piping.
o Corrosiveness of acid fluids to
stainless alloys, may be reduced by
aeration because of the formation of
passive oxide films.
- Reduction in temperature is often beneficial
with a reduction in corrosion.
- Modification of pH values to less acidic
conditions also can result in less corrosion.
- Elimination of moisture in a system can
frequently does minimize corrosion of
metals, and this environment alteration
should always be considered.
- Use of inhibitors as additives to
corrosive environments to decrease
corrosion of metals is another means of
combating corrosion.
o Chromates, phosphates, and
silicates.
- Cathodic protection is widely used in the
protection of underground pipes and tanks
from external soil corrosion and in water
systems to protect water storage tanks and
offshore structure.
- Use of nonmetallic castings and lining
materials in combination with steel or
other materials has proved to be an
economical solution for combating
corrosion.
o flake-glass-reinforced resin
systems, elastomers, and
plasticized plastic systems
- Cladding of steel with an alloy is another
approach to the corrosion problem.
o Steel can be coated with zinc,
cadmium, aluminum, or lead.
Properties of Materials
Divided into metals and nonmetals
- Pure metals and metallic alloys are included
under the first classification.
Ferrous Metals and Alloys
- Steel – carbon steel is the most commonly
used materials in the chemical process
industry despite somewhat limited corrosion
resistance.
o used with most organic chemicals
and neutral or basic aqueous
solutions at moderate temperatures
o used with corrosion rates of 0.13 to
0.5 mm/yr
o Low-alloy steels contain one or more
alloying components to improve the
mechanical and corrosion-resistant
properties over those of carbon
steel.
 Nickel increases toughness
and improves low-
temperature properties and
corrosion resistance
 Chromium and silicon
improve hardness, abrasion
resistance, corrosion
resistance, and resistance to
oxidation.
  Molybdenum provides
added strength for higher-
temperature operation.
- Stainless steel – more than 70 standard
types of stainless steel and many special
alloys.
o Three groups of stainless alloys
 Martensitic – contain 12-
20% Chromium with
controlled amounts of
Carbon and other alloys.
 Hardened by heat
treatment, which can
increase the tensile
strength from 550 to
1380 MPa.
 Corrosion resistance
is poor relative to that
for austenitic stainless
steels.
 Ferritic stainless steel –
Contain 15-30% Chromium
with 0.1% or less carbon
content
 Strength can be
increased by cold
working but not by
heat treatment.
 Austenitic – most corrosion-
resistant of the three groups
of stainless steels.
 Steels contain 16-
26%
 Carbon content is
maintained below
0.08% to minimize
carbide precipitation.
 Can be work-
hardened, but heat
treatment will not
cause hardening.
o A preliminary approach to the
selection of the stainless steel
required for a specific application is
to classify the various types
according to alloy content,
microstructure, and major
characteristics.
o From the 3 main groups, many cast
stainless alloys are available and
widely used in pumps, valves, and
fittings.
 Contains chromium and
nickel with added alloying
agents such as copper,
aluminum, beryllium,
molybdenum, nitrogen, and
phosphorus.
All types of stainless steel can be fabricated
successfully. Machinability is improved if small
quantities of phosphorus, selenium, or sulfur are
present in the alloy.
- Medium alloys – a group of mostly
proprietary alloys with somewhat better
corrosion resistance
Nonferrous metals and alloys
- Nickel and Its Alloys
o Nickel exhibits high corrosion
resistance to most alkalies.
o Nickel-clad steel is used extensively
for equipment in the production of
caustic soda and alkalies.
 Strength is almost as great
as carbon steel.
o Monel - alloy containing 67% Nickel
and 30% Copper, is often used in
the food industries.
 Stronger than nickel and
better corrosion resistance
properties than either copper
or nickel.
o Inconel – has presence of
Chromium that increases its
resistance to oxidizing conditions
- Aluminum and Its Alloys
o Lightness and relative ease of
fabrication of aluminum and its
alloys are factors favoring the use of
materials.
o Aluminum resists attack by acids
because a surface film of inert
hydrated aluminum oxide is formed.
o Aluminum alloys have lower
corrosion resistance than the pure
metal.
o Corrosion resistance of aluminum
tends to be very sensitive to trace
contamination.
- Copper and Its Alloys
o Copper is inexpensive and
possesses fair mechanical strength
and can be fabricated easily into a
wide variety of shapes.
 o Shows little tendency to dissolve in
nonoxidizing acids but readily
susceptible to oxidation.
o Copper is not a suitable material for
construction when it must contact
any acid in the presence of either
oxygen or oxidizing agents.
- Lead and Alloys
o Pure lead has low creep and fatigue
resistance, but its physical
properties can be improved by the
addition of small amounts of silver,
copper, antimony, or tellurium.
o Shows good resistance to sulfuric
acid and phosphoric acid but is
susceptible to attack by either acetic
or nitric acid.
- Tantalum
o Physical properties are similar to
mild steel with the exception that its
melting point is much higher.
o Ordinarily used in the pure form
o Corrosion resistance resemble those
of glass.
o Used for equipment involving
contact with hydrochloric acid.
- Titanium
o Strength and medium weight
o Corrosion resistance is superior in
oxidizing and mild reducing media
- Zirconium
o Commercial-grade zirconium
resembles titanium from a
fabrication standpoint
o Excellent resistance to reducing
environments
Inorganic Nonmetals
- Glass and Glassed Steel
o Glass has excellent resistance and
is subject to attack only by
hydrochloric acid and hot alkaline
solutions.
o Suitable for processes which have
critical contamination solutions.
- Stoneware and Porcelain
o Materials of stoneware and porcelain
are about as resistant to acids and
chemicals as glass, but with the
advantage of greater strength.
- Brick and Cement Materials
o Can be used where high alloys
would fail.
Organic Nonmetals
- Plastics – excellent resistance to weak
mineral acids and are unaffected by
inorganic salt solutions – areas where
metals are not entirely suitable.
o Plastics remain under slight changes
of pH, minor impurities, or oxygen
content.
o Teflon (tetrafluoroethylene) – one of
the mist chemical-resistant plastic
o Polyethylene – lowest-cost plastic
commericially available
- Rubber and Elastomers – natural and
synthetic rubbers are used as linings or as
structural components for equipment in the
chemical industry.
o Hard rubbers – chemically
saturated with sulfur
- Carbon and Graphite – impervious
graphite is completely inert to all but the
most severe oxidizing conditions
o Impervious carbon and graphite –
popular in heat exchangers
o Has low tensile strength
- Wood - fairly inert chemically, is readily
dehydrated by concentrated solutions and
consequently shrinks badly when subjected
to the action of such solutions.
Low- and High-Temperature Materials
- Some metals lose their ductility and impact
strength at low temperatures, although in
many cases, yield and tensile strengths
increase as the temperature is decreased.
- Among the most important properties of
materials at the other end of the
temperature spectrum are creep, rupture,
and short-time strengths.
Gasket materials
- Metallic and nonmetallic gaskets of many
different forms and compositions are used
in industrial equipment.
Selection of materials
- A brief plan of studying materials of
construction:
 o Preliminary selection – experience,
manufacturer’s data, special
literature, general literature,
availability, safety aspects,
preliminary laboratory tests
o Laboratory testing – reevaluation
of apparently suitable materials
under process conditions
o Interpretation of laboratory
results and other data – effect of
possible impurities, excess
temperature, excess pressure,
agitation, and presence of air in
equipment, avoidance of
electrolysis, fabrication method
o Economic comparison of
apparently suitable materials –
material and maintenance cost,
probable life, cost of product
degradation, and liability to special
hazards
o Final selection
- If there is little economic incentive between
a coated type versus a completely
homogenous material, a selection should
have the latter material, mainly on the
basis of better mechanical stability.
Economics involved in selection
- First cost of equipment or material often is
not a good economic criterion for comparing
alternate materials of construction for
chemical process equipment.
o Total equipment or material costs
o Installation costs
o Maintenance costs, amount and
timing
o Service life
o Replacement costs
o Downtime costs
o Cost of inhibitors, control facilities
required to achieve estimated
service life
o Depreciation and taxes
o Time value of money
o Inflation
- When these factors are considered, cost
comparisons bear little resemblance to first
costs.
Fabrication of equipment
The exact methods used for fabrication depend on
the complexity and type of equipment being
prepared.
- Layout of materials – layout of the various
components on the basis of detailed
instructions prepared by the fabricator.
o Allowances must be made for losses
caused by cutting, shrinkage due to
welding, or deformation caused by
the various forming operations.
- Cutting – several methods can be
employed
o Shearing – cheapest method and is
satisfactory for relatively thin sheets.
o Burning – employed to cut and
simultaneously prepare a beveled
edge suitable for welding.
o Sawing – used to cut metals that
are in the form of flat sheets
 Sawing is expensive and is
used only when the heat
effects from burning would be
detrimental.
- Forming – after cutting, forming into the
desired shape.
o Accomplished by – rolling, bending,
pressing, bumping, or spinning a die.
o Some cases use heating to carry
out the forming operation
o For work-hardening, annealing may
be required before forming and
stages during the forming.
- Fastening – riveting can be used for
fastening operations, but electric welding is
far more common and gives superior
results.
o Efficiency of 80-95%
- Testing – all welded joints can be tested for
concealed imperfections by x-rays and
code specifications usually require X-ray
examination of main seams.
o Hydrostatic tests can be conducted
to locate leaks.
o Helium probe tests for very small
leaks.
- Heat-Treating – after the preliminary testing
and necessary repairs are completed, it
may be necessary to heat-treat the
equipment to remove forming and welding
stresses, restore corrosion resistance
 properties to heat-affected materials, and
prevent stress corrosion conditions.
- Finishing – involves preparing the
equipment for final shipment.
o Sandblasting, polishing, and
painting may be necessary.
o Final pressure tests at 1½ to 2 or
more times the design pressure are
conducted together with other tests
as demanded by the specified code
or requested by the inspector.
DIAGRAMS FOR UNDERSTANDING CHEMICAL PROCESSES
MODULE 2 PART 2 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.

LEARNING OUTCOMES 4. Light streams (gases) toward top with

- Define the types of flow diagrams in
ChE design
- Identify and use the conventions and
format
- Recommended for laying out process
flow diagrams
- Identify the categories of information
that are conveyed in process flow
diagrams
- Evaluate the process equipment naming
convention
Explain the basic examples and
components of process control and
instrumentation diagram
Evaluate process stream information
table to verify mass balance, compute
% conversion, etc.
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS
The most effective way of communicating
information about a process is through the use
of flow diagrams.
heavy stream (liquids and solids) toward
bottom
5. Critical information unique to process
supplied (T, P, concentration, etc)
6. If lines cross, then the horizontal line is
continuous and the vertical line is
broken (note: other references may
have different way)
7. Simplified material balance could be
provided
BLOCK FLOW PLANT DIAGRAM
- An integration of interconnected block
flow process diagrams
- Allows us to get a complete picture of
what the plant does and how all the
different processes interact
- To keep it uncluttered, only limited info
is indicated for each process unit
BLOCK FLOW PLANT DIAGRAM

Block flow diagrams (BFDs)

- Consist of a series of blocks
representing different equipment,
process or unit operations that are
connected by input and output streams
- Introduced in earlier ChE courses (e.g.,
stoich, CPI, etc) to illustrate mat’l &
energy balances, processes
- with important info: operating condition
(e.g., T & P), conversion, yield,
flowrates, chemical compositions
- Do not include any details of eqpt within
any of the blocks PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
- A quantum step up from BFD in terms
Hierarchy or order: of info contained
1. Block flow process diagram. drawn - Contains the bulk of ChE data
for a single process necessary for the design of a chemical
2. Block flow plant diagram: drawn for a process
complete chemical complex involving - Contains the ff. info:
different chemical processes - All major pieces of eqpt
represented along with a
description; all will have unique
BLOCK FLOW PROCESS DIAGRAM eqpt number and descriptive name
 Gives a clear overview of the production - All process flow streams shown &
unobstructed by the many details related to identified by a number.
the process - Includes description of process
 Each block represents a process function conditions and chemical
and may, in reality, consist of several compositions for each stream
pieces of equipment - Data are displayed directly on PFD
 Very useful in “getting the feel” for the or provided in accompanying flow
process summary table.
 Often forms the starting point for developing - All utility streams supplied to major
a process flow diagram equipment that provides a process
 Helpful in conceptualizing new processes function are shown
and explaining the main features without - Basic control loops, illustrating the
getting bogged down by details control strategy used to operate the
process, are shown
Conventions and format recommended for
laying out a block flow process diagram
1. Operations shown by blocks
2. Major flow lines shown with arrows
giving direction of the flow
3. Flow goes from left to right whenever
possible (i.e., not a “hard” rule)
DIAGRAMS FOR UNDERSTANDING CHEMICAL PROCESSES
MODULE 2 PART 2 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM (EXAMPLE)

CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION PROVIDED

BY PFD
Process topology. means the location of and
interaction between equipment and process
streams

Components of process topology

- Equipment (including instrumentation &
controls) symbols
- Equipment numbering convention

Equipment numbering convention

General format XX-YZZ A/B

- XX – identification letters
- C – compressor or turbine
- E – heat exchanger
- H – fired heater
- P – pump
- R – reactor
- T – tower
- TK – storage tank
- V – vessel
- Y – designates an area within a plant
- ZZ – the number designation for each
item in an equipment class
- A/B – identifies parallel or backup units

EXAMPLE: P-101 A/B

- P-101A/B – identifies the equipment as
a pump
- P-101A/B – indicates that the pump is
located in Area/Unit 100 of the plant
- P-101A/B – indicates that this specific
pump is number 01 in Unit 100
DIAGRAMS FOR UNDERSTANDING CHEMICAL PROCESSES
MODULE 2 PART 2 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.
- P-101A/B – indicates that a backup
pump is installed. Thus, there are two
identical pumps
- P-101A and P-101B. One pump will be
operating while the other is idle
STREAM INFORMATION
- Each of the process streams is
identified by a number in a diamond box
located in the stream.
- The direction of the stream is identified
by one or more arrowheads
Utility streams are also identified –
these are the needed services available
at the plant.
Utility streams
- Ips: Low-Pressure Steam (3-5 barg,
sat.)
- mps: Medium-Pressure Steam (10-15
barg, sat.)
- hps: High-Pressure Steam (40-50 barg,
sat.)
- htm: Heat Transfer Media (organic) to
400°C
- cw: Cooling Water From Cooling Tower
30°C Returned At Less Than 45°C
- wr: River Water 25°C Returned At Less
Than 35°C
- rw: Refrigerated Water In At 5°C
Returned At Less Than 15°C
- rb: Refrigerated Brine In At -45°C
Returned At < 0°C
- cs: Chemical Wastewater With High
COD
- ss: Sanitary Wastewater With High
BOD, etc.
- el: Electric Heat (Specify 220, 440,
660V Service)
- ng: Natural Gas
- fg: Fuel Gas
- fo: Fuel Oil
- fw: Fire Water
Additional stream information maybe added to
the diagram by attaching information flags
Info. flags are mounted on a staff connected to
the appropriate process stream
Symbols for stream identification
Additional stream information: control and
instrumentation
- A level sensing element (LE) is located
on the reflux drum V-104.
- A level transmitter (LT) also located on
V-104 sends an electrical signal
(designated by a dashed line) to a level
indicator and controller (LIC). This LIC
is located in the control room on the
control panel or console (as indicated
by the horizontal line under LIC) and
can be observed by the operators.
- From the LIC, an electrical signal is sent
to an instrument (LY) that computes the
correct valve position and in turn sends
a pneumatic signal (indicated by a solid
line with cross-hatching) to activate the
control valve (LCV).
- High-level alarm (LAH) and low-level
alarm (LAL) are installed in the control
room to warn operators
Additional stream info: flow summary table
- The flow summary table can only be
made only when material and energy
balances are already calculated
- Basic components of a flow summary
table:
- Stream number
- Temperature
- Pressure
- Vapor fraction
- Total mass/mole flowrate
- Individual component mole
flowrates
- Optional components of a flow
summary table:
- Component mass/mole fractions
- Volumetric flowrates
- Significant physical properties
(density, viscosity, etc.)
- Thermodynamic data (heat
capacity, stream enthalpy, etc)
- Stream name (“made-up” names
e.g., decanter 1 overflow, dark oil
waste, etc)
- Limitations of space should be
considered when including stream info
table in PFD
- Only important streams and stream info
must be included to optimize space
utilization without too much clutter
Equipment information
- When equipment design & specification
has been done, only then would this
final element of PFD can be made
- These information are necessary to
estimate the equipment cost and furnish
DIAGRAMS FOR UNDERSTANDING CHEMICAL PROCESSES
MODULE 2 PART 2 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.

the basis for the detailed design of the

equipment
- For example:
- Equipment info required for Tanks
and vessels
- Height
- Diameter
- Orientation
- Pressure
- Temperature
- Materials of construction
- Often times not integrated into the
sheet due to space limitations
BATCH PROCESSES
MODULE 2 PART 4 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
The key reasons for choosing
Identify
batch process
Explain The nature of batch sequencing
The batch sequencing
Demonstrate
calculations through an example
The use of Gantt chart to
graphically represent a batch
Explain
sequencing or batch process step
scheduling
The concepts of non-overlapping,
Illustrate overlapping operations, and cycle
times
KEY REASONS FOR SELECTING BATCH
PROCESSING
 Small Production Volume
 Seasonal Variations in Product Demand
 A need to document the production history
of each batch
GUIDE QUESTIONS IN DESIGING BATCH
PROCESSES
 Will there be more than one product made
using the same equipment?
 What is the optimal size of the equipment?
 How long must the equipment run to make
each different product?
 What is the trade-off between economics
and operability of the plant?
BATCH SEQUENCING
The order and timing of the individual
processing steps
What makes it challenging:
- The types of design calculations are
very different for batch compared with
continuous processes.
- Batch calculations involved transient
balances, which are different from
steady state design calculations taught
in much of the traditional ChE
curriculum.
CASE ANALYSIS: Batch production of an
Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API)
DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR BATCH
PROCESSES
In the production of an API (active
pharmaceutical ingredient, the following batch
recipe is used:
- 500 kg of reactant A (MW = 100
kg/kmol) is added to 5000 kg of a
mixture of organic solvent (MW =
200 kg/kmol) containing 60%
excess of a second reactant B (MW
st – 125 kg/kmol) in a jacketed
1
reaction vessel (R-301), the reactor
Step
is sealed.
- The mixture is stirred and heated
(using steam in the jacket) until the
temperature has rise to 95°C.
- The density of the reacting mixture
is 875 kg/m3.
- Once the reaction mixture has
reached 95°C, a solid catalyst is
2 nd
added, and the reaction takes place
Step while the batch of reactants is
stirred.
- The required conversion is 94%.
- The reaction mixture is drained
from the reactor and passed
3rd
through a filter screen (SC-301)
Step
that removes the catalyst and stops
any further reaction.
- The reaction mixture (containing
API, solvent, and unused reactants)
is transferred to a distillation
column (T-301) where it is distilled
under vacuum.
- Virtually all of the unused reactants
and approximately 50% of the
4th
solvent are removed as overhead
Step
product.
- The end-point for the distillation is
when the solution remaining in the
still contains less than 1 mol% of
reactant. This ensures that the
crystallized API, produced in Step
5, meets specification.
- The material remaining in the still is
pumped to a crystallizer (CR-301)
where the mixture is cooled under
5th & vacuum and approximately 60% of
6th the API from Step 2 crystallizes out.
Step - The API is filtered from the
crystallizer and placed in a tray
dryer (TD-301) where any
entrapped solvent is removed.
- The dried API is sealed and
7th packaged in a packing machine
Step (PK-301) and sent to a warehouse
for shipment to the customer.
DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR BATCH
PROCESSES
Solution strategy:
- In batch sequencing operations, the
time per step is the first to be
estimated
- We apply allowances for uncertainties in
the calculations and minor activities that
BATCH PROCESSES
MODULE 2 PART 4 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.

do not have to be rigorously estimated Where to get or how to estimate these data? –
during preliminary design stage. Specifications sheets
Step 1: Reactor Vessel - Preheat
- The reaction vessel, which is used to Assuming the tank to be cylindrical and
preheat the reactants and subsequently run ignoring the volume of the bottom elliptical
the reaction, is designed first. head, the tank volume is
- For the batch size specified, the volume of
the liquid in the tank (V) and the volume 𝜋𝐷 𝐻
required for the reaction vessel (Vtank) are 𝑉 =
4
estimated.
- It is assumed that the vessel is But using the tank height to diameter ratio
approximately 60% full during operation
- A safety factor assumption 3𝜋𝐷
𝑉 =
4
Calculations involved (Reaction Vessel –
Preheat) 𝐷 = 1.689 𝑚
5500 [𝑘𝑔]
𝑉= = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟖𝟔 𝒎𝟑
875
𝑘𝑔 The height of fill is
𝑚
4𝑉
5500 [𝑘𝑔] 1 𝐻 = = 2.806 𝑚
𝑉 = = 10.48 𝑚 𝜋𝐷
𝑘𝑔 0.6
875
𝑚 Now solving for the area of heat transfer
= 2768 𝑔𝑎𝑙 (assume negligible heat transfer to the vapor
space)
Because reactors of this sort come in standard
sizes, a 3,000 gal (Vtank) reactor is selected. 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐻 = 14.89 𝑚

The heat-transfer characteristics of this vessel Substituting these values to the equation
are then checked. For a jacketed vessel, the derived from integration, time required for
unsteady-state design equation is: preheating the reactor is

𝑑𝑇 Δ𝑡 = 3288 𝑠 = 𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝜌𝑉𝐶 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇)
𝑑𝑡
The additional time required for cleaning, filling,
- 𝜌 – the liquid density sealing, and inspecting to the vessel prior to
- CP – liquid heat capacity heating, and possible process issues that
- T – temperature of the liquid in the tank require a slower temperature ramp are roughly
(95°C desired) estimated.
- U – overall heat transfer coefficient from
the jacket to the liquid in the tank To be on the safe safe, we can assume 1 hr for
- A – heat transfer area of the jacket the other activites. Hence,
(cylinder surface) 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
- TS – the temperature of the condensing
steam Step 2: Reactor Vessel – Reaction
- It is assumed that the reaction of one
How about other forms of heating/cooling? – mole each of A and B to form one mole
heat exchangers of the product is 2nd-order and that the
rate constant is 7.09𝑥10 𝑚 /𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑠.
Normally, there is also a jacketed bottom to
such a vessel, but this added heat-transfer area The relationship for a batch reactor is
is ignored in this example for simplification.
𝑑𝐶
Integration of this equation yields: = −𝑘𝐶 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑇 −𝑇 𝑈𝐴Δt - A and B are the two reactants, and A is
ln =−
(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) 𝜌𝑉𝐶 the limiting reactant

- T0 – initial temperature in the tank The standard analysis for conversion in a

(assumed 25°C) reactor yields:
- CP – 2,000 J/kg°C
- TS – 120°C (200 kPa saturated steam) 𝐶 = 𝐶 (1 − 𝑋)
- U – 300 W/m2°C 𝐶 = 𝐶 (𝜃 − 𝑋)
- Tank height to Diameter Ratio – 3/1 (so 𝑑𝑋
= 𝑘𝐶 (1 − 𝑋)(𝜃 − 𝑋)
H = 3D) 𝑑𝑡
BATCH PROCESSES
MODULE 2 PART 4 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.

Step 4: Distillation of Reaction Products

- A material balance on the reactor at the
- 𝐶 = = 0.796 end of Step 2 yields the following

Since reactant B is present in 60% excess,

𝜃 = 1.6

The desired conversion, Xfinal = 0.94.

Integration of the dX/dt equation with t0 = 0 - Initially, the reaction mixture is heated
conc yields: to its boiling point of 115°C at the
operating pressure. Done by
1 𝜃−𝑋 condensing steam in a heat exchanger
ln = 𝑘𝐶 Δ𝑡 located in the still of the column.
𝜃−1 1−𝑋
The time to heat the mixture from 95°C (the
When all of the values inserted, temperature leaving the reactor, assuming no
heat loss in the filter) to 115°C is given by the
Δ𝑡 = 7082 𝑠 = 118 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝟐 𝒉 equation with the following values:

For simplicity, the additional reaction time that 𝑑𝑇

occurs after the mixture leaves the reactor until 𝜌𝑉𝐶 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇)
𝑑𝑡
the catalyst is removed from the reacting
mixture has been ignored. - TS = 120°C
- U = 420 W/m2°C
Step 3: Draining Reaction Vessel and - 𝜌 = 875 kg/m3
Catalyst Filtration - A = 10 m2
- Modeled as a draining tank, significantly - Cp = 2000 J/kg°C
underestimate the actual required time
for draining and filtering. Solving for unknown time, we get
- In reality, experimental data on the
filter medium and inclusion of the exit 𝑡 = 4215 𝑠 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎𝒊𝒏
pipe frictional resistance would have
to be included to determine the actual The distillation is performed using a still with
time for a specific tank. three theoretical stages (N = 3), a boil up rate
(V = 30 kmol/h), and a reflux ratio (R = 4.5).
Generally, the filter is the bottleneck in such a The volatilities of each component relative to
step. Here, a 2-in Schedule 40 exit pipe, with a the product are given as follows:
cross-sectional area of 0.00216 m2, is
assumed. 𝛼 = 3.375
𝛼 = 2.700
For a draining tank, the model is 𝛼 = 1.350
𝛼 = 1.000
𝑑𝑚 𝑑(𝜌𝐴 𝐻)
= = −𝑚 = −𝜌𝐴 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 The solution methodology involves a numerical
integration.
- 𝜌 – density of the liquid in the tank
- At – cross-sectional area of the tank The overall material and component balances
- AP – cross-sectional area of the exit are given by:
pipe
- Vp – velocity of liquid in the exit pipe 𝑑𝑊 𝑉
- from Bernoulli’s – turbulent flow: − =𝐷=
𝑑𝑡 1+𝑅
(2gH)0.5 𝑑 𝑊𝑥 𝑑𝑊
=𝑥
The equation becomes 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

- W – total moles in the still

𝑑𝐻 (2𝑔) . 𝐴 . - 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 – mole fractions of
=− 𝐻
𝑑𝑡 𝐴 component i at any time t (overhead
product and in the still)
Integrating t0 at H = 2.806 to find time yields:
The previous equations are solved in
Δt = 785 s = 𝟏𝟑 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐬 conjunction with the sum of the gas phase mole
fraction equaling unity and the Fenske-
Resistance to flow (pipe and filter) is neglected Underwood-Gilliland method for
so to be on the safe side, this could be roughly multicomponent distillation
doubled or up to 30 minutes for this step.
BATCH PROCESSES
MODULE 2 PART 4 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.
- Rmin and Nmin are the minimum values
for the reflux ration and the number of
theoretical stages, respectively.
Change of Still contents and Yields of P and S
with time
Change in Composition of Still Material with
time
From the previous figure, the mole fraction of
reactant B is seen to drop to less than the
specification of 0.01 (1 mol%) at a time of
approximately 2.3 h.
This time, coupled with the heating time of 70.2
minutes, gives a total of 3.5 h.
Step 5: Cooling and Crystallization of
Product
- Assumed that the times for each of
these steps have been determined
through laboratory-scale experiments.
The amount of product crystallized is 80% of
the product recovered from the still or 60% of
the 1057.5 kg produced in the reactor (634.5
kg). Hence the total time for step 5 is 2 h.
Step 6: Filtration and Drying
- Assumed through lab-scale experiments
The time required for filtration and drying is 4 h.
Step 7: Packaging
- Assumed through lab-scale experiments
The time required for packaging is 1 hr.
Summary and the Total time consumed in
the operation:
- Step 1 – 1.5 hr
- Step 2 – 2 hr
- Step 3 – 0.5 hr
- Step 4 – 3.5 hr
- Step 5 – 2 hr
- Step 6 – 4 hr
- Step 7 – 1 hr
Total of 14.5 hours of operation
UNIQUE FEATURES OF BATCH
OPERATIONS IN THE EXAMPLE PROBLEM
- Heating, reaction, and separation steps
are unsteady state
- It is observed that no provision was
made to recycle the unreacted materials
which should be included to ensure
profitability
How to recycle in batch process?
- The overhead product from the batch
distillation contains unreacted raw
material and product in the solvent
which could be sent to a holding tank
and periodically mixed with a stream
containing pure solvent and just
enough reactants A and/or B to make
up a single charge to the process in
Step 1.
- However, must be investigated
carefully to determine whether
unwanted side reactions take
place at higher product
concentrations.
- The other 60% of the product made in
the reactor or the mother liquor
(solution containing product to be
crystallized after some has crystallized
out) could be crystallized again to
recover some of the valuable product.
- Achieved through 2nd and 3rd
cooling or crystallization step
- Store the mother liquor from
several batch processes until a
sufficient volume is available
for another cooling or
crystallization step.
GANTT CHART SHOWING SEQUENCE OF
EVENTS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF API
Gantt charts are tabular representations used
to illustrate a series of tasks (rows) that occur
over a period of time (columns). These charts
graphically represent completion dates,
milestone achievements, current progress, and
so on.
Segregated through steps
Segregated through equipment
BATCH PROCESSES
MODULE 2 PART 4 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.
NON-OVERALAPPING BATCH
SEQUENCING
 In general, product is produced throughout
an extended period of time by using a
repeating sequence of operations
 For example, the batch process described
produces a certain amount of crystallized
API, namely 634.5 kg per batch.
 If it is desired to produce 5000 kg, then the
sequence of steps must be repeated
5000
≅ 𝟖 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔
634.5
Nonoverlapping scheme – The total
processing time is the number of batches
multiplied by the time to process a single batch.
𝑇 =𝑛 𝑡 𝑇 = 𝑇 = (𝑛 − 1) max (𝑡 ) +
- TNO is the total time to process n
batches without overlapping
- Each batch having m steps of duration
t1, t2, tm
From the example problem that is,
8 (3.5 + 0.5 + 3.5 + 2 + 4.0 + 1.0) = 116.0 ℎ
This notes that using the non-overlapping
scheme, the equipment is used infrequently,
and the total processing time is unduly long.
However, such a scheme might be employed in
plants that operate only a single shift per day.
- In such cases, the production of a single
batch might be tailored to fit an 8 to 10
h shift (14.5 h for this example), with the
limitation that only one batch would be
produced per day.
Although such a scheme does not appear to be
very efficient, it eliminates prolonged storage
of intermediate product and certainly makes
the scheduling problem easy.
Nonoverlapping Scheme For The Example
Problem
Do we have other options to optimize batch
processing operations? – using recycle
stream?
OVERALAPPING BATCH SEQUENCING
The shifting of batches backward in time. The
total time to process all the batches can be
reduced by starting a batch before the
preceding batch has finished.
Overlapping scheme – the limit of shifting or
overlapping process occurs when two time
blocks in consecutive batches just touch each
other
- Assuming that cleaning, inspection, and
charging times are included
Backward shifting of batches, giving rise to
overlapping sequencing
The time to complete n batches using this
limiting overlapping scheme is given by:
𝑡
,…,
- TO is the minimum total (overlapping)
time and [(max (ti)] is the maximum
individual time step for the batch
process
- The subscript O denoting
overlapping will be dropped, and
T will be used as the total
processing time from this point
on.
For the example,
𝑇 = (8 − 1)(4.0) + (14.5) = 42.5 ℎ
The Limiting Case for Overlapping Batch
Sequencing
The use of overlapping sequencing reduces
the processing time significantly and makes
much better use of the equipment.
- The equipment is operated for a higher
fraction of time in the overlapping
scheme compared with the
nonoverlapping scheme.
CYCLE TIME
The average time required to cycle through all
necessary steps to produce a batch.
Cycle time scheme – dividing the total time to
produce a number of batches by the number of
batches.
BATCH PROCESSES
MODULE 2 PART 4 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.

Equations become:
Non-overlapping scheme operating at cycle
time

𝑇 𝑛∑ 𝑡
𝑡 , = = = 𝑡
𝑛 𝑛

Overlapping scheme operating at cycle time

with small batches

𝑇
𝑡 , =𝑡 =
𝑛
(𝑛 − 1) max (𝑡 ) + ∑ 𝑡
,…,
=
𝑛

Overlapping scheme operating at cycle time

with number of batches to be produced is
large

𝑡 ≅ max {𝑡 }
,…,
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL IN PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS
MODULE 2 PART 5 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Gain basic understanding on the process
regulation concepts, objectives, and conventions
in identifying control and instrumentation
elements
Trace the basic instrumentation sequence as
presented in a control & instrumentation diagram
Survey the basic control systems normally
encountered in a chemical process
Draw simple instrumentation and control diagram
on our designed process
CONCEPTS (PART 1)
Over the life of a chemical processing plant, it is
important to regulate operating conditions for
stable operations, and to produce quality
products efficiently and economically.
Process Regulation – establishes the strategy
by which the process can be controlled
- Its other aspect, the study and control
dynamic response or the transient
behavior of the process to changes in
operating variables
The regulation of process operations involves
understanding of the following:
- In most situations, processes are
regulated, by the manipulation of the
flowrates of utility and process
streams
- Changes in the flowrates are achieved by
opening or closing of valves
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
OBJECTIVES
Safe plant operation
- To keep the process variables within
known safe operating limits.
- To detect dangerous situations as they
develop and to provide alarms and
automatic shut-down systems.
- To provide interlocks and alarms to
prevent dangerous operating procedures.
Production rate
- To achieve the designed product output
Product quality
- To maintain the product composition
within the specified quality standards
Cost
- To operate at the lowest production
cost, commensurate with the other
objectives
CONCEPTS (PART 2)
In a typical chemical processing plant, these
objectives are achieved by a combination of (1)
automatic control, (2) manual monitoring, and
(3) laboratory analysis
AUTOMATIC-CONTROL SCHEMES
Things to know:
- The detailed design and specification of
the automatic control schemes for a large
product is usually done by specialists.
- The process designer (the ChE), through
experience with similar plant and
assessment of the process, can do the
preparation of a preliminary scheme of
instrumentation and control, developed
from the process flowsheet.
- Many of the control loops will be
conventional and a detailed analysis of
the system behavior will not be needed,
nor justified.
- Judgement, based on experience, must
be used to decide which systems are
critical and need detailed analysis and
design.
GUIDELINES FOR THE AUTOMATIC-
CONTROL SCHEMES
Identify and draw in those control loops
that are obviously needed for steady-
state pant operation, such as
st
1 - Level controls
guide - Flow controls
- Pressure controls
- Temperature controls
Identify the key process variables that
need to be controlled to achieve the
specified product quality. Include control
2nd
loops using direct measurement of the
guide
controlled variable, where possible; if not
practicable, select a suitable dependent
variable.
Identify and include additional control
3rd loops required for safe operation which
guide may not be covered in the previous
steps.
Decide and show those ancillary
4th instruments needed for monitoring,
guide troubleshooting and development of
plant operations.
5th Decide on the location of sample
guide points.
Decide on the need for recorded and the
6th location of the readout points. This step
guide would be done in conjunction with
steps 1 to 4.
Decide on the alarms and interlocks
7th
needed; this would be done in
guide
conjunction with step 3.
IDENTIFY CONTROL ELEMENTS IN PFDs
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL IN PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS
MODULE 2 PART 5 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.
CONVENTIONS IN IDENTIFYING CONTROL
ELEMENTS
For instruments – we identify/show
- Indicators
- Recorders
- Controllers
- Instrument lines
Conventions Used for Identifying
Instrumentation on P&IDs (ISA standard ISA-
S5-1)
Common examples of instrumentation and
control indications encountered in process
flow diagrams
A better representation indication
UNDERSTANDING A SEQUENCEOF
INSTRUMENTATION
Green arrow – a level sensing element (LE) is
located on the reflext drum V-104.
Yellow arrow – a level transmitter (LT) also
locaetd on V-104 sends an electrical signal
(designed by a dashed line) to a level indicator
and controller (LIC). This LIC is located in the
control room on the control panel or console (as
indicated by the horizontal line under LIC) and
can be observed by the operators
Blue arrow – from the LIC, an electrical signal is
sent to an instrument (LY) that computes
correct valve position and in turn sends a
pneumatic signal (indicated by a solid line with
cross-hatching) to active the control valve (LCV).
Purple arrow – high-level alarm (LAH) and low-
level alarm (LAL) are installed in the control room
to warn operators
TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
Level Control – in any equipment where an
interface exists between two phases (e.g. liquid
vapor), some means of maintaining the
interface at the required level must be
provided.
The control valve should be placed on the
discharge line from the pump.
Pressure control – necessary for most systems
handling vapor or gas. Alongside of this,
venting is the most common option. The method
of control will depend on the nature of the
process.
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL IN PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS
MODULE 2 PART 5 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.
The scheme shown would not be used where the
vented gas was toxic, or valuable. In these
circumstances thevent should be taken to a
vent recovery system, such as a scrubber.
Other schemes of pressure control
At b – This happens at the top of the column
wherein there is a sitpoint for the pressure that
should apply. If the certain pressure already
exceed, the system will allow some of the non-
condensable to go out, therefore the pressure of
the column will go down.
At c – The amount of coolant would correspond
to the amount of vapor that is being condensed
that will also affect the pressure in the
condenser.
At d – If we control the amount of the condensed
vapor that goes out of this condenser therefore,
the heat transfer area is also being controlled
and it will directly affect the pressure inside of the
condenser.
FLOW CONTROL
Usually associated with inventory control in a
storage tank or other equipment that will provide
flow control on a compressor or pump running
at a fixed speed and supplying a near constant
volume output.
As shown in figures (a and b), a by-pass control
would be used.
In figure A – discrepancies in the volume of gas
flow from the set point is controlled by allowing a
portion of the gas stream to by-pass the pump
or the compressor if the flowrate becomes higher
than the set point.
- The degree of the control valve opening
depend on how far the actual flow rate
to that of the set point.
In figure B – the centrifugal flow of the
equipment allows flow control by degree of
control valve opening.
- The pressure control in a process is
similar shown in figure a.
HEAT EXCHANGER CONTROL
Figure a shows the simplest arrangement, the
temperature being controlled by varying the
flow of the cooling or heating medium.
Figure b is the scenario if the exchange is
between two process streams whose flows are
fixed, by-pass control will have to be used.
As with condensers, temperature control is not
effective in vaporizes since saturated vapor
temperature is constant at constant pressure.
- The amount of liquid feed present in the
vaporizer directly corresponds to the
level. This is often used for controlling
the steam supply to the heating surface.
The liquid feed to the vaporizer is on flow
control. Thus, an increase in the feed results
in an automatic increase in steam to the
vaporizer to vaporize the increased flow and
maintain the level constant.
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL IN PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS
MODULE 2 PART 5 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.

CASCADE CONTROL Examples of Distillation column control

With this arrangement, the output of one
controller is used to adjust the set point of
another.
Cascade control can give smoother control in
situations where direct control of the variable
would lead to unstable operation.
- The “slave” controller can be used to
compensate for any short-term
variations in, say, a service stream flow,
which would upset the controlled variable;
the primary (master) controlling long-
term variations.

REACTOR CONTROL
In chemical reactors, the product is the most
important parameter to control.
Reliable on-line analyzer available – the
product composition can be monitored
continuously and the reactor conditions and feed
flows controlled automatically to maintain the
desired product composition and yield.
RATIO CONTROL - Reactor temperature will normally be
Used where it is desired to maintain two flows at controlled by regulating the flow of the
a constant ratio; for example, reactor feeds heating or cooling medium.
and distillation column reflux. - Pressure is usually held constant.
- Material balance control will be necessary
to maintain the correct flow of
reactants to the reactor and the flow of
products and unreacted materials from
the reactor.

The ratio control is sometimes called the flow

fraction controller (FFC)

DISTILLATION COLUMN CONTROL

A complex unit operation that requires more
control.
The primary objective is to maintain the
specified composition of the top and bottom
products, and any side streams, correcting for
the effects of disturbances in:
- Feed flow-rate, composition and
temperature
- Steam supply pressure
- Cooling water pressure and header
temperature
- ambient conditions, which cause changes
in internal reflux
ALARMS AND SAFETY TRIPS, AND
INTERLOCKS
Alarms are used to alert operator of serious,
potentially hazardous, deviations in process
conditions.
Key instruments are fitted with switches and
relays to operate audible and visual alarms on
the control pane and annunciator panels
Where delay, or lack of response, by the operator
is likely to lead to the rapid development of a
hazardous situation, the instrument would be
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL IN PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS
MODULE 2 PART 5 – Process Design & Development
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.

fitted with a trip system to take action

automatically to avert the hazard; such as
shutting down pumps, closing valves, operating
emergency systems.

The basic components of an automatic trip

system are:
- A sensor to monitor the control variable
and provide an output signal when a
preset value is exceeded (the
instrument).
- A link to transfer the signal to the
actuator, usually consisting of a system of
pneumatic or electric relays.
- An actuator to carry out the required
action; close or open a valve, switch off a
motor.

A safety trip can be incorporated in a control

loop

In this system, the high-temperature alarm

operates a solenoid valve, releasing the air on
the pneumatic activator, closing the valve on high
temperature.
MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES CALCULATION FOR
CHEMICAL PROCESS
MODULE 3 PART 1 – Material and Energy Balances
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.
INTRODUCTION
As pre-requisites of any material or energy
balance calculation for a chemical process, we
should already have:
- A complete block flow plant diagram
- Targeted production rate or available
raw materials feed rate. Either is set as
part of the basic design bases.
MATERIAL BALANCE
A material balance taken over the complete
process will determine the quantities of raw
materials required and products produced.
Balances over individual process units set the
process stream flows and compositions:
How do we begin the MB calculation for our
designed process? Refer to:
- The complete block flow plant diagram,
and the
- Targeted production rate or available raw
materials (RM) feed rate (either is set as
part of the basic design bases).
Where do we start our calculation (calculation
basis)?
- Production rate if RM/feedstock do not
have supple restriction
- RM feed if feedstock/s have supply
constraints which could be due to
seasonality, inherent low supply, very
high cost, difficult transportation, etc.
MATERIAL BALANCE REVIEW
In order to visualize the process, you can draw a
simple block flow diagram that shows the
material flows and the process steps. You can
also give names (or numbers) to the flows and
the process steps and write known or given data
(inc. T, P, concentration, other relevant
parameters) regarding the flows or the process
conditions in the diagram.
We can also choose boundaries (ways to
choose balance boundaries):
- An overall balance boundary around the
entire process (including the recirculation)
- Balance boundaries around each process
step (Mixing, Reaction, Separation)
- Partial mass balances for components A,
B, or C using the same balances
boundaries as in the first two choices.
Sometimes, you only need one balance to find
out what you need while at other times you might
need all these balances as well as additional
information.
The additional information needed can be any
of the following:
- Stoichiometry of the chemical reaction
- Limiting conditions for the reaction
- The extent of reaction or the reaction
kinetics including heat effects
- The separation efficiency
- Recirculation ratio
The solution can be found by solving a single
equation or by solving a system of many
equations either algebraically or numerically.
The more we decide to be more detailed in our
analysis, the more complicated will the solution
process.
CONTINUOUS OR BATCH PROCESS
CALCULATIONS
Continuous – We are more used to continuous
process in our MB calculations. Generally, only
algebraic linear equations will mathematically
model this process.
Batch – required the estimation of processing
times, among other requirements. Differential
equations will be the usual mathematical model
to be used.
SUPPLEMENTAL LEARNING MATERIALS
Refer to Chapter 2 of Chemical Engineering
Design by RK Sinnot (4th edition)
Review the following topics, study the
example problems:
- Choice of system boundary
- Choice for basis of calculation
- Number of independent components
- Constraints on flows and compositions
- General algebraic method
- Tie components
- Excess reagent
- Conversion and yield
- Recycle processes
- Purge
- By-pass
- Unsteady-state calculations
- General procedure for MB problems
MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES CALCULATION FOR
CHEMICAL PROCESS
MODULE 3 PART 1 – Material and Energy Balances
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.
COMPUTER-AIDED MB CALCULATIONS
In actual ChE design practice, MB calculations
are rarely done entirely manually but process
simulation software are used.
In these software, most (if not all) chemical,
thermodynamic, reaction engineering etc.
considerations are factored in into the
routines/procedures, thus, the tedious and
complicated task of detailed, iterative
calculations is delegated to the computer.
PRESENTATION OF MB CALCULATION
SUMMARY
Quantitative flow diagram – a simplified
diagram that presents all input, in-
process/intermediate and output streams,
together with the calculated quantities associated
with each stream
Inputs are drawn in one left column; in-process
streams are drawn in the middle column, and the
outputs are drawn in the right column.
Sum of inputs and outputs are indicated at the
column bottom line and should be “balanced”
i.e., equal
The sequence and connection of the boxes in the
diagram approximates the block flow plant
diagram (some components are “merged” to
facilitate clearer presentation)
The basis of calculation (per day, per year
operation, etc) is always indicated on the top of
the QFD.
ENERGY BALANCES
Application of 1st law of thermodynamics
(conservation of energy)
EB calculation requires MB calculation, since
energy is associated with mass (its unit is
expressed “per mass density”)
Energy takes many forms such as heat, kinetic
energy, chemical energy, potential energy
Interconversions would make it not always easy
to isolate separate constituents of energy
balances.
However, under some circumstances certain
aspects predominate, e.g.:
- In heating processes of fluids in transport,
mechanical energy component is usually
insignificant compared to enthalpy
- In some mechanical energy situations, as
in the flow of fluids in pipes, the frictional
losses appear as heat but we neglect any
temperature change associated with it.
- Wea re seldom concerned with internal
energies
Practical applications of energy balances tend to
focus on particular dominant aspects
HEAT BALANCES
The most common important energy form is heat
energy (e.g. in heating, cooling, drying)
Enthalpy (total heat) is conserved.
As with the material balances, so enthalpy
balances can be written around items of
equipment, or process stages (or the whole
plant), and it is assumed that no appreciable heat
is converted to other forms of energy such as
work (unless we are dealing with specific
equipment that primarily converts heat to work
like in power plant).
Enthalpy (H) is always referred to some
reference level or datum, so that the quantities
are relative to this datum.
Working out energy balances is then just a
matter of considering the various quantities of
materials involved, their specific heats, and
their changes in temperature or state
As starting case, we will assume saturated
conditions of fluids to specify temperatures
and pressures (aside from process
requirements on T & P)
Heating and cooling process requirements will be
ultimately accounted as amount of
corresponding utility stream such as cooling
water, steam, or other heat transfer fluid required
for heat exchanger units
MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES CALCULATION FOR
CHEMICAL PROCESS
MODULE 3 PART 1 – Material and Energy Balances
ChE 45 – Chemical Engineering Design 1
Lapeña, Don Kim S.

MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCES Some physical property estimation techniques

Include here are fluid transport through are presented in Chapter 8 (Section 8.5) of the
pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, mixers, Chemical Engineering Design by RK Sinnot (4th
agitators edition)

Mechanical energy (ME) requirements are Topics include:

ultimately accounted as electrical power - Density
- Some concerns with electrical power - Viscosity
(basta fluid flow) maapil ang other issues - Thermal conductivity
like for example, the diameter of the pipe, - Latent heat of vaporization
length, and elevation changes of fluid - Vapor pressure
- Hence, assumptions are needed - Diffusion coefficients
- Surface tension
Assumptions on basic flow conditions (including - Critical constants
pipe systems) may be needed to better quantify - Phase equilibrium data.
ME requirements
SUMMARY
SUMMARY OF ENERGY BALANCES By doing MB calculations on our designed
process, we will be able to specify (or estimate)
the material load for each unit process or
operations. It is a basic requirement for
specifying and sizing the units of equipment
needed

EB calculations will allow us to roughly estimate

utility requirements of these unit process or
operations

M & E B calculations may not be calculated

separately. In many cases, simultaneous
calculations are required (you would appreciate
this more on Equipment specification & design)

We should note that at this stage of process

Utilizes table – we summarize results of our EB
development, all MB and EB calculations may
through calculations through this table
not be final or complete. These would be further
refined/completed when we design specific
SUPPLEMENTAL LEARNING MATERIALS equipment for each identified process/operation
FOR ENERGY BALANCES
Refer to Chapter 3 of Chemical Engineering
Design by RK Sinnot (4th edition)

Review the following topics, study the

example problems:
- Forms of energy
- Energy balance
- Specific enthalpy
- Mean heat capacities
- Effect of pressure on heat capacities
- Enthalpy of mixtures
- Enthalpy-concentration diagrams
- Heats of rection, effect of pressure on
heat of reaction
- Standard heats of formation
- Heats of combustion
- Compression and expansion of gases
- Unsteady state energy balances

ESTIMATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

In the course of calculation M&E balances, you
may come to point that you need certain physical
properties and these may not be directly found in
the usual tables, charts, nomographs. If so you
need to estimate.