Reproduction

N
oo

SEXUAL
n
Ac
ad

REPRODUCTION IN
em
y

PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Page 1 of 81
 SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION IN
PLANTS
Sexual reproduction involves
the production of gametes
N
oo

(sperms and egg cells) and

n
Ac

their fusion i.e. fertilization.

ad
em

Gametes are produced in

y

special structures in plant

body. The major plant
groups are mosses, ferns
and seed plants.
Page 2 of 81
 The seed plants
The seed plants include
gymnosperms and
N

angiosperms (flowering
oo
n
Ac

plants). Plant groups use

ad
em

different methods for

y

bringing the sperm and egg

cells together.

Page 3 of 81
 Mosses and Ferns
In mosses and ferns sperms
are motile and can swim to
N

egg cells. These plants

oo
n
Ac

require water (in the form

ad
em

of dew or rain) for sexual

y

reproduction.

Page 4 of 81
 Alternation of
generations
In the life cycle of plants, two
different generations alternate
with each other. One
generation is diploid and
N
oo

produces spores. It is called

n
Ac

sporophyte generation. The

ad
em

other generation is haploid and

y

produces gametes. It is called

gametophyte generation. This
phenomenon is known as
alternation of generations.

Page 5 of 81
Process of Alternation of
generations
In most plants, sporophyte is
big in size and is independent.
It produces haploid spores by
meiosis. The spores develop into
N
oo

gametophyte. It is small in size

n
Ac

and depends upon sporophyte.

ad
em

It produces gametes by mitosis.

y

The male and female gametes

fuse and form diploid zygote.
The zygote undergoes repeated
mitosis and develops into a new
diploid sporophyte.
Page 6 of 81
 Alternation of
generations
N
oo
n
Ac
ad
em
y

Page 7 of 81
 Sexual Reproduction in
Flowering Plants
In angiosperms, parent plant
is diploid sporophyte
generation. Flower is the
reproductive structure in this
N
oo

generation. The flower

n
Ac
ad

components are arranged in

em
y

the form of whorls. The outer

two whorls in a flower are the
non-reproductive whorls while
the inner two whorls are the
reproductive whorls.

Page 8 of 81
 Structure of a Flower
Calyx is the outermost
whorl. It is usually green in
colour. Its individual units
(leaflets) are called sepals.
Sepals protect the inner
N
oo
n

whorls at bud stage. Corolla

Ac
ad
em

is the next inner whorl and

y

is often coloured brightly.

Its individual units (leaflets)
are called petals. They serve
to attract bees, birds, etc.

Page 9 of 81
 Third whorl
Third whorl i.e. androecium
is the male reproductive
part of flower. Its units are
called stamens. Each
stamen has a thread-like
N
oo
n

filament at the free end of

Ac
ad
em

which anther is attached.

y

Anther has pollen-sacs in

which haploid microspores
(pollen grains) are produced
through meiosis.

Page 10 of 81
 Tube nucleus and a
generative nucleus in third
whorl
Each microspore germinates
into the male gametophyte
generation. During it, the
N
oo

nucleus of microspore
n
Ac
ad

undergoes mitosis and produces

em

two nuclei i.e. a tube nucleus

y

and a generative nucleus. The

generative nucleus again
undergoes mitosis and produces
two sperms.

Page 11 of 81
 Fourth whorl
Fourth whorl i.e. gynoecium
is the female reproductive
part of flower. Its units are
called carpels (or pistils).
Each carpel is made up of
N
oo
n

the basal ovary, middle

Ac
ad
em

style and upper stigma.

y

Inside ovary, there are too

many ovules. Inside each
ovule, one haploid
macrospore is produced.

Page 12 of 81
 Germination of
Macrospore
Macrospore germinates into
the female gametophyte
generation. During it,
macrospore undergoes
N
oo
n

mitosis and produces an

Ac
ad
em

egg cell and some associated

y

structures. Egg cell and

associated structures are
the female gametophyte
generation of plant.

Page 13 of 81
 Process of Fertilization
(Part 1)
When pollen grains mature,
they are transferred to stigma.
It is called pollination. On
reaching the stigma, the tube
N
oo

nucleus of pollen grain

n
Ac

constructs a pollen tube. The

ad
em

pollen tube contains a tube

y

nucleus and two sperms. The

tube grows through style and
ovary and enters ovule.

Page 14 of 81
 Process of Fertilization
(Part 2): In ovule, tube bursts
and releases the sperms. Both
sperms enter the female
gametophyte. One sperm fuses
with egg and forms a diploid
N
oo

zygote. The other sperm fuses

n
Ac

with diploid fusion nucleus and

ad
em

forms a triploid (3N) nucleus

y

called endosperm nucleus. Since

the process of fertilization
involves two fusions, it is called
double fertilization.

Page 15 of 81
 Formation of seeds and
fruit: Zygote develops into
embryo and endosperm
nucleus develops into
endosperm tissue. Ovule
then becomes seed and
N
oo
n

ovary changes into fruit.

Ac
ad

When seeds mature, they

em
y

are dispersed if seeds get

suitable conditions; their
embryos develop into new
plants.

Page 16 of 81
 Structure of a Flower
N
oo
n
Ac
ad
em
y

Page 17 of 81
 Life cycle of a flowering

plant

Fertilization

Zygote
N
oo
n
Ac

Mature
ad
em

plant Pollination
Embryo
y

Simple
Seedling fruit
germination

Page 18 of 81
 Pollination

Pollination is defined as the

transfer of pollen grains

from flower’s anther to

N
oo
n
Ac

stigma. Two types of

ad
em

pollination are recognized.

y

 Self pollination

 Cross pollination

Page 19 of 81
 Self pollination

Self pollination is defined

as the transfer of pollen

N
oo
n

grains from the anther to

Ac
ad
em

the stigma of the same

y

flower or other flower of

the same plant.

Page 20 of 81
 Self pollination

Stigma
Pollens
N
oo
n
Ac
ad
em
y

Anther

Page 21 of 81
 Cross pollination

It is the transfer of pollen

grains from the flower on

one plant to the flower on

other plant of the same

N
oo
n

species. Cross pollination is

Ac
ad

brought about by various

em
y

agencies like wind, water,

bees, birds, bats and other

animals including man.

Page 22 of 81
 Cross pollination
N
oo

Stamen
n
Ac

Pistil
ad
em
y

Page 23 of 81
 Structural adaptations

of insect & wind pollinated

flowers
Insect Wind
Feature Pollinated Pollinated
Flowers Flowers
N

Size Generally large Generally small

oo
n

Color Petals brightly Petals green or

Ac

colored dull in color

ad
em

Nectar Do not produce

y

Produce nectar
nectar
Flowers hang
Floral Flowers face
down for easy
arrangement upwards
shaking
Stamens Enclosed inside Hang out of
and stigmas ring of petals ring of petals

Page 24 of 81
 Structural adaptations

of insect & wind pollinated

flowers

Small number Large number

produced/ produced/light
Pollen grains
heavy and with smooth
N
oo

sticky surface
n
Ac

Feathery
ad

Pinhead
branches for
em

Stigma shaped with no

catching
y

branches
pollen
Buttercup,
rose,
Grasses, hazel,
Examples Wallflower,
willow, corn
sunflower,
orchid

Page 25 of 81
 Parthenocarpy

In some plants, ovaries

develop into fruit without

the fertilization inside their

N
oo
n

ovules. This process is

Ac
ad
em

known as parthenocarpy
y

and it results in seedless

fruits e.g. bananas and

seedless varieties of grapes.

Page 26 of 81
 Development and

Structure of Seed

After fertilization in the

female gametophyte, zygote

divides repeatedly by mitosis

N
oo

and develops into an embryo.

n
Ac
ad

At this stage ovule changes

em
y

into seed. The formation of

seed completes the process of

sexual reproduction in seed

plants.

Page 27 of 81
 Angiosperm seeds

Angiosperm seeds consist of

three distinct parts:

1. The embryo formed from

zygote,
N
oo

2. The endosperm tissue

n
Ac
ad

formed from endosperm

em
y

nucleus,

3. The seed coat which

develops from the wall of

ovule (integument).

Page 28 of 81
 Seed coat
Seed coat (or testa)
develops from the
integument, originally
surrounding the ovule.
N
oo
n

It may be a paper-thin
Ac
ad

layer (e.g. peanut) or thick

em
y

and hard (e.g. coconut).

Seed coat protects embryo
from mechanical injury and
from drying out.

Page 29 of 81
 Hilum
There is a scar on seed
coat, called hilum. It is
where the seed is attached
to ovary wall (fruit). At one
N
oo
n

end of hilum, there is

Ac
ad

micropyle. This is the same

em
y

opening through which the

pollen tube entered ovule.
Seed uses it for the
absorption of water.

Page 30 of 81
 Embryo
Embryo is actually an
immature plant. It consists
of a radicle, a plumule and
one or two cotyledons (seed
N
oo
n

leaves). The radicle of

Ac
ad

embryo develops into new

em
y

root while the plumule

develops into new shoot.

Page 31 of 81
 Epicotyl and Hypocotyl
The embryonic stem above
the point of attachment of
cotyledon(s) is called
epicotyl. The embryonic
N
oo
n

stem below the point of

Ac
ad

attachment is hypocotyl.
em
y

Within seed, there is a store

of nutrients for the seedling
that will grow from
embryo.

Page 32 of 81
 Angiosperms seedling
In angiosperms, the stored
food is derived from the
endosperm tissue. This
N
oo
n

tissue is rich in oil or starch

Ac
ad

and protein. In many seeds,

em
y

the food of the endosperm

is absorbed and stored by
cotyledons.

Page 33 of 81
 The structure of a dicot
seed

Seed
N

coat
oo
n
Ac

Plumule
ad
em

Radicle
Hilum
y

Cotyledons

Page 34 of 81
 Germination of Seed
For the germination of
seeds, they must arrive at a
suitable location and be
there at a time favorable
N
oo
n

for germination and

Ac
ad

growth. Seed germination is

em
y

a process by which a seed

embryo develops into a
seedling.

Page 35 of 81
 Phases of seed germination
During germination, embryo
soaks up water which causes it
to swell, splitting the seed coat.
Root is the first structure that
N
oo

emerges from the radicle

n
Ac

present in seed. It grows

ad
em

rapidly and absorbs water and

y

nutrients from soil. In the next

phase, plumule develops into
tiny shoot which elongates and
comes out of soil.

Page 36 of 81
 Types of Germination
Epigeal germination
In epigeal germination, the
hypocotyl elongates and
forms a hook, pulling the
N
oo
n

cotyledons above ground.

Ac
ad

Beans, cotton and papaya

em
y

are the examples of seeds

that germinate this way.

Page 37 of 81
 Hypogeal germination
In hypogeal germination,
the epicotyl elongates and
forms the hook. In this type
of germination, the
N
oo
n

cotyledons stay
Ac
ad

underground. Pea, maize

em
y

and coconut germinate this

way.

Page 38 of 81
 Conditions for Seed
Germination
Seed germination depends
on both internal and
external conditions. The
internal conditions include
N
oo
n

a live embryo and sufficient

Ac
ad

food storage. The most

em
y

important external
conditions include water,
oxygen and favourable
temperatures.

Page 39 of 81
 Water (moisture)
Seeds of most plants have
low water content, and
germination cannot occur
until seed coat or other
tissues have imbibed (taken
N
oo
n

in) water. The absorbed

Ac
ad

water is used in the

em
y

digestion of the stored food

and it also helps in the
elongation of hypocotyl and
epicotyl.

Page 40 of 81
 Oxygen
Oxygen is essential for the
respiration in the cells of
embryo.
Temperature
Seeds differ greatly in their
N
oo
n

temperature requirements
Ac
ad

for germination. The

em
y

optimum temperature for

the germination of the
seeds of most plants ranges
from 25-30OC.

Page 41 of 81
 SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION IN
ANIMALS
Most animals reproduce
N

sexually. The sexual

oo
n
Ac

reproduction is based on
ad
em

the formation and the

y

fusion of male and female

gametes.

Page 42 of 81
 Formation of Gametes
(Gametogenesis)
The formation of gametes is
called gametogenesis. In this
process, diploid (2N)
gamete mother cells
N
oo
n

undergo meiosis and form

Ac
ad

haploid (1N) gametes. The

em
y

male and female gametes

are produced in specialized
organs called gonads.

Page 43 of 81
 Male and female
gametes
Male gonads are called
testes (Singular: testis)
while female gonads are
called ovaries. The
N
oo
n

production of sperms in
Ac
ad

testes is called
em
y

spermatogenesis and the

production of egg cells in
ovaries is called oogenesis.

Page 44 of 81
 Spermatogenesis
Some cells present in the
walls of the seminiferous
tubules of testes divide
repeatedly by mitosis to
N
oo
n

form large number of

Ac
ad

diploid spermatogonia.
em
y

Some spermatogonia
produce primary
spermatocytes.

Page 45 of 81
Meiosis-I & meiosis-II in
spermatogenesis
Each primary spermatocyte
undergoes meiosis-I and
produces two haploid
daughter cells called
N
oo
n

secondary spermatocytes.
Ac
ad

These cells undergo meiosis-

em
y

II. In this way four haploid

spermatids are produced
from each primary
spermatocyte.

Page 46 of 81
 The sperms
The spermatids are
nonmotile and many
changes occur in them to
convert them into motile
cells. Their nuclei shrink
N
oo
n

and some structures are

Ac
ad

formed e.g. a corner called

em
y

acrosome, a tail and a

mitochondrial ring. After
these changes, they are
called sperms.

Page 47 of 81
 Oogenesis
Some cells of ovary prepare
structures called follicles, in
which many diploid oogonia
are present. Some oogonia
N
oo
n

produce diploid primary

Ac
ad

oocytes. One of the primary

em
y

oocytes completes meiosis-I

and produces two haploid
cells.

Page 48 of 81
 Two haploid cells of
primary oocytes
The smaller cell is called
first polar body and the
larger one is called
N
oo
n

secondary oocyte. The

Ac
ad

secondary oocyte completes

em
y

meiosis-II and produces two

haploid cells i.e. a second
polar body and an egg cell.

Page 49 of 81
 Fertilization
After the formation of
gametes, fertilization
occurs. There are two
N
oo
n

mechanisms by which
Ac
ad

fertilization can take place

em
y

i.e. external fertilization and

internal fertilization.

Page 50 of 81
 External fertilization
In external fertilization, egg
cells are fertilized outside of
body. External fertilization
occurs mostly in aquatic
N
oo
n

environment. It requires
Ac
ad

both the male and the

em
y

female animals to release

their gametes into their
surroundings at almost the
same time.

Page 51 of 81
 Hazards to external
fertilization
In external fertilization,
there is risk of loss of
gametes due to
N
oo
n

environmental hazards such

Ac
ad

as predators. External
em
y

fertilization occurs in many

invertebrates and the first
two groups of vertebrates
i.e. fishes and amphibians.

Page 52 of 81
External Fertilization in Fish
N
oo
n
Ac
ad
em
y

Page 53 of 81
 Internal fertilization
In internal fertilization, egg
cells are fertilized within the
reproductive tract of female. It
occurs in reptiles, birds and
mammals. Such animals
N

provide protection to the

oo
n
Ac

developing embryo. After

ad
em

fertilization, reptiles and birds

y

make protective shells around

their egg cells and then lay
them. The shell is resistant to
water loss and damage.

Page 54 of 81
 Internal fertilization in
mammals
In mammals (with the
exception of egg-laying
mammals) the development
of fertilized egg into new
N
oo
n

baby takes place within

Ac
ad

mother body. In this case,

em
y

there is extra protection to

the embryo and mother
also supplies everything
that embryo needs.

Page 55 of 81
 A bird egg
N
oo
n
Ac
ad
em
y

Page 56 of 81
 Reproduction in Rabbit
 Male Reproductive
System
The male reproductive
system of rabbit consists of
a pair of testes that
N
oo
n

produce sperms, the

Ac
ad

associated ducts that

em
y

transport sperm to external

genitalia and glands that
add secretions to sperms.

Page 57 of 81
 Location of testes
Testes are located in a bag
of skin called the scrotum
that hangs below the body.
Each testis consists of a
N
oo
n

mass of coiled tubes called

Ac
ad

the seminiferous tubules. In

em
y

these tubules, the sperms

are formed.

Page 58 of 81
 Function of associated
ducts
When sperms are mature,
they accumulate in the
collecting ducts of testes and
then pass to epididymis.
N
oo

From epididiymis, sperms

n
Ac
ad

move to a sperm duct called

em
y

vas deferens. Both sperm

ducts join urethra just below
urinary bladder. The urethra
transports both sperm and
urine.
Page 59 of 81
 What is Semen?
Semen is the material
containing sperms in a
fluid. It consists of 10%
sperms and 90% fluid. As
N
oo
n

the sperms pass down the

Ac
ad

ducts from testes to

em
y

urethra, the associated

glands add various
secretions.

Page 60 of 81
 Secretions of associated
glands
Seminal vesicles produce
secretions that provide
nutrients for sperms.
N
oo
n

Prostate gland produces a

Ac
ad

secretion that neutralizes

em
y

the acidity of the fluid.

Cowper’s glands produce
secretions that lubricate the
ducts.

Page 61 of 81
 Male Reproductive System
N
oo
n
Ac
ad
em
y

Page 62 of 81
  Female Reproductive
System
The female reproductive
system of rabbit consists of
ovaries and associated
ducts. Ovaries are small
N
oo
n

oval organs situated in

Ac
ad

abdominal cavity just

em
y

ventral to kidneys. Like

most animals, female
rabbits have a pair of
ovaries.

Page 63 of 81
 Functioning of Ovary
The outer region of ovary
produces egg cells. A cluster of
specialized cells called follicle
surrounds and nourishes each
N
oo

egg cell. From ovaries, egg cells

n
Ac

are released in fallopian tubes.

ad
em

The opening of fallopian tube

y

lies close to ovary. Fertilization

occurs in fallopian tubes and
the fertilized egg (zygote) is
carried to uterus.

Page 64 of 81
 The uterus of rabbit
The uterus of rabbit is
divided into two separate
parts or horns. The uterus
horns join and open into
N
oo
n

vagina or birth canal.

Ac
ad

Cervix is the portion of

em
y

uterus, which separates it

from birth canal, where
sperms of male are
deposited.

Page 65 of 81
 Female reproductive system
of rabbit

Uterus horns
N
oo

Fallopian
n
Ac

tube
ad
em

Ovary
y

Cervix

Uterus wall

Opening of Birth canal

the urethra

Page 66 of 81
 Fertilization and
Development in Rabbit
Rabbits can breed
throughout the year but
male rabbits are commonly
sterile during the summer
N
oo
n

months. Sperms swim

Ac
ad

through cervix and uterus

em
y

to fallopian tubes where

they fertilize the egg cells,
released from ovary.

Page 67 of 81
 Development of embryo
After fertilization, zygote is
carried to uterus. By this time,
the zygote has started dividing
and is now called embryo. The
N
oo

embryo is implanted in uterus

n
Ac

walls. A connection, called

ad
em

placenta, is established between

y

embryo and uterus wall.

Embryo develops into new
offspring (rabbit kit) in 30–32
days, after which it is born.

Page 68 of 81
 Growth in Human
Population and its
Consequences
Pakistan’s population in the
year 2007-2008 was
163,775,000. By the end
N
oo
n

of this decade, our

Ac
ad

population is expected to
em
y

exceed 176 million.

Pakistan’s population had a
relatively high growth rate
in past.

Page 69 of 81
 Over population
When population growth
exceeds the carrying
capacity of an area or
N
oo
n

environment, it results in
Ac
ad

overpopulation.
em
y

Many problems are

associated with human
overpopulation.

Page 70 of 81
 Problems of overpopulation
 Severe shortage of fresh
water and natural
resources
 Deforestation and loss of
N
oo
n

ecosystems
Ac
ad

 Pollution and global

em
y

warming
 High infant and child
mortality rate due to
poverty

Page 71 of 81
 Remedies of overpopulation
People should be educated
about the problems of
overpopulation. Pakistan’s
Ministry of Population
N
oo
n

Welfare has taken a

Ac
ad

number of steps to make

em
y

people aware of the hazards

of overpopulation and to
stabilize the population to
match our resources.

Page 72 of 81
 The United Nations
Population Fund
UNFPA began operations in
1969. It is the largest
international organization
N
oo
n

funding for population and

Ac
ad

health programs. The

em
y

UNFPA works in over 140

countries, for awareness
about the consequences of
overpopulation.

Page 73 of 81
 A Sexually Transmitted
Disease
Sexually Transmitted
Diseases (STDs) are defined
as the diseases that are
N
oo
n

transmitted through sexual

Ac
ad

act. The most serious and

em
y

challenging health problem

faced by the world today is
AIDS. It is also a sexually
transmitted disease.

Page 74 of 81
 AIDS
AIDS stands for Acquired
Immune Deficiency
Syndrome. It is caused by
human immunodeficiency
N
oo
n

virus (HIV). The virus

Ac
ad

destroys white blood cells,

em
y

which results in loss of

resistance against infections.
It is a fatal disease.

Page 75 of 81
 Causes of AIDS
It spreads through transfer
of body fluids such as blood
and semen. Thus the main
N
oo
n

causes are unprotected

Ac
ad

sexual activities, use of

em
y

infected needles or
transfusion of infected
blood.

Page 76 of 81
 AIDS rate in Pakistan
According to the United
nations Programme on AIDS
i.e. UNAIDS estimates, some
70,000 to 80,000 persons,
or 0.1 percent of the adult
N
oo

population in Pakistan, are

n
Ac
ad

infected with HIV. The

em
y

number of drug addicts in

Pakistan is currently
estimated to be about
500,000, of who 60,000
inject drugs.
Page 77 of 81
 Role of National AIDS
Control Programme (NACP)
Pakistan’s Federal Ministry
of Health established NACP
in 1987. The main
N
oo
n

objective of this programme

Ac
ad

is to help the public for the

em
y

prevention of HIV
transmission, safe blood
transfusions and reduction
of STDs.

Page 78 of 81
 Factors of AIDS in
Pakistan
The country is at risk of
epidemic due to various risk
factors e.g. exposure to
infected blood or blood
N
oo

products, homo-sex, and

n
Ac
ad

injecting drug users. For

em
y

improved prevention by the

general public, the NACP
started services through TV
and radio channels and print
media in 2005.
Page 79 of 81
 Objectives of NACP
 Change public attitude
for safe sexual activities,
 Create demand for
information on HIV and
N
oo
n

AIDS, and
Ac
ad

 Improve attitudes and

em
y

behaviour among
healthcare workers

Page 80 of 81
Role of Non-Governmental
Organizations (NGOs)
According to the latest data by
the World Bank, at least 54
NGOs are working in Pakistan
N
oo

for HIV/AIDS public awareness

n
Ac

and for the care and support

ad
em

of persons living with

y

HIV/AIDS. NGOs serve as

members of the Provincial
consortium on HIV/AIDS,
which has been set up in all the
provinces of Pakistan.
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