REVIEW OF LITERATURES
It increases the author’s knowledge of the topic • Include a synthesis or summary in the end which
Serves three important functions:
1. continues the process of giving background
information needed to understand the study
2. assures that the author is knowledgeable about
the significant research that has been done in the
research area
3. links the study to the chain of research that has
been or is being developed
What is the Review of Related Literatures?
It is basically an evaluated, organized, and
synthesized collection of citations to other studies
which are related or somewhat related to your own
specific research problem.
It is NOT a MERE listing of previous studies or a
collection of abstracts or reviews.
It is NOT a discussion of theory but rather of
illustrations on how theory was used in specific
researches similar to the research being prepared.
It SHOULD NOT include a discussion of
methodology unless that methodology is shown as
being used in a particular research.
It SHOULD NOT contain any material on a
proposed solution technique unless that technique
is presented as already been used in another
research of a similar nature
In Writing the Review of Literatures:
• Prepare a topic outline to have a logical
discussion of the review of related literature.
• The review should not summarize the article but
discuss the variables used, results, and
methodologies so that the researcher knows what
research have been undertaken.
• The researcher can then establish the missing
gap to develop a new topic for possible research
undertaking.
The Role of Literature Review
1.
as a result of the time, effort, and resources
invested in studying the research problem.
2. It gives the author new ideas and approaches
that may not have occurred to him/her.
3. It informs the author about other researchers
doing work in the same topic/area of study
individuals who may be contacted for advice or
feedback.
4. It shows the author how others have tackled
methodological and design issues in studies
similar to his/hers.
5. It leads the author to sources of data that
he/she may not have known existed.
6. It orients the author to measurement tools that
other researchers have developed and used
effectively.
7. It reveals methods dealing with problem
situations that may be similar to difficulties being
encountered by the author.
8. It helps the author get meaning out of data or
make sense of findings and, eventually, helps tie
the results to the work of previous researchers.
Examples of Literature Review
• Case studies documented in the literature in the
following format: ▫ Situation or Problem ▫ Objective
▫ Facilitation Technique, Solution ▫ Results
• Writing style: ▫ “If the term ____ is confusing to
you, you might think of it as ___…..” ▫ “How many
of us want to learn…. If you review ____, you have
lost not only the opportunity to do anything…”
Format of Literature Review
• Follow the American Psychological Association
(APA) Citation Format ▫ APA style requires authors
to use the past tense or present perfect tense
when using signal phrases to describe earlier
research. ▫ E.g., Jones (1998) found… or Jones
(1998) has found...
include the identification of the missing gap and a
justification of the proposed topic the researcher
intends to undertake.
Examples: Presentation of Research Findings /
Case Study
• Fr. Revelino Garcia (1988) recognized the
importance of the marketing concept for long-term
growth when he developed a strategic marketing
model for the San Sebastian College Recoletos in
Cavite City. Using multiple regression, Garcia was
able to determine that marketing costs, market
share and the competitors’ marketing strategies
affected the school’s revenues. His
recommendations included market positioning –
where to locate, what courses to offer and what
market to address – as well as strategies on
image-building, pricing policies and improving the
quality of service delivery by strengthening its
teaching staff and improving its facilities.
• In a case study linking student satisfaction and
service quality perceptions, Athiyaman (1997)
clarified the relationship between consumer
satisfaction and perceived service quality. The
study concluded that consumer satisfaction is
short term and results from an evaluation of a
specific consumption experience while perceived
service quality is the overall evaluation of a
product or service. The findings of Lien-Ti and
Yu-Ching (2001) indicated a positive relationship
between service quality and consumer satisfaction
and that service quality influence consumer loyalty
indirectly through customer satisfaction.
Example: Presenting Related Research Findings •
A number of researchers had employed the gap
model in research involving the quality of
education. Lewis and Ducharme (1990) set out to
determine whether a gap existed between the
expectations of academics and practitioners
regarding the proper education of business
students … Their study concluded that … no gap
existed between the expectations of business
schools and those of the business sector.
Gutierrez-Nugraha (1997) built on the study of
Lewis and Ducharme (1990) and tested whether
business schools in the Philippines were
producing the kind of graduates that the business
sector needed. Her findings showed that there was
an over-all congruence between the skills
possessed by business graduates …and the skills
taught by business schools. However, she found a
gap between the knowledge/skills needed by the
business sector and those actually contributed by
business graduates to their jobs … As a result of
the identified gaps, Gutierrez-Nugraha
recommended a further study on the effectiveness
of teaching methods employed by business
schools…
• In a study involving two business schools in
northeastern USA, Pariseau and McDaniel (1997)
concluded that the faculty and the schools were
not currently delivering quality service to their
students. This conclusion was reached by
comparing the scores derived from the
SERVQUAL instrument …The study also
concluded that there were significant differences
between the faculty and students’ rank ordering of
the factors determining service quality. Lampley
(2001) used gap analysis to gain insight into the
service expectations and experiences of doctoral
students at state-supported universities in
Tennessee. He adapted the SERVQUAL
questionnaire …He recommended that universities
must address the items exhibiting the largest gaps
in order to improve the quality of their services.
Nacu (1998) utilized the same gap model to
evaluate whether the existing IE curriculum
provided graduates with the technical skills which
employers considered important for an IE job. The
resulting gaps were used as bases for
recommending changes in the IE curriculum…
Example: Presenting Contrasting Research
Findings
• In 1992, Cronin and Taylor conducted an
examination on the relationship between service
quality, consumer satisfaction and purchase
intentions. Their research built on earlier
researches (Bolton and Drew, 1991; Parasuraman,
Zeithaml and Berry, 1988) which described service
quality as a form of attitude resulting from the
comparison of expectations with performance but
is not equivalent to satisfaction. This suggested
that service quality and satisfaction were two
distinct constructs (Bitner, 1990; Bolton and Drew,
1991; Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry, 1988).
The results of Cronin and Taylor’s research
suggest that service quality is an antecedent of
consumer satisfaction and that consumer
satisfaction exerted a stronger influence on
purchase intentions than service quality. As a
result, Cronin and Taylor contended that managers
needed to emphasize total customer satisfaction
programs over strategies centering solely on
service quality. Factors such as convenience, price
and availability enhance satisfaction but do not
necessarily affect service quality. Cronin and
Taylor’s conclusion that quality resulted to
consumer satisfaction contradicts the position of
most service quality researchers who argue that
consumer satisfaction is a transaction-specific
assessment while service quality is a global
assessment. The later indicates that service
quality (global assessment) results from an
accumulation of transaction-specific assessments
(consumer satisfaction). The causality direction
then is from consumer satisfaction to service
quality (Athiyaman, 1997; Parasuraman, Zeithaml
and Berry, 1994).
Example: Using Related Research as Bases for
Standards
• In their study, Cadotte, Woodruff and Jenkins
(1987) evaluated the various comparison
standards used and concluded that expectations
were not the only standards consumers used and
that the experience-based norms concept
appeared to offer an alternative for examining how
consumers form disconfirmation beliefs and
satisfaction feelings. Their research findings
indicated that product-based norms and best
brand norms were consistently better than the
brand expectation model at explaining variations in
satisfaction feelings. They also found out that the
nature of the situation is an important factor in
determining the standard to use. This supports the
suggestion of Churchill and Suprenant (1982) that
satisfaction differed across products. These
findings indicate that no one standard is best used
to explain the satisfaction process.
Plagiarism
It is turning in or passing off someone else’s work
as your own
• This may include unpublished and published
researches made by both local and foreign
settings. Related literature and studies aim to
support findings, results and recommendations.
Source must be properly documented. Examples:
• Copying [words, phrases, sentence(s)] from the
work of others without properly acknowledging the
source
• Explaining a theory or including an illustration
without citing the author. It is still plagiarism even if
the theory or illustration is paraphrased or
summarized.
• Using figures, tables, illustrations, flowcharts,
diagrams without indicating the source. AVOID
PLAGIARISM!
Please note that:
• In writing the Research Proposal: ▫ Action verbs
must be in the present or future tense ▫ Use the
third person principle Examples: ▫ The author aims
to achieve the following… ▫ The pareto diagram
will be used to…
• In writing the Research Paper: ▫ Action verbs
must be in the past tense or present perfect tense
▫ Use the third person principle Example: ▫ The
author found that…
American Psychological Association (APA)
Reference List: Basic Rules
Your reference list should appear at the end of
your paper. It provides the information necessary
for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you
cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite
in the paper must appear in your reference list;
likewise, each entry in the reference list must be
cited in your text.
Your references should begin on a new page
separate from the text of the essay; label this page
References (with no quotation marks, underlining,
etc.), centered at the top of the page. It should be
double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.
Basic Rules
• All lines after the first line of each entry in your
reference list should be indented one-half inch
from the left margin. This is called hanging
indentation.
• Authors' names are inverted (last name first);
give the last name and initials for all authors of a
particular work unless the work has more than six
authors. If the work has more than six authors, list
the first six authors and then use et al. after the
sixth author's name to indicate the rest of the
authors.
• Reference list entries should be alphabetized by
the last name of the first author of each work.
• If you have more than one article by the same
author, single-author references or multiple-author
references with the exact same authors in the
exact same order are listed in order by the year of
publication, starting with the earliest
• When referring to any work that is NOT a journal,
such as a book, article, or Web page, capitalize
only the first letter of the first word of a title and
subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the
title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first
letter of the second word in a hyphenated
compound word.
• Capitalize all major words in journal titles.
• Italicize titles of longer works such as books and
journals.
• Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around
the titles of shorter works such as journal articles
or essays in edited collections.
Reference List: Author/Authors
The following rules for handling works by a single
author or multiple authors apply to all APA-style
references in your reference list, regardless of the
type of work (book, article, electronic resource,
etc.)
Single Author
Last name first, followed by author initials.
Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social
development. Current Directions in Psychological
Science, 11, 7-10.
Two Authors
List by their last names and initials. Use the
ampersand instead of "and."
Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood
management across affective states: The hedonic
contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality &
Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.
Three to Six Authors
List by last names and initials; commas separate
author names, while the last author name is
preceded again by ampersand.
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A.,
& Harlow, T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem
than whether it is high or low: The importance of
stability of self esteem. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.
More Than Six Authors
If there are more than six authors, list the first six
as above and then "et al.," which stands for "and
others." Remember not to place a period after "et"
in "et al."
Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D.,
DeNiro, R., Cruz, P., et al. (2001). Writing labs and
the Hollywood connection. Journal of Film and
Writing, 44(3), 213- 245.
Organization as Author
American Psychological Association. (2003).
Unknown Author
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th
ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
NOTE: When your essay includes parenthetical
citations of sources with no author named, use a
shortened version of the source's title instead of
an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics
as appropriate. For example, parenthetical
citations of the two sources above would appear
as follows: (Merriam-Webster's, 1993) and ("New
Drug," 1993).
Two or More Works by the Same Author
Use the author's name for all entries and list the
entries by the year (earliest comes first).
Berndt, T.J. (1981).
Berndt, T.J. (1999).
When an author appears both as a sole author
and, in another citation, as the first author of a
group, list the oneauthor entries first.
Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends' influence on students'
adjustment to school. Educational Psychologist,
34, 15-28.
Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence
on adolescents' adjustment to school. Child
Development, 66, 1312- 1329.
References that have the same first author and
different second and/or third authors are arranged
alphabetically by the last name of the second
author, or the last name of the third if the first and
second authors are the same.
Wegener, D. T., Kerr, N. L., Fleming, M. A., &
Petty, R. E. (2000). Flexible corrections of juror
judgments: Implications for jury instructions.
Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 6, 629-654.
Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Klein, D. J. (1994).
Effects of mood on high elaboration attitude
change: The mediating role of likelihood
judgments. European Journal of Social
Psychology, 24, 25-43.
Two or More Works by the Same Author in the
Same Year
If you are using more than one reference by the
same author (or the same group of authors listed
in the same order) published in the same year,
organize them in the reference list alphabetically
by the title of the article or chapter. Then assign
letter suffixes to the year. Refer to these sources in
your essay as they appear in your reference list,
e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a) makes similar claims..."
Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes
over time in prosocial intentions and behavior
between friends. Developmental Psychology, 17,
408-416.
Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on
prosocial intentions and behavior. Child
Development, 52, 636-643.
Basic Format for Books
Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work:
Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.
Note: For "Location," you should always list the
city, but you should also include the state if the city
is unfamiliar or if the city could be confused with
one in another state.
Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide
to preparing manuscripts for journal publication.
Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Edited Book, No Author
Duncan, G.J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997).
Consequences of growing up poor. New York:
Russell Sage Foundation.
Edited Book with an Author or Authors
Plath, S. (2000). The unabridged journals (K.V.
Kukil, Ed.). New York: Anchor.
A Translation
Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on
probabilities. (F. W. Truscott & F. L. Emory, Trans.).
New York: Dover. (Original work published 1814).
Note: When you cite a republished work, like the
one above, work in your text, it should appear with
both dates: Laplace (1814/1951).
Edition Other Than the First
Helfer, M.E., Keme, R.S., & Drugman, R.D. (1997).
The battered child (5th ed.). Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication).
Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title
of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.
Note: When you list the pages of the chapter or
essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp."
before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation,
however, does not appear before the page
numbers in periodical references, except for
newspapers.
O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and
women's gender role journeys: Metaphor for
healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R.
Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle
(pp. 107-123). New York: Springer.
Multivolume Work
Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of
ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York: Scribner's.
Reference List: Electronic Sources
Article From an Online Periodical
Note: In 2007, the APA released several
additions/modifications for documentation of
electronic sources in the APA Style Guide to
Electronic References. These changes are
reflected in the entries below. Please note that
there are no spaces used with brackets in APA.
Online articles follow the same guidelines for
printed articles. Include all information the online
host makes available, including an issue number
in parentheses. Provide a retrieval date only if the
information is likely to be updated or changed at a
later date (as in the case of blogs and wikis). Since
many online periodicals appear in their "final" form,
a retrieval date is not necessary. Author, A. A., &
Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article.
Title of Online Periodical, volume number(issue
number if available). Retrieved month day, year, (if
necessary) from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living
Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make
Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006, from
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writ eliving
Online Scholarly Journal Article
Since online materials can potentially change
URL's, APA recommends providing a Digital
Object Identifier (DOI), when it is available, as
opposed to the URL. DOI's are an attempt to
provide stable, long-lasting links for online articles.
They are unique to their documents and consist of
a long alphanumeric code. Many-but not all
publishers will provide an article's DOI on the first
page of the document.
Note that some online bibliographies provide an
article's DOI but may "hide" the code under a
button which may read "Article" or may be an
abbreviation of a vendors name like "CrossRef" or
"PubMed." This button will usually lead the user to
the full article which will include the DOI. Find
DOI's from print publications or ones that go to
dead links with CrossRef.org's "DOI Resolver,"
which is displayed in a central location on their
home page.
Article From an Online Periodical with DOI
Assigned
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication).
Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number.
doi:0000000/000000000000
Brownlie, D. Toward effective poster presentations:
An annotated bibliography. European Journal of
Marketing, 41(11/12), 1245-1283.
doi:10.1108/03090560710821161
Article From an Online Periodical with no DOI
Assigned
Online scholarly journal articles without a DOI
require a URL but do not require a retrieval date.
Provide a retrieval date only if the information is
likely to be updated or changed at a later date (as
in the case of blogs and wikis). Since most journal
articles appear in their "final" form, a retrieval date
is not needed.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication).
Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number.
Retrieved month day, year, from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the
nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics,
8.Retrieved February 20, 2001, from
http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html
If the article appears as a printed version as well,
the URL is not required. Use "Electronic version"
in brackets after the article's title.
Whitmeyer, J.M. (2000). Power through
appointment [Electronic version]. Social Science
Research, 29, 535-555.
Article From a Database
When referencing material obtained from an online
database (such as a database in the library),
provide appropriate print citation information
(formatted just like a "normal" print citation would
be for that type of work). Then add information that
gives the date of retrieval and the proper name of
the database. This will allow people to retrieve the
print version if they do not have access to the
database from which you retrieved the article. You
can also include the item number or accession
number in parentheses at the end, but the APA
manual says that this is not required. (For more
about citing articles retrieved from electronic
databases, see page 278 of the Publication
Manual.)
Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002).
A study of enjoyment of peas. Journal of Abnormal
Eating, 8(3). Retrieved February 20, 2003, from
PsycARTICLES database.
Abstract
If you only cite an abstract but the full text of the
article is also available, cite the online abstract as
other online citations, adding "[Abstract]" after the
article or source name. If only the abstract is
available, write "Abstract retrieved from" and
provide the database name or URL.
Paterson, P. (2008). How well do young offenders
with Asperger Syndrome cope in custody?: Two
prison case studies [Abstract]. British Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 36(1), 54-58. Retrieved from
EBSCO Host database.
Bossong, G. Ergativity in Basque. Linguistics,
22(3), 341-392. Abstract retrieved from Linguistics
Abstracts Online.
Newspaper Article
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article.
Title of Newspaper. Retrieved
http://www.someaddress.com/full/ url/
Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry
handbook linked to drug industry. The New York
Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
Electronic Books may include books found on
personal websites, databases, or even in audio
form. Use the following format if the book you are
using is only provided in a digital format or is
difficult to find in print. If the work is not directly
available online or must be purchased, use
"Available from," rather than "Retrieved from," and
point readers to where they can find it.
De Huff, E.W. Taytay’s tales: Traditional Pueblo
Indian tales. Retrieved from
http://digital.library.upenn.edu/wo
men/dehuff/taytay/ taytay.html Davis, J. Familiar
birdsongs of the Northwest. Available from
http://www.powells.com/cgibin/biblio?inkey=1-
9780931686108-0

Chapter/Section of a Web document or Online
Book Chapter
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication).
Title of article. In Title of book or larger document
(chapter or section number). Retrieved month day,
year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/.
Engelshcall, R. S. (1997). Module mod_rewrite:
URL Rewriting Engine. In Apache HTTP Server
Version 1.3 Documentation (Apache modules.)
Retrieved March 10, 2006, from
http://httpd.apache.org/docs/1.3/mod/
mod_rewrite.html
Peckinpaugh, J. (2003). Change in the Nineties. In
J.S. Bough and G.B. DuBois (Eds.), A century of
growth in America. Retrieved from GoldStar
database.
NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and
provide a URL that links directly to the chapter
section, not the home page of the Web site.
Online Book Reviews
Cite the information as you normally would for the
work you are quoting. (The first example below is
from a newspaper article; the second is from a
scholarly journal.) In brackets, write "Review of the
book" and give the title of the reviewed work.
Provide the web address after the words
"Retrieved from," if the review is freely available to
anyone. If the review comes from a subscription
service or database, write "Available from" and
provide the information where the review can be
purchased.
Zacharek, S. (2008, April 27). Natural women
[Review of the book Girls like us ]. The New York
Times. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/27/books/review/
Zachareck -t.html?pagewanted=2
Castle, G. (2007). New millennial Joyce [Review of
the books Twenty-first Joyce, Joyce's critics:
Transitions in reading and culture, and Joyce's
messianism: Dante, negative existence, and the
messianic self]. Modern Fiction Studies, 50(1),
163- 173. Available from Project MUSE Web site:
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/modern_fiction_studie
s/toc/ mfs52.1.html
Dissertation/Thesis from a Database
Biswas, S. (2008). Dopamine D3 receptor: A
neuroprotective treatment target in Parkinson's
disease. Retrieved from ProQuest Digital
Dissertations. (AAT 3295214)
Online Encyclopedias and Dictionaries
Often encyclopedias and dictionaries do not
provide bylines (authors' names). When no byline
is present, move the entry name to the front of the
citation. Provide publication dates if present or
specify (n.d.) if no date is present in the entry.
Because updates and modifications are not
normally specified, provide the retrieval date in the
citation. When listing the URL, give only the home
or index root as opposed to the URL for the entry.
Feminism. (n.d.) In Encyclopædia Britannica
online. Retrieved March 16, 2008, from http://
www.britannica.com
Online Bibliographies and Annotated
Bibliographies
Jürgens, R. (2005). HIV/AIDS and HCV in Prisons:
A Select Annotated Bibliography. Retrieved from
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahcasc/alt_formats/hpb-dg
ps/pdf/intactiv/hiv-vih-aids-sida-prisoncarceral_e.p
df
Data Sets
Point readers to raw data by providing a Web
address (use "Retrieved from") or a general place
that houses data sets on the site (use "Available
from").
United States Department of Housing and Urban
Development. Indiana income limits [Data file].
Retrieved from
http://www.huduser.org/Datasets/IL/IL08/in_fy2008
.pdf
Graphic Data (e.g. Interactive Maps and Other
Graphic Representations of Data)
Give the name of the researching organization
followed by the date. In brackets, provide a brief
explanation of what type of data is there and in
what form it appears. Finally, provide the project
name and retrieval information.
Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment. (2007).
[Graph illustration the SORCE Spectral Plot May
8, 2008]. Solar Spectral Data Access from the
SIM, SOLSTICE, and XPS Instruments. Retrieved
from
http://lasp.colorado.edu/cgibin/ion-p?page=input_d
ata_for_ spectra.ion
Qualitative Data and Online Interviews
If an interview is not retrievable in audio or print
form, cite the interview only in the text (not in the
reference list) and provide the month, day, and
year in the text. If an audio file or transcript is
available online, use the following model,
specifying the medium in brackets (e.g. [Interview
transcript, Interview audio file]):
Butler, C. (Interviewer) & Stevenson, R.
(Interviewee). (1999). Oral History 2 [Interview
transcript]. Retrieved from Johnson Space Center
Oral Histories Project Web site: http://
www11.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_hi
stories/oral_histories.htm
Online Lecture Notes and Presentation Slides
When citing online lecture notes, be sure to
provide the file format in brackets after the lecture
title (e.g. PowerPoint slides, Word document).
Hallam, A. Duality in consumer theory [PDF
document]. Retrieved from Lecture Notes Online
Web site: http://www.econ.iastate.edu/classe
s/econ501/Hallam/ index.html
Roberts, K. F. (1998). Federal regulations of
chemicals in the environment [PowerPoint slides].
Retrieved from http://siri.uvm.edu/ppt/40hrenv/in
dex.html
Nonperiodical Web Document, Web Page, or
Report
List as much of the following information as
possible (you sometimes have to hunt around to
find the information; don't be lazy. If there is a
page like http://www.somesite.com/somepa
ge.htm, and somepage.htm doesn't have the
information you're looking for, move up the URL to
http://www.somesite.com/):
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication).
Title of document. Retrieved month day, year (only
if the text may potentially change over time), from
http://Web address
NOTE: When an Internet document is more than
one Web page, provide a URL that links to the
home page or entry page for the document. Also, if
there isn't a date available for the document use
(n.d.) for no date.
Computer Software/Downloaded Software
Do not cite standard office software (e.g. Word,
Excel) or programming languages. Provide
references only for specialized software.
Ludwig, T. (2002). PsychInquiry [computer
software]. New York: Worth.
Software that is downloaded from a Web site
should provide the software’s version and year
when available.
Hayes, B., Tesar, B., & Zuraw, K. (2003). OTSoft:
Optimality Theory Software (Version 2.1)
[Software]. Available from
http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/hayes/otsoft/
E-mails are not included in the list of references,
though you parenthetically cite them in your main
text: (E. Robbins, personal communication,
January 4, 2001).
Online Forum or Discussion Board Posting
Include the title of the message, and the URL of
the newsgroup or discussion board. Please note
that titles for items in online communities (e.g.
blogs, newsgroups, forums) are not italicized. If
the author's name is not available, provide the
screen name. Place identifiers like post or
message numbers, if available, in brackets. If
available, provide the URL where the message is
archived (e.g. "Message posted to..., archived
at...").
Frook, B. D. (1999, July 23). New inventions in the
cyberworld of toylandia [Msg 25]. Message posted
to http://groups.earthlink.com/forum/mes
sages/00025.html
Blog (Weblog) and Video Blog Post
Include the title of the message and the URL.
Please note that titles for items in online
communities (e.g. blogs, newsgroups, forums) are
not italicized. If the author’s name is not available,
provide the screen name.
Dean, J. (2008, May 7). When the self emerges: Is
that me in the mirror? Message posted to
http://www.spring.org.uk/ the1sttransport. (2004,
September 26). Psychology Video Blog #3 [Video
File]. Video posted to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqM 90eQi5-M
Wikis
Please note that the APA Style Guide to Electronic
References warns writers that wikis (like
Wikipedia, for example) are collaborative projects
which cannot guarantee the verifiability or
expertise of their entries.
OLPC Peru/Arahuay. (n.d.). Retrieved May 1,
2008, from the OLPC Wiki: http://wiki.laptop.
org/go/OLPC_Peru/Arahuay
Audio Podcast
For all podcasts, provide as much information as
possible; not all of the following information will be
available. Possible addition identifiers may include
Producer, Director, etc.
Bell, T. & Phillips, T. 2008, May 6). A solar flare.
Science @ NASA Podcast. Podcast retrieved from
http://science.nasa.gov/podcast.htm
Video Podcasts
For all podcasts, provide as much information as
possible; not all of the following information will be
available. Possible addition identifiers may include
Producer, Director, etc.
Scott, D. (Producer). (2007, January 5). The
community college classroom [Episode 7].
Adventures in Education. Podcast retrieved from
http://www.adveeducation.com
American Psychological Association (APA)
In-Text Citations: The Basics
Note: APA style requires authors to use the past
tense or present perfect tense when using signal
phrases to describe earlier research. E.g., Jones
(1998) found or Jones (1998) has found…
APA Citation Basics
When using APA format, follow the author-date
method of in-text citation. This means that the
author's last name and the year of publication for
the source should appear in the text, E.g., (Jones,
1998), and a complete reference should appear in
the reference list at the end of the paper.
If you are referring to an idea from another work
but NOT directly quoting the material, or making
reference to an entire book, article or other work,
you only have to make reference to the author and
year of publication in your in-text reference.
In-Text Citation Capitalization, Quotes, and
Italics/Underlining
• Always capitalize proper nouns, including author
names and initials: D. Jones.
• If you refer to the title of a source within your
paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long
or greater within the title of a source: Permanence
and Change. Exceptions apply to short words that
are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and
adverbs: Writing New Media, There Is Nothing Left
to Lose. (Note: in your References list, only the
first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new
media.)
• When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in
a hyphenated compound word: Natural-Born
Cyborgs.
• Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon:
"Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock's
Vertigo."
• Italicize or underline the titles of longer works
such as books, edited collections, movies,
television series, documentaries, or albums: The
Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz;
Friends.
• Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter
works such as journal articles, articles from edited
collections, television series episodes, and song
titles: "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible
Worlds"; "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."
Short Quotations
If you are directly quoting from a work, you will
need to include the author, year of publication, and
the page number for the reference (preceded by
"p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase
that includes the author's last name followed by
the date of publication in parentheses.
According to Jones (1998), "Students often had
difficulty using APA style, especially when it was
their first time" (p. 199). Jones (1998) found
"students often had difficulty using APA style" (p.
199); what implications does this have for
teachers? If the author is not named in a signal
phrase, place the author's last name, the year of
publication, and the page number in parentheses
after the quotation. She stated, "Students often
had difficulty using APA style," (Jones, 1998, p.
199), but she did not offer an explanation as to
why.
Long Quotations
Place direct quotations longer than 40 words in a
free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit
quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line,
indented five spaces from the left margin. Type the
entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the
first line of any subsequent paragraph within the
quotation five spaces from the new margin.
Maintain double-spacing throughout. The
parenthetical citation should come after the closing
punctuation mark.
Jones's (1998) study found the following: Students
often had difficulty using APA style, especially
when it was their first time citing sources. This
difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many
students failed to purchase a style manual or to
ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)
Summary or Paraphrase
If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work,
you only have to make reference to the author and
year of publication in your in-text reference, but
APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the
page number (although it is not required.)
According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult
citation format for first-time learners. APA style is a
difficult citation format for first-time learners
(Jones, 1998, p. 199).
In-Text Citations: Author/Authors
APA style has a series of important rules on using
author names as part of the author-date system.
There are additional rules for citing indirect
sources, electronic sources, and sources without
page numbers.
Citing an Author or Authors
A Work by Two Authors: Name both authors in the
signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you
cite the work. Use the word "and" between the
authors' names within the text and use the
ampersand in the parentheses. Research by
Wegener and Petty (1994) supports... (Wegener &
Petty, 1994)
A Work by Three to Five Authors: List all the
authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses the
first time you cite the source. (Kernis, Cornell, Sun,
Berry, & Harlow, 1993)
In subsequent citations, only use the first author's
last name followed by "et al." in the signal phrase
or in parentheses. (Kernis et al., 1993) In et al., et
should not be followed by a period.
Six or More Authors: Use the first author's name
followed by et al. in the signal phrase or in
parentheses. Harris et al. (2001) argued... (Harris
et al., 2001)
Unknown Author: If the work does not have an
author, cite the source by its title in the signal
phrase or use the first word or two in the
parentheses. Titles of books and reports are
italicized or underlined; titles of articles and
chapters are in quotation marks.
A similar study was done of students learning to
format research papers ("Using APA," 2001).
Note: In the rare case the "Anonymous" is used for
the author, treat it as the author's name
(Anonymous, 2001). In the reference list, use the
name Anonymous as the author.
Organization as an Author: If the author is an
organization or a government agency, mention the
organization in the signal phrase or in the
parenthetical citation the first time you cite the
source.
According to the American Psychological
Association (2000),...
If the organization has a well-known abbreviation,
include the abbreviation in brackets the first time
the source is cited and then use only the
abbreviation in later citations.
First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving
[MADD], 2000) Second citation: (MADD, 2000)
Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses:
When your parenthetical citation includes two or
more works, order them the same way they
appear in the reference list, separated by a
semi-colon. (Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983)
Authors With the Same Last Name: To prevent
confusion, use first initials with the last names. (E.
Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998)
Two or More Works by the Same Author in the
Same Year: If you have two sources by the same
author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a,
b, c) with the year to order the entries in the
reference list. Use the lower-case letters with the
year in the in-text citation.
Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that…
Introductions, Prefaces, Forewords, and
Afterwards: When citing an Introduction, Preface,
Foreword, or Afterward in-text, cite the appropriate
author and year as usual. (Funk & Kolln, 1992)
Personal Communication: For interviews, letters,
e-mails, and other person-to-person
communication, cite the communicators name, the
fact that it was personal communication, and the
date of the communication. Do not include
personal communication in the reference list.
(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4,
2001). A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her
students had difficulties with APA style (personal
communication, November 3, 2002).
Citing Indirect Sources
If you use a source that was cited in another
source, name the original source in your signal
phrase. List the secondary source in your
reference list and include the secondary source in
the parentheses. Johnson argued that...(as cited in
Smith, 2003, p. 102).
Note:When citing material in parentheses, set off
the citation with a comma, as above.
Electronic Sources
If possible, cite an electronic document the same
as any other document by using the author-date
style. Kenneth (2000) explained…
Unknown Author and Unknown Date: If no author
or date is given, use the title in your signal phrase
or the first word or two of the title in the
parentheses and use the abbreviation "n.d." (for
"no date").
Another study of students and research decisions
discovered that students succeeded with tutoring
("Tutoring and APA," n.d.).
Sources Without Page Numbers
When an electronic source lacks page numbers,
you should try to include information that will help
readers find the passage being cited. When an
electronic document has numbered paragraphs,
use the ¶ symbol, or the abbreviation "para."
followed by the paragraph number (Hall, 2001, ¶
5) or (Hall, 2001, para. 5). If the paragraphs are
not numbered and the document includes
headings, provide the appropriate heading and
specify the paragraph under that heading. Note
that in some electronic sources, like Web pages,
people can use the Find function in their browser
to locate any passages you cite.
According to Smith (1997), ... (Mind over Matter
section, para. 6).
Note: Never use the page numbers of Web pages
you print out; different computers print Web pages
with different pagination.
Footnotes and Endnotes
APA does not recommend the use of footnotes
and endnotes because they are often expensive
for publishers to reproduce. However, if
explanatory notes still prove necessary to your
document, APA details the use of two types of
footnotes: content and copyright.
When using either type of footnote, insert a
number formatted in superscript following almost
any punctuation mark. Footnote numbers should
not follow dashes ( — ), and if they appear in a
sentence in parentheses, the footnote number
should be inserted within the parentheses.
Scientists examined—over several years1—the
fossilized remains of the wooly-wooly yak.2 (These
have now been transferred to the Chauan
Museum.3 )
All footnotes should appear on the final page of
your document (usually this is after the References
page). Center the word “Footnotes” at the top of
the page. Indent five spaces on the first line of
each footnote. Then, follow normal paragraph
spacing rules. Double-space throughout.
1 While the method of examination for the
wooly-wooly yak provides important insights to this
research, this document does not focus on this
particular species.
Content Notes provide supplemental information to
your readers. When providing Content Notes, be
brief and focus on only one subject. Try to limit
your comments to one small paragraph. Content
Notes can also point readers to information that is
available in more detail elsewhere.
1 See Blackmur (1995), especially chapters three
and four, for an insightful analysis of this
extraordinary animal.
Copyright Permission Notes
If you quote more than 500 words of published
material or think you may be in violation of “Fair
Use” copyright laws, you must get the formal
permission of the author(s). All other sources
simply appear in the reference list. Follow the
same formatting rules as with Content Notes for
noting copyright permissions. Then attach a copy
of the permission letter to the document. If you are
reproducing a graphic, chart, or table, from some
other source, you must provide a special note at
the bottom of the item that includes copyright
information. You should also submit written
permission along with your work. Begin the citation
with “Note.”
Note. From “Title of the article,” by W. Jones and
R. Smith, 2007, Journal Title, 21, p. 122. Copyright
2007 by Copyright Holder. Reprinted with
permission.
Quantitative research design & methods
1.Exploratory -- It is a good starting point to get
familiarized with some insights and ideas (e.g.
identify the dependent and independent variables)
2.Descriptive – “The mapping out of a
circumstance, situation, or set of events”
(McNabb)
3.Causal—experimenting (statistically speaking) to
assess cause and effect. For example, whether or
not a P.A. the program is achieving its objectives.
Experiments in the social science take place
“naturally” (e.g. The effectiveness of Homeland
Security to respond to natural or anthropogenic
hazards).
Measurement Fundamentals
A key difference is that normal science deals with
concepts that are well defined and to great extent
standardized measures (e.g. speed, distance,
volume, weight, size, etc.)
On the contrary the social science often uses
concepts that are ill defined and therefore the
standardization in terms of how it is measured
varies or there is little agreement (e.g. social
class, development, poverty, etc.)
Statistics cannot be used until we understand the
“the fundamental nature” of measurement
(McNabb)
Thus, our goal is that our measurements of the
different concepts are valid or match as much as
possible the “real” world
What is a concept?
“A mental construct that represents phenomena in
the real world”. (Pollock 2005:7)
The challenge is to transform concepts into
concrete terms (preferable that can be measured).
Pollock’s Model
Concept – conceptual definition – operational
definition – variable (a state that takes different
attributes or values)
Unit of analysis
Individuals, people, places, groups, institutions,
nations, programs
The case of development
According to Michael Todaro (1994:18)
development is both a physical reality and a state
of mind in which society has, through some
combination of social, economic, and institutional
processes, secured the means for obtaining a
better life, development in all societies must have
a least the following three objectives:
1.To increase the availability and widen the
distribution of basic life sustaining goods
2.To raise levels of living
3.To expand the range of economic and social
choices
Measurement
If our studies do not allow us to measure variation
in the dependent variable (Y) as related to
variation in our X variables, then we cannot do any
scientific testing.
1.We measure whether certain variables are
meaningful – individually significant
2.We measure the variation in our variables.
3.We also measure the significance and
explanatory power of our models and the
relationships between variables.
4.If it can be quantified, then you should do so.
Qualities of variables
Exhaustive -- Should include all possible
answerable responses. (Schooling: No Schooling,
Elementary, Middle, HS, College)
Mutually exclusive -- No respondent should be
able to have two attributes simultaneously (e.g.
Female Male ).
Level of measurements
The relationship of the values that are assigned to
the attributes for a variable
• Nominal - The values “name” the attribute
uniquely (classification). The value does not imply
any ordering of the cases, for example, jersey
numbers in football and dates in a calendar.
These variables consist of categories that are
non-ordered. For example, race or ethnicity is one
variable used to classify people. A simple
categorical variable is binary or dichotomous (1/0
or yes/no). For example, did councilwomen vote
for the ordinance change or not? When used as an
independent variable, it is often referred to as a
“dummy” variable. When used as a dependent
variable, the outcome of some phenomenon is
either present or not. Groups and labels data only;
reports frequencies or percentages. Considered
the simplest form of measurement. Researchers
assign numbers to different categories. An
example would be to assign a “1” to men, a “2” to
women. The advantage to assigning numbers to
the categories is to facilitate computer analysis.
Involves groups and labels data only.
• Ordinal - These variables are also categorical,
but we can say that some categories are higher
than others. For example, income tax brackets,
social class, levels of education etc. However, we
cannot measure the distance between categories,
only which is higher or lower. Hence, we cannot
say that someone is twice as educated as
someone else. Can also be used as a dependent
variable. Ranks data; uses numbers only to
indicate ranking.
When attributes can be rank-ordered…
Distances between attributes do not have any
meaning, for example, code Educational
Attainment as
0=less than H.S.
1=some H.S.
2=H.S. degree
3=some college
4=college degree
5=post college
Is the distance from 0 to 1 the same as 3 to 4?
Involves the use of numbers to rank /order scores.
An example would be the ranking of high to low
scores on an examination. Differences in rankings
would not necessarily be the same with certain
scores. Ordinal scales indicate relative standing
among individuals.
• Interval - Variables of this type are called scalar
or index variables in the sense they provide a
scale or index that allows us to measure between
levels. We can not only measure which is higher
or lower, but how much so. Distance is measured
between points on a scale with even units.
Assumes that equal differences between
scores really mean equal differences in the
variable used. Good example is temperature
based on Fahrenheit or Celsius. When distance
between attributes has meaning, for example,
temperature (in Fahrenheit) -- distance from 30-40
is same as distance from 70-80
Note that ratios don’t make any sense -- 80
degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees
(although the attribute values are).
Involves the use of numbers to represent equal
intervals in different segments on a continuum.
Very similar to an ordinal scale with the exception
of the equal intervals of points. Assumes that
equal differences between scores really mean
equal differences in the variable measured.
• Ratio - Similar to interval level variables in that it
can measure the distance between two points, but
can do so in absolute terms. Ratio measures have
a true zero, unlike interval measures. For example,
one can say that someone is twice as rich as
someone else based on the value of their assets
since to have no money is based on a starting
point of zero. Has an absolute zero that is
meaningful. Can construct a meaningful ratio
(fraction), for example, number of clients in past
six months. It is meaningful to say that “...we had
twice as many clients in this period as we did in
the previous six months. All of the above, plus true
zero point. A ratio scale involves the use of
numbers to represent equal distances from a
known “zero point”. A scale designed to measure
height would be a ratio scale since the zero point
represents the absence of height. Ratio scales are
almost never encountered in Educational
Research.
Measurement hierarchy
Strongest - weakest = ratio - interval - ordinal -
nominal
Research validity
• Construct validity is the match between the land
of theory and the land of observation. How
effectively do the variable(s) we use represent the
mental image of the concept and its manifestation
in the real world? This is the fundamental question
of construct validity!
How do we construct variables?
In order to “Operationalize” our variables we must
first define them and then select a means to
construct them. We do this by connecting
concepts to observations. This requires choosing a
level of measurement.
• Internal validity Are there other causes for what I
am observing? If so, a study will lack internal
validity if it cannot rule out plausible alternative
explanations. Can the outcome (diminished
corruption) be fully attributed to the program in
place (tougher sanctions)?

• External validity How well does my study or
sample relate to the general population? In other
words, am I able to generalize to other population,
places, across time? refers to the extent that the
results of a study can be generalized from a
sample to a population.
Model misspecification & spuriousness
Antecedent variable: A variable that indirectly
affects the relationship between two other
variables. For example, College education
increases income. (X Y) However, parents
wealth and education (Z) plays a key role. Thus,
income of college graduates may not be random.
Z–X–Y
Intervening Variable: These may be spuriously
related to another relationship. Drinking coffee
causes cancer. Drinking coffee may not be the
cause of cancer, but rather the fact that smokers
are also coffee drinkers.
X–Z–Y
Alternative Variables: We also want to control for
variables that would bias our results if omitted.
In this case, the X variables in a model would
produce biased estimates, undermining their
validity and producing errors that lead to
inaccurate inferences. To forecast correctly the
number of medals we need to know something
about institutions and sports culture of a country.
X – Y, Z – Y
• Statistical validity The level of measurement
used to some extent determines the type of
statistical test used (Chi squared is more
appropriate to test association between nominal
variables). We use statistics to test the likelihood
or probability of being wrong in our conclusions.
The selection of an adequate statistical test is
important to quantitative research. How do we
know if the relationship that we found is due to
chance?
Introduction to quantitative research
Quantity is the unit of analysis
Amounts
Frequencies
Degrees
Values
Intensity
Uses statistics for greater precision and objectivity
Based on the deductive model
Model for conceptualizing quantitative
research
Overall purpose or objective
Research literature
Research questions and hypotheses
Selecting appropriate methods
Validity and reliability of the data
Creating the foundation for quantitative
research
Concept - Abstract thinking to distinguish it from
other elements
Construct - Theoretical definition of a concept;
must be observable or measurable; linked to other
concepts
Variable - Presented in research questions and
hypotheses
Operationalization - Specifically how the variable is
observed or measured
Research hypotheses for quantitative research
Educated guess or presumption based on
literature
States the nature of the relationship between two
or more variables
Predicts the research outcome
Research study designed to test the relationship
described in the hypothesis
Quantitative research hypotheses
Directional hypothesis - Precise statement
indicating the nature and direction of the
relationship/difference between variables
Nondirectional hypothesis - States only that
relationship/difference will occur
Assessing hypothesis
Simply stated?
Single sentence?
At least two variables?
Variables clearly stated?
Is the relationship/difference precisely stated?
Testable?
Null hypotheses
Implicit complementary statement to the research
hypothesis
States no relationship/difference exists between
variables
Statistical test performed on the null
Assumed to be true until support for the research
hypothesis is demonstrated
Research traditions in the use of hypotheses
Hypotheses are always tentative
Research hypothesis, not the null hypothesis, is
the focus of the research and presented in the
research report
Research questions in quantitative research
Preferred when little is known about a
communication phenomenon
Used when previous studies report conflicting
results
Used to describe communication phenomena
Variables
Element that is identified in the hypothesis or
research question
Property or characteristic of people or things that
varies in quality or magnitude
Must have two or more levels
Must be identified as independent or dependent
Independent variable - Manipulation or variation of
this variable is the cause of change in other
variables. Technically, independent variable is the
term reserved for experimental studies. Also called
antecedent variable, experimental variable,
treatment variable, causal variable, predictor
variable.
Dependent variable - The variable of primary
interest. Research question/hypothesis describes,
explains, or predicts changes in it. The variable
that is influenced or changed by the independent
variable. In non-experimental research, also called
criterion variable, outcome variable.
Relationship between independent and
dependent variables
Cannot specify independent variables without
specifying dependent variables
Number of independent and dependent variables
depends on the nature and complexity of the study
The number and type of variables dictates which
statistical test will be used
Intervening variable - Explains or provides a link
between IV and DV. Relationship between the IV
and DV can only be explained when the
intervening variable is present.
Confounding variables - Confuses or obscures the
effect of independent on dependent. Makes it
difficult to isolate the effects of the independent
variable.
Operationalizing variables
All variables need an operationalization. Multiple
operationalizations exist for most variables.
Specifies the way in which a variable is observed
or measured.
Practical and useful?
Justified argument?
Coincides with the conceptual definition?
Making the case for quantitative research
Advantages - Tradition and history implies rigor.
Numbers and statistics allow precise and exact
comparisons. Generalization of findings
Limitations - Cannot capture complexity of
communication over time. Difficult to apply outside
of controlled environments.
Issues of reliability and validity
Reliability - consistency in procedures and in
reactions of participants
Validity - truth - Does it measure what it intended
to measure?
When reliability and validity are achieved, data are
free from systematic errors
Threats to reliability and validity
If the measuring device cannot make fine
distinctions. If measuring devices cannot capture
people/things that differ. When attempting to
measure something irrelevant or unknown to the
respondent. Can measuring devices really capture
the phenomenon?
Other sources of variation
Variation must represent true differences.
Other sources of variation:
Factors not measured
Personal factors
Differences in situational factors
Differences in research administration
Number of items measured
Unclear measuring device
Mechanical or procedural issues
Statistical processing of data
Variables and hypothesis
A Characteristic or Attribute that can be measured
(can be assessed on an instrument and recorded
on instrument) and varies (different values or
scores for different people)
Examples of variables and non-variables
Variables Leadership style; Organizational control;
Autism
Difficult but possibly measurable variables
Socialization; Imagination; Intuition; Discrimination
Almost impossible to measure variables
Subconscious thoughts; World poverty;
Stereotypes
Categorical measures of variables - is a value of
a variable assigned by the researcher into a small
number of categories. (e.g. Gender). (These
variables do not vary in degree, amount or
quantity).
Continuous measures of variables - is the value
of a variable assigned by the researcher to a point
along a continuum of scores, from low to high.
(e.g. Age). (These variables vary in degree,
amount or quantity).
A Variable is an attribute or characteristic stated in
a specific or applied way
A Construct is an attribute or characteristic
expressed in an abstract, general way.
A good research question is
Stated clearly and concisely; Expresses the
relationship between independent and dependent
variables; Defines the variables in measurable
terms. A good research question must be SMART
Specific,
Measurable,
Achievable,
Realistic,
Time bound
For example: Do participants (P) who receive
treatment (X) do better on measurable variable (Y)
than those participants who do not get the
treatment X ( or get some other treatment
(specify)).?
The Family of Variables in Quantitative Studies
Families of variables
Dependent variable - An attribute or characteristic
influenced by the independent variable.
Dependent variables are sometimes called:
Outcome Variables
Independent variable - An attribute or
characteristic that influences or affects an outcome
or dependent variable. Independent variables are
sometimes called: Treatment Variable; Measured
Variable; Control Variable; Moderating Variable;
Experimental Variable; Manipulated Variable;
Extraneous Variables
Intervening variables (mediating variables) - An
attribute or characteristic that “stands between” the
dependent and independent variables.
Confounding variables (spurious variables) -
Attributes or characteristics that the researcher
cannot directly measure because their effects
cannot be easily separated from the other
variables, even though they may influence the
relationship between the independent and the
dependent variable.
Hypotheses are a prediction regarding the
possible outcome of a study.
Advantages of stating hypotheses include: Forces
us to think more deeply and specifically about the
possible outcomes of the study; Enables us to
make specific predictions based on prior evidence
or theoretical argument; Helps to clarify if we are
investigating a relationship.
Disadvantages of stating hypotheses include: May
lead to a bias on the Chapter of the researcher; In
some studies, it would be presumptuous to predict
what findings would be; Focusing on the
hypothesis could prevent the researcher from
seeing other phenomena that might be important
to the study.
Research hypotheses
Null hypothesis - specifies that there is no
relationship in the population
Directional alternative hypothesis - indicates the
specific direction that a researcher expects to
emerge in a relationship; is one in which the
researcher indicates the specific direction that he
or she expects will emerge in a relationship in the
study. The direction is based on what the
researcher has found from:
Literature
Personal experiences
Experience from others
Non-directional alternative hypothesis - there is no
specific prediction about what direction the
outcome of a study will take. When there is no
specific prediction about what direction the
outcome of a study will take. Sometimes it is
difficult to make specific predictions upon a study.
A study may state that it would point to
non-specific directions vs. distinct possibilities.
Sampling
Unit of analysis is the level (e.g. individual, family,
school, school district) at which the data will be
gathered.
There may be different units of analysis
One for the dependent variable
One for the independent variable
Sample is a subgroup of the target population that
the researcher plans to study for the purpose of
making generalizations about the target
population. Samples are only estimates. The
difference between the sample estimate and the
true population is the “sampling error.” is any
group on which information is obtained.
Sample size The question remains as to what
constitutes an adequate sample size. Samples
should be as large as a researcher can obtain with
a reasonable expenditure of time, money and
energy. The recommended minimum number of
subjects are as follows for the following types of
studies:
100 for a Descriptive Study
50 for a Correlational Study
30 in each group for Experimental and
Causal-Comparative Study
Sampling is the process of selecting a number of
individuals from a population, preferably in a way
that the individuals are representative of the larger
group from which they were selected. Sampling
may be either random or non-random.
Random sampling is a method of selecting
subjects from a population by chance, so that
biases do not alter the sample.
The 4 most common ways of obtaining this type of
sample are:
Simple Random Sampling - is a sample
selected from a population in such a manner that
all members have an equal chance of being
selected. If the sample is large, it is the best
method to obtain a sample representative of the
population from which it has been selected. The
larger the sample, the more likely to be
representative. Any differences that occur are the
result of chance rather than bias on the part of the
researcher. Disadvantages of this method are: 1)
the difficulty of performing the sampling and, 2)
this method does not ensure that subgroups are
present in the sampling in the same proportion as
they are in a population.
Stratified Random Sampling - is a sample
selected so that certain characteristics are
represented in the sample in the same proportion
as they occur in the population. The term strata
refers to sub-groups. The advantage of stratified
random sampling is that it increases the likelihood
of representation, especially if the sample size is
small. It virtually ensures that any key
characteristics of individuals in the population are
included in the same proportions in the sample
size. The disadvantage is that it requires still more
effort on the part of the researcher.
Cluster Sampling - is a sample obtained by
using groups as the sampling unit (cluster), rather
than individuals. There are instances where it is
not possible to select a sample of individuals from
a population. This is considered more effective
with large numbers of clusters. Advantages
include more efficient and easier to implement in
schools. Its disadvantage is that there is a great
chance of selecting a sample that is not
representative of the population
Two-Stage Random Sampling - This
method selects groups randomly and then
chooses individuals randomly from these groups.
This becomes a combination of a cluster random
sampling with individual random sampling.
Considered less time consuming but allows for a
good representation of the groups at random.
Nonrandom sampling methods
Systematic Sample is a sample obtained
by selecting every nth name in a population
Convenience Sample is any group of
individuals that is conveniently available to be
studied. Are not considered representative of the
population and should be avoided, if possible
Purposive Sample is a sample selected
because the individuals have special qualifications
of some sort, or because of prior evidence of
representation. Personal judgment is used for
selection purposes. A major disadvantage is that
the researcher’s judgment could be in error.
Population is a group of individuals that comprise
the same characteristics. Refers to all the
members of a particular group. The first task in
selecting a sample is to define the population of
interest. In Educational Research, the population
of interest is a group of persons who possess
certain characteristics.
A target population is the actual population that
the researcher would like to generalize.
Considered rarely available.
The accessible population would be the group
that is available (realistic choice)
Types of quantitative sampling
Probability sampling (or Random Sampling) is the
selection of individuals from the population so that
each individual will have an equal chance of being
selected. (Normally will result in a representative
sample of the population). each element of the
population has a known and nonzero chance of
being selected.
 Simple Random: selecting a sample from
the population so all in the population have an
equal and independent chance of being selected.
samples are drawn from a population using a
method such as the lottery method or using
computer or calculator to generate random
numbers. Also called lottery or fishbowl sampling.
Cluster Random Sampling: the selection of
groups or clusters of subjects, rather than
individuals. The selection process is similar to
simple random, except groups rather than
individuals are selected. divide the population area
into sections (or clusters), randomly select a few of
those sections, and then choose all the members
from the selected sections.
Multi-Stage Cluster Sampling: a sample
chosen in one or two stages because the
population is not easily identified or is large
Stratified sampling: stratifying the
population on a characteristic (e.g. gender) then
sampling from each stratum, in the same
proportion as they exist in the population.
subdivide the population into at least two
different subpopulations (or strata) that share the
same characteristics (such as gender), and then
draw a sample from each stratum.
Non-probability (or non- Random) sampling is the
selection of participants because they are
available, convenient, or represent some
characteristic the investigator wants to study.
Convenience Sampling (haphazard,
accidental): participants are selected because they
are willing and available to be studied. members
of the population are chosen based on their
relative ease of access. To sample friends,
co-workers, or shoppers at a single mall, are all
examples of convenience sampling. Such samples
are biased because researchers may
unconsciously approach some kinds of
respondents and avoid others and respondents
who volunteer for a study may differ in unknown
but important ways from others.
Snowball Sampling: the researcher asks
participants to identify other participants to
become members of the sample. The first
respondent refers an acquaintance. The friend
also refers a friend, and so on. Such samples are
biased because they give people with more social
connections an unknown but higher chance of
selection but lead to higher response rates.
Systematic: choosing every “nth” individual
or site in the population until the desired sample
size is achieved. choose some starting point and
then select every kth element in the population.
Judgemental / purposive: The researcher
chooses the sample based on who they think
would be appropriate for the study. This is used
primarily when there is a limited number of
people that have expertise in the area being
researched, or when the interest of the research is
on a specific field or a small group.
Population generalizability - is the degree to
which a sample represents the population of
interest. Obtaining a representative sample
becomes very important
Ecological generalizability - refers to the extent
to which the results of a study can be generalized
to conditions or settings other than those that
prevailed in the study.
Data refers to the information researchers obtain
on the subjects of their research. Demographic
information or scores from a test are examples of
data collected. The researcher has to determine
what kind of data they need to collect. The device
the researcher uses to collect data is called an
instrument.
The instruments and procedures used in collecting
data are called instrumentation. Questions arise
regarding the procedures and conditions under
which the instruments will be administered:
Where will the data be collected?
When will the data be collected?
How often are the data to be collected?
Who is to collect the data?
The most highly regarded types of instruments can
provide useless data if administered incorrectly,for
example: if the instrument is administered by
someone disliked by respondents, under noisy,
inhospitable conditions, or when subjects are
exhausted.
How to design good instruments
The focus is on the researcher to ensure that the
research questions are very precise and clear.
The researcher must also ensure that the
questions on the instrument are:
- in simple language
- clear
- test or field test (give instrument(s) to resource
persons or a group of people who has similar
characteristics to those of intended target
population, then compare answers/feedbacks to
your original intention, and make amendment to
the instrument accordingly).
Validity is an important consideration in the choice
of an instrument to be used in a research
investigation. It should measure what it is
supposed to measure. Researchers want
instruments that will allow them to make warranted
conclusions about the characteristics of the
subjects they study.
Reliability is another important consideration,
since researchers want consistent results from
instrumentation. Consistency gives researchers
confidence that the results actually represent the
achievement of the individuals involved.
Objectivity refers to the absence of subjective
judgments. This should be eliminated with regards
to achievement of the subjects, even if its difficult
to do so
Usability An important consideration for any
researcher in choosing or designing an instrument
is how easy the instrument will actually be to use.
Some of the questions asked which assess
usability are:
How long will it take to administer?
Are the directions clear?
How easy is it to score?
Do equivalent forms exist?
Have any problems been reported by others who
used it?
Getting satisfactory answers can save a
researcher a lot of time and energy.
Types of Researcher-completed Instruments
Rating scales; Interview schedules; Tally sheets;
Flowcharts; Likert Scale; Performance checklists;
Anecdotal records; Time-and-motion logs;
Observation forms
Types of Subject-completed Instruments
Questionnaires; Self-checklists; Attitude scales;
Personality inventories; Achievement tests;
Performance tests; Projective devices;
Psychometric devices
Item formats
Questions used in a subject-completed instrument
can take many forms but are classified as either
selection or supply items.
Examples of selection items are:
True-false items
Matching items
Multiple choice items
Interpretive exercises
Examples of supply items are:
Short answer items
Essay questions
Unobtrusive Measures
Many instruments require the cooperation of the
respondent in one way or another. An intrusion
into an ongoing activity could be involved which
causes a form of negativity within the respondent.
To eliminate this, researchers use unobtrusive
measures, data collection procedure that involve
no intrusion into the naturally occurring course of
events. In most cases, no instrument is used,
however, good record keeping is necessary. They
are valuable as supplements to the use of
interviews and questionnaires, often providing a
useful way to corroborate what more traditional
data sources reveal.
Types of Scores
Quantitative data is reported in the form of scores.
Scores are reported as either raw or derived
scores. Raw score is the initial score obtained
Taken by itself, a raw score is difficult to interpret,
since it has little meaning. Derived scores are
scores that have been taken from raw scores and
standardized. They enable researchers to say how
well the individual performed compared to others
taking the same test
Examples include:
Age and Grade-level Equivalents
Percentile Ranks (refers to the percentage of
individuals scoring at or below a given raw score)
Standard scores are mathematically derived
scores having comparable meaning on different
instruments
All derived scores give meaning to individual
scores by comparing them to the scores of a
group. The group used to determine derived
scores is called the norm group and the
instruments that provide such scores are referred
to as norm-referenced instruments.
An alternative to the use of achievement or
performance instruments is to use a
criterion-referenced test. This is based on a
specific goal or target (criterion) for each learner to
achieve. The difference between the two tests is
that the criterion referenced tests focus more
directly on instruction.
Descriptive Statistics
A parameter is a characteristic of a population. It
is a numerical or graphic way to summarize data
obtained from the population
A statistic is a characteristic of a sample. It is a
numerical or graphic way to summarize data
obtained from a sample
There are two fundamental types of numerical
data:
Categorical data: obtained by determining the
frequency of occurrences in each of several
categories
Quantitative data: obtained by determining
placement on a scale that indicates amount or
degree
Techniques for Summarizing Quantitative Data
Frequency Distributions - Places data in some sort
of order (ascending or desending). lists scores
from high to low (Table 10.1). This results in a
grouped frequency distribution (Table 10.2). Since
the information is not very visual, a graphical
display called a frequency polygon can help with
this (Figure 10.1). Frequency polygons can be
negatively or positively skewed (Figure 10.2). They
can be useful in comparing two or more groups
Histograms/Stem and Leaf Plots - A histogram is a
bar graph used to display quantitative data at the
interval or ratio level of measurement (Table 10.2).
A Stem-leaf Plot (stem plot) looks like a histogram,
except instead of bars, it shows values for each
category. They are helpful for comparing and
contrasting two distributions (Table 10.1).

Distribution curves - This distribution curve shows

a generalized distribution of scores vs. straight
lines (frequency polygon). Distribution of data
tends to follow a specific shape called a normal
distribution (see Figure 10.6). This distribution is
considered ‘bell shaped’ and allows the plotting of
the following averages:
Mean
Medium
Mode
*These measures of central tendencies enable
one to summarize the data in a frequency
distribution with a single number
Averages/Spread
Variability/Correlations - Refers to the extent to
which the scores on a quantitative variable in a
distribution are spread out. The range represents
the difference between the highest and lowest
scores in a distribution. A five number summary
reports the lowest, the first quartile, the median,
the third quartile, and highest score. Five number
summaries are often portrayed graphically by the
use of box plots.
Facts about the Normal Distribution
Standard scores
50% of all the observations fall on each side of the
Standard scores use a common scale to indicate
mean. (Figure 10.11). 68% of scores fall within 1
how an individual compares to other individuals in
SD of the mean in a normal distribution. 27% of
a group.The simplest form of a standard score is a
the observations fall between 1 and 2 SD from the
Z score.
mean. 99.7% of all scores fall within 3 SD of the
A Z score expresses how far a raw score is from
mean. (Figure 10.12). This is often referred to as
the mean in standard deviation units. Standard
the 68-95-99.7 rule.
scores provide a better basis for comparing
performance on different measures than do raw
scores.
A Probability is a percent stated in decimal form
and refers to the likelihood of an event occurring.
T scores are z scores expressed in a different form
(z score x 10 + 50).

Standard deviation - Considered the most useful

index of variability. It is a single number that
represents the spread of a distribution. See p. 348
to calculate the mean of the distribution. Table
10.5 will illustrate the calculation of the SD of a
distribution. If a distribution is normal, then the
mean plus or minus 3 SD will encompass about
99% of all scores in the distribution.
 populations is what Inferential Statistics are all
about.

Techniques for Summarizing Categorical Data Sampling error It is reasonable to assume that
The Frequency Table; Bar Graphs and Pie Charts; each sample will give you a fairly accurate picture
The Cross break Table of its population. However, samples are not likely
Correlation to be identical to their parent populations. This
Researchers seek to determine whether a difference between a sample and its population is
relationship exists between two or more known as Sampling Error. (see Figure 11.2)
quantitative variables. Furthermore, no two samples will be identical in all
A Scatterplot is a pictorial representation of the their characteristics.
relationship between two quantitative variables.
Outliers are scores that deviate or fall considerably
outside most of the other scores in a distribution or
pattern.
They indicate an unusual exception to a general
pattern (See Figure 10.16)
Correlation coefficients express the degree of
relationship between two sets of scores.
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient
Eta Distribution of sample means
There are times where large collections of random
samples do pattern themselves in ways that will
allow researchers to accurately predict some
characteristics of the population from which the
sample was taken. A sampling distribution of
Inferential statistics refer to certain procedures means is a frequency distribution resulting from
that allow researchers to make inferences about a plotting the means of a very large number of
population based on data obtained from a sample. samples from the same population.
Obtaining a random sample is desirable since it
ensures that this sample is representative of a
larger population. The better a sample represents
a population, the more researchers will be able to
make inferences. Making inferences about
 be used to determine boundaries or limits, within
which the population mean lies. If a confidence
interval is 95%, there would be a ‘probability’ that 5
out of 100 (population mean) would fall outside the
boundaries or limits.

Hypothesis testing is a way of determining the

probability that an obtained sample statistic will
Standard Error of the Mean occur, given a hypothetical population parameter.
The standard deviation of a sampling distribution The Research Hypothesis specifies the predicted
of means is called the Standard Error of the Mean outcome of a study.
(SEM). If you can accurately estimate the mean The Null Hypothesis typically specifies that there
and the standard deviation of the sampling is no relationship in the population.
distribution, you can determine whether it is likely
or not that a particular sample mean could be
obtained from the population. To estimate the
SEM, divide the SD of the sample by the square
root of the sample size minus one.

Confidence Intervals is a region extending both

above and below a sample statistic within which a
population parameter may be said to fall with a
specified probability of being wrong. SEM’s can Hypothesis Testing: A Review
State the research hypothesis A null hypothesis predicts no relationship.
State the null hypothesis A Type II error results when the researcher fails to
Determine the sample statistics pertinent to the reject the null hypothesis that is false.
hypothesis A Type I error results when the researcher rejects
Determine the probability of obtaining the sample the null when it is true. Figure 11.16 provides an
results example of Type 1 and Type II errors.
If the probability is small, reject the null hypothesis
and affirm the research hypothesis
If the probability is large, do not reject the null
hypothesis and do not affirm the research
hypothesis

The terms “significance level” or “level of

significance” refers to the probability of a sample
statistic occurring as a result of sampling error.
Significance levels most commonly used in
educational research are the .05 and .01 levels.
Statistical significance and practical significance
are not necessarily the same since a result of
statistical significance does not mean that it is
practically significant in an educational sense.

A one-tailed test is when the researcher obtains a

positive difference between the sample mean
which will support the hypothesis, when using only
the positive tail of the sampling distribution. (Figure
11.13)
A two-tailed test involves the use of probabilities
based on both sides of a sampling distribution
because the research hypothesis is a
non-directional hypothesis.
Inference techniques
Parametric: makes assumptions about the nature
of the population from which the samples involved
in the research study were taken
Non-parametric: makes few assumptions about
the nature of the population from which the
samples are taken
Parametric Techniques for Analyzing
Quantitative Data
The t-test is a parametric statistical test used to
see whether a difference between the means of
two samples is significant.
There are two forms of t-tests:
T-test for correlated means
T-test for independent means
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is used to
determine if significant differences exist between
two or more groups.
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) is a variation of
an ANOVA used when groups are given a pretest
related in some way to the dependent variable and
their mean scores on this pretest are found to
differ.
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)
incorporates two or more dependent variables in
the same analysis, thus permitting a more
powerful test of differences among means.
T-test for r is used to see whether a correlation
coefficient calculated on sample data is significant.
Non-Parametric Techniques for Analyzing
Quantitative Data
The Mann-Whitney U test is a nonparametric
alternative to the t test used when a researcher
wishes to analyze ranked data
The Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance is
used when you have two or more independent
variables to compare
The Sign test is used when you want to analyze
two related samples. Related samples are
connected in some way
The Friedman two-way analysis of variance is
used when two or more related groups are
involved
Techniques for Measuring Categorical Data
Parametric Technique
T-test for Proportions (finding differences in
proportions within categories)
Non-Parametric Technique
Chi-square test is used to analyze data that are
reported in categories
The Contingency Coefficient is a descriptive
statistic indicating the degree of relationship that
exists between two categorical variables
Power of a Statistical Test
Power is the probability that the test will correctly
lead to the conclusion that there is a difference
when, in fact, a difference exists.
Parametric tests are generally, but not always,
more powerful than nonparametric tests.
Internal validity is when observed differences on
the dependent variable are directly related to the
independent variable, and not due to some other
unintended variable. In other words, any
relationship observed between two or more
variables should be unambiguous as to what it
means rather than being due to “something else”.
The “something else” could be:
Age
Ability
Types of materials used
Threats to Internal Validity
Subject Characteristics - The selection of people
may result in differences, either between
individuals or groups, that are related to the
variables being studied. This refers to a ‘selection
bias’ or subject characteristics threat. If not
controlled, these variables may “explain away”
whatever differences are found in the study. There
are techniques used to either equalize the
differences or control these variables.
Mortality - It is common to lose subjects as a study
progresses. This is known as “mortality threat”.
Loss of subjects limits generalizability and can
introduce bias. Mortality is the most difficult threat
to control for internal validity. An attempt to
eliminate the problem would be to provide
evidence that the subjects lost were similar to
those who remained in the study.
Location - The particular locations where data is
collected may create different results or
explanations known as ‘location threat’. The best
way to control this is to keep the location
consistent for all subjects. If this is not possible,
the researcher should ensure that different
locations do not favor or jeopardize the
hypothesis.
Instrumentation - The way instruments are used
may constitute a threat to the internal validity of a
study.
Some examples are as follows:
Instrument decay
Data Collector Characteristics
Data Collector Bias
Testing - A “testing threat” is when efforts are
achieved by the subjects due to “practice” (i.e.,
pretest, post-test designed study)
An interaction also could cause this by taking the
test and being more aware of a possible
interaction, allowing the subjects to be more
responsive towards the treatment.
History - A history threat is when an unforeseen
event occurs during the course of the study.(for eg.
Hurricane KATRINA could have affected the
physical and psychological locations of persons
involved in a research in the USA in 2005).
Researchers need to be alert to any possibilities of
influences that may occur during the course of the
study.
Maturation - Change during an intervention may
be due to factors associated with the passing of
time rather than the intervention. Students could
change over the course of a study. This is known
as a Maturation Threat. Maturation is only a threat
in studies using pre/post data for the intervention
group or in studies that span a number of years.
The best way to control this is to include a
well-selected comparison group in the study.
Attitude of subjects - The way subjects view a
study and their participation can be considered a
threat to internal validity, a.k.a. the ‘Hawthorne
effect’. Subjects may perform better based upon a
feeling of receiving special attention. The opposite
may occur, with subjects receiving no treatment at
all, resulting in poor performances. A remedy to
this would be to provide both groups with
comparable treatments or to make the treatment a
regular Chapter of the study.
Regression - threat is possible when change is
studied in a group that has extreme low or high
performance in the pre-intervention stage. As with
the maturation threat, this can be controlled by the
use of an equivalent control or comparison group.
Implementation - The experimental group may be
treated in ways that are unintended, giving them
an advantage. This can occur in two ways:
When different individuals are assigned to
implement different methods, and these individuals
differ in ways related to the outcome
When some individuals have a personal bias in
favor of one method over the other
How to Minimize Threats to Internal Validity
Standardize the conditions under which the study
occurs
Obtain more information on the subjects of the
study
Obtain more information on the details of the study
Choose an appropriate design
Validity and reliability
Validity has been defined as referring to the
appropriateness, correctness, meaningfulness,
and usefulness of the specific inferences
researchers make based on the data they collect.
It is the most important idea to consider when
preparing or selecting an instrument.
Validation is the process of collecting and
analyzing evidence to support such inferences.
Evidence of validity
There are 3 types of evidence a researcher might
collect
Content-related evidence of validity - Content and
format of the instrument. A key element is the
adequacy of the sampling of the domain it is
supposed to represent. The other aspect of
content validation is the format of the instrument.
Attempts to obtain evidence that the items
measure what they are supposed to measure
typify the process of content-related evidence.
Criterion-related evidence of validity - Relationship
between scores obtained using the instrument and
scores obtained. A criterion is a second test
presumed to measure the same variable.
There are two forms of criterion-related validity:
Predictive validity: time interval elapses
between administering the instrument and
obtaining criterion scores
Concurrent validity: instrument data and
criterion data are gathered and compared at the
same time
A Correlation Coefficient (r) indicates the degree of
relationship that exists between the scores of
individuals obtained by two instruments.
Construct-related evidence of validity -
Psychological construct being measured by the
instrument. Considered the broadest of the three
categories. There is no single piece of evidence
that satisfies construct-related validity.
Researchers attempt to collect a variety of types of
evidence, including both content-related and
criterion-related evidence. The more evidence
researchers have from different sources, the more
confident they become about the interpretation of
the instrument.
Reliability Refers to the consistency of scores or
answers provided by an instrument. Scores
obtained can be considered reliable but not valid.
An instrument should be reliable and valid,
depending on the context in which an instrument is
used.
Errors of measurements
Because errors of measurement are always
present to some degree, variation in test scores
are common.
This is due to:
Differences in motivation
Energy
Anxiety
Different testing situation
Reliability coefficient
Expresses a relationship between scores of the
same instrument at two different times or parts of
the instrument.
The 3 best known methods are:
Test-retest - Involves administering the same test
twice to the same group after a certain time
interval has elapsed. A reliability coefficient is
calculated to indicate the relationship between the
two sets of scores. Reliability coefficients are
affected by the lapse of time between the
administrations of the test. An appropriate time
interval should be selected. In Educational
Research, scores collected over a two-month
period is considered sufficient evidence of
test-retest reliability.
Equivalent forms method - Two different but
equivalent (alternate or parallel) forms of an
instrument are administered to the same group
during the same time period. A reliability
coefficient is then calculated between the two sets
of scores. It is possible to combine the test-retest
and equivalent-forms methods by giving two
different forms of testing with a time interval
between the two administrations.
Internal consistency method - There are several
internal-consistency methods that require only one
administration of an instrument.
Split-half Procedure: involves scoring two Variables whose values are determined by chance
halves of a test separately for each subject and are called random variables.
calculating the correlation coefficient between the A collection of data values forms a data set. Each
two scores. value in the data set is called a data value or a
Kuder-Richardson Approaches: (KR20 and datum.
KR21) requires 3 pieces of information: The data values are the soul of quantitative
Number of items on the test research.
The mean
The standard deviation Quantitative research is a formal, objective,
Considered the most frequent method for systematic process in which numerical data are
determining internal consistency used to obtain information about the world.
Alpha Coefficient: a general form of the This research method is used:
KR20 used to calculate the reliability of items that to describe variables;
are not scored right vs. wrong. to examine relationships among variables;
to determine cause-and-effect interactions
Standard error of measurement between variables.' (Burns & Grove 2005:23)
An index that shows the extent to which a
measurement would vary under changed
circumstances. There are many possible standard
errors for scores given. Also known as
measurement error, a range of scores that show
the amount of error which can be expected.
(Appendix D)
Scoring agreement requires a demonstration that
independent scorers can achieve satisfactory
agreement in their scoring. Instruments that use
direct observations are highly vulnerable to
observer differences. What is desired is a
correlation of at least .90 among scorers as an
acceptable level of agreement.
Research Designs
Research Design and Data Collection Pre-experimental Designs
Introduction to Quantitative Research One-shot Case Study (Treatment group only)
To gain knowledge about seemingly haphazard One Group Pretest to Posttest Design—measures
situations, statisticians collect information for of change
variables, which describe the situation. Intact Group Comparison at posttest
A variable is a characteristic or attribute that can
assume different values. Experimental Designs
Data are the values (measurements or Random assignment to “treatment” & control group
observations) that the variables can assume.
Posttest Only Control Group
Pretest-Posttest Control Group
Factorial
Quasi-experimental Designs
Non-random assignment to “treatment” & control
group observed
Nonequivalent-Control Group Design
Time-Series Design
Ex-Post Facto Designs
Statistical controls for comparing alternative
“treatments”
Correlational Design
Criterion-Group Design
In an experiment, data from an experimental group
is compared with data from a control group. These
two groups should be identical in every respect
except one: The difference between a control
group and an experimental group is that the
independent variable is changed for the
experimental group, but is held constant in the
control group.
An experimental group is the group that receives
an experimental procedure or a test sample. This
group is exposed to changes in the independent
variable being tested. The values of the
independent variable and the result on the
dependent variable are recorded. An experiment
may include multiple experimental groups at one
time.
A control group is a group separated from the
rest of the experiment such that the independent
variable being tested cannot influence the results.
This isolates the independent variable's effects on
the experiment and can help rule out alternate
explanations of the experimental results.
While all experiments have an experimental group,
not all experiments require a control group.
Controls are extremely useful where the
experimental conditions are complex and difficult
to isolate. Experiments that use control groups are
called controlled experiments. (Helmenstine, 2017)
Population and sample are two basic concepts of
statistics.
Population can be characterized as the set of
individual persons or objects in which an
investigator is primarily interested during his or her
research problem. Sometimes wanted
measurements for all individuals in the population
are obtained, but often only a set of individuals of
that population are observed; such a set of
individuals constitutes a sample. This gives us the
following definitions of population and sample.
Population is the complete collection of elements
(scores, people, measurements, and so on) to be
studied. The collection is complete in the sense
that it includes all subjects to be studied.
Sample is a sub-collection of elements drawn from
a population.
Field of statistics
Data can be used in different ways. The body of
knowledge called statistics is sometimes divided
into two main areas, depending on how data are
used. The two areas are Descriptive statistics and
Inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics is used to summarize or
describe the important characteristics of a known
set of population data.
Inferential statistics involves the use of sample
data to make inferences about a population. It
goes beyond mere description. This is the focus of
quantitative research.
Sampling is the basis for inferential statistics.
A sample is a segment of a population. It is,
therefore, expected to reflect the population. By
studying the characteristics of the sample one can
make inferences about the population. There are
several reasons why we take a part of the
population to study rather than taking a full census
of the population. These are:
Sampling takes less time.
Samples cost less. Different types of purposive sampling include:
Samples are more accurate. Sample observations Deviant case - The researcher obtains cases
are usually of higher quality because they are that substantially differ from the dominant
better screened for errors in measurement and for pattern (a special type of purposive sample). The
duplication and misclassifications; case is selected in order to obtain information on
Samples can be destroyed to gain information unusual cases that can be specially problematic or
about quality (destructive sampling). specially good.
A random sample is a sample obtained in such a Case study - The research is limited to one group,
way that each possible sample of fixed size n has often with a similar characteristic or of small size.
an equal probability of being selected. Quota Sampling - A quota is established (e.g. 65%
women) and researchers are free to choose any
respondent they wish as long as the quota is met.