CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

A traffic signal, street lamp or stop light is a signalling device positioned

at a road intersection, pedestrian crossing, or other location in order to
indicate when it is safe to drive, ride, or walk using a universal colour
code. The traffic lights for vehicles commonly have three main lights, a
red light that means stop, a green light that mean go and yellow that
means ready to stop. However for the pedestrians, there have only two
lights, a red light and a green light that mean go and stop respectively.
The traffic lights have given many benefits to all road users. Besides
reducing the number of accidents, it made the traffic flow smoothly and
possibly could save people time.

There has been steady increase in the number of accidents occurring on

our various roads particularly on the highways. This is a result of either of
the bad conditions of the road or careless driving of some drivers. These
has necessitated the need for finding a way of reducing death occurrence
of the accidents to the bearable minimum, so as to minimize the loss of
human lives and valuable due to these accident. In view of the above, the
design and the construction of a very sensitive device (signal lamp) that
will automatically emit brilliant tricolour light when a vehicle approaches
the rear side of the vehicle.

The device here will automatically trigger the light emitting diodes
(LEDs) of the signal lamp and emit bright light to alert the approaching

1
vehicle driver even during the day. Giving additional safety during the
night, or when you park on the side of the highway. This is achieved via
the action of light from the approaching vehicle head light (Rockwell and
Safford, 1969).

1.1 Background history

Automobile was in use, and traffic consisted only of the world’s first
traffic light before the pedestrians, buggies, and wagons, installed at an
intersection in London in 1868. It was a revolving lantern with red and
green signals. Red meant "stop" and green meant "caution." The lantern,
illuminated by gas, was turned by means of a lever at its base so that the
appropriate light faced traffic. On January 2, 1869, this crude traffic light
exploded, injuring the policeman who was operating it.

After the coming of automobiles, the situation got even worse. Police
Officer William L. Potts of Detroit, Michigan, decided to do something
about the problem. Since then the importance of signal lamp continued to
gain attention in controlling the traffic flow.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The current system of traffic light provides a fixed traffic control plan,
whose settings are based on prior traffic counts but may be manually
changed. It is the most common form of signal control for now a days and
result in inappropriate behaviour in traffic which differs from that which
the plan was based, such as the use of unnecessary phases when the
traffic is light.

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 1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this project is design and construction of signal lamp for safe
driving on the highway and the objectives include the design and
construction of photo sensor which can be triggered on.

The specific objectives are therefore;

 To study the ladder programme and their programme technique.

 To understand how to make the interfacing to the signal lamp.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Highway alert signal lamp is used in vehicle for safe highway driving.
The lamp automatically emits the brilliant tricolour light when a vehicle
approaches the rear side of the vehicle and alerts the driver by this
indication about the approaches of the vehicle from behind. 9V direct
current (DC) supply to the circuits can be provided by the car battery with
proper polarity.

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION

As earlier stated, this project aimed at solving the problem of frequent

occurrence of accidents on our highway, it entails a visible bright light
alerting from a LED arrangement. It entails automating switching of the
LED that emits light for 30 seconds that turns off when approaching
vehicle overtakes. Instant and easily accessible reset pin.

3
The point of limitation are as follows; light source must not be prevented
from reaching the sensor as the light intensity light from the approaching
vehicle headlight must be bright enough to activate phototransistor.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

A traffic light, traffic signal, or stop light is a signalling device

positioned at a road intersection, pedestrian crossing, or other location in
order to indicate when it is safe to drive, ride, or walk using a universal
colour code (Sessions Gordon, 1971). In Nigeria, the traffic lights for
vehicles commonly have three main lights, a red light that means stop, a
green light means go, yellow lights means ready to stop. However for the
pedestrians, there have only two lights, a red and a green that’s mean stop
and go respectively. The traffic lights have many benefits to all road
users. Besides reducing the number of accidents it made the traffic flow
smoothly and possibly could save people time (sessions Gordon).

2.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SIGNAL LAMP FOR

SAFE HIGHWAY DRIVING

The world’s first traffic light came into being before the automobile was
in use, and traffic consisted only of pedestrians, buggies, and wagons.
Installed at an intersection in London in 1868, it was a revolving lantern
with red and green signals (Barnet, 2008). Red meant “stop” and green
meant “caution” the lantern, illuminated by gas, was turned by means of a
leaver at its base so that the appropriate light faced traffic. On January 2,
1869.

5
Today I found out the origin of the green, yellow, and red colour scheme
for traffic lights, while some of the specifics have been lost to history, it
is known that this colour scheme derives from a system used by the
railroad industry since the 1830s. At this time, railroad companies
developed a lighted means to let train engineers know when to stop or go,
with different lighted colours representing different actions.  They chose
red as the colour for stop, it is thought, because red has for centuries been
used to indicate danger. For the other colours, they chose white as the
colour for go and green as the colour for caution.

The choice of a white light for go turned out to cause a lot of problems.
For instance, in an incident in 1914 a red lens fell out of its holder leaving
the white light behind it exposed. This ended with a train running a “stop”
signal and crashing into another train. Thus, the railroad decided to
change it so the green light meant go and a caution “yellow” was chosen,
primarily because the colour is so distinct from the other two colours used
(Barnet, 2008).

2.3 LAMP SIGNAL FOR SAFE HIGHWAY DRIVING

Traffic lights alternate the right of way according to the roads users by
displaying lights of a standard colour Red, Yellow, and green following a
universal colour code (Barnett, 2008).

The green light allows traffic to proceed in the direction denoted, if it is

safe to do so. The yellow light provides warning that the signal will be
changing from green to red. Action required by the drivers varies, with

6
some jurisdiction drivers to stop if it is safe to do so, and others allowing
drivers to go through the intersection if safe to do so.

A flashing yellow indication is a warning signal

The red signal prohibits any traffic proceeding

A flashing red indication is treated as a stop signal

Signal will go into a flashing mode if the controller detects a problem,

such as a program that tries to display green lights to conflicting traffic.

The signal may display flashing yellow to the main road and flashing red
to the side road, or flashing red in all direction. Flashing operator can also
be used during times of the day when traffic is light, such as late at night
(Barnett 2008).

2.3.1 SAFETY ACT FOR SAFE HIGHWAY DRIVING

Road traffic safety refers to the methods and measures used to prevent

road users from being killed or seriously injured. Typical road users
include pedestrians, cyclists, motorists, vehicle passengers, and
passengers of on-road public transport (mainly buses and trams).

Best-Practices in modern road safety strategy:

The basic strategy of a Safe System approach is to ensure that in the event
of a crash, the impact energies remain below the threshold likely to
produce either death or serious injury. This threshold will vary from crash

7
scenario to crash scenario, depending upon the level of protection offered
to the road users involved.

For example,

the chances of survival for an unprotected pedestrian hit by a vehicle

diminish rapidly at speeds greater than 30 km/h, whereas for a properly
restrained motor vehicle occupant the critical impact speed is 50 km/h
(for side impact crashes) and 70 km/h (for head-on crashes).

The National DEAL Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act was enacted in
the Nigeria in 1966 to empower the federal government to set and
administer new safety standards for motor vehicles and road traffic
safety. The Act created the National Highway Safety Bureau now
National Highway Safety Administration. The Act was one of a number
of initiatives by the government in response to increasing number of cars
and associated fatalities and injuries on the road following a period when
the number of vehicles was up 11-fold since 1925 (Bullough, 1999).

The reduction of the rate of death attributable to motor –vehicle crashes

in the Nigerian represents the successful public health response to a great
technologic advance of the 20th century motorization of America
(Bullough, 1999).

Systematic motor-vehicle safety efforts began during the 1960s. In 1960,

unintentional injuries caused 93,803 deaths 41% were associated with
motor-vehicle crashes. In 1966, after Congress and general public have
become thoroughly by five years skyrocketing motor-vehicle-related

8
fatality rates, Highway Safety Act created the National Highway Safety
Bureau (NHSB), which later become the National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration (NHTSA). The systematic approach to motor-
vehicle-related injury prevention began with NHSB’s first director,
William Haddon.

Haddon, a public health physician, recognized that standard Public health

methods and epidemiology could be applied to preventing motor-vehicle-
related and other injuries. He defined interactions between human, agent
motor vehicle, and environmental highway factors before, during, and
after crashes resulting in injuries. Problems identified with each factor
during each phase of the crash, NHSB initiated a campaign to prevent
motor-vehicle-related injuries (Bullough, 1999). In 1966, passage of the
Highway Safety Act and the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety
Act authorized the federal government to set and regulate standards for
motor vehicles and highways, a mechanism necessary for effective
prevention. The Highway Safety Act resulted in the national adoption of
the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, while the National
Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act led to the national adoption of the
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (Bullough, 1999).

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 2.4 PHYSICS RELATED THEORY

In this section the physics theory related to this work can be described as
Highway Engineering. This specialization utilizes this below listed
parameters to carry out their activities:

 Handle the planning, design, construction, and operation of highways,

roads, and other vehicular facilities as well as their related bicycle and
pedestrian realms.
 Estimate the transportation needs of the public and then secure the
funding for the project.
 Analyse locations of high traffic volumes and high collisions for safety
and capacity.
 Use civil engineering principles to improve the transportation system.
 Utilizes the three design controls which are the drivers, the vehicles, and
the roadways themselves.

2.4.1 PHOTOTRANSISTOR

These sensors use light sensitive elements to detect objects and are made
up of an emitter (light source) and a receiver. Four types of photoelectric
sensors are available. Direct reflection-emitter and receiver are housed
together and use the light reflected directly off the object for detection. In
the use of these photocells, it is important to bear in mind the colour and
the type of surface of the object. With opaque surfaces, the sensing
distance is affected by the colour of the object. Light colours correspond
to the maximum distance and vice versa. In the case of shiny object, the

10
effect of the surface is more important than the colour. The sensing
distance in the technical data is related to matte white paper (Bardsley,
2004).

Reflection with reflector- emitter and receiver are housed together and
requires a reflector. An object is reflected when it interrupts the light
beam between the sensor and the reflector. These photocells allow longer
sensing distances, as the rays emitted are almost totally reflected towards
the receiver (Narendran and GU, 2005).

Sensing Distance (Sn):- The space in which is possible to sense and

object in the case of direct reflection types, its maximum distance
between the photocell and the object. In the case of the reflector or barrier
types, it’s the distance between the unit and the reflector or between unit
power supplies:

The supply voltage range that sensor will operate on power on display:

This is the time lapse between the providing power and the operation of
the unit. This is to avoid unwanted switching when the unit is powered.

Power Drain: The amount of current required to operate a sensor.

Voltage Drop: The voltage drop across a sensor when driving the
maximum load.

Switching Current (max): The amount of continuous current allowed to

flow through the sensor without causing damage to the sensor. It is given
as a maximum value

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Short circuit protection: protection against damage to a sensor if the Load
becomes shorted.

Light immunity: the maximum limit of an incandescent light or sunlight.

Beyond this limit, the photocell may not work correctly due to
interference on the receiver for the direct reflection with reflector,
polarized reflection and thru emitter + receiver.

2.4.2 NE555 TIME IC ASTABLE AND MONOSTABLE

Internally the 555 timer consist of two capacitors, resistor, transistor and
a digital circuit called a flip-flop. Connecting the external resistors and
capacitor as shown in figure. 2.1 will result in the timer operating in the
following fashion. When an applied voltage at pin 6, the threshold
voltage is > 2/3 (Vcc), the output pin3, V3 is low that is pin 3 is at zero
volts. At the same time the internally connected switched transistor that is
connect between the discharge, pin7, and ground pin1 is turned on. With
the with the discharge transistor reducing the voltage at pin 6 towards
zero volts, the voltage at pin 2, the threshold voltage, is also being
reduced. When the voltage at the threshold, pin 2, 2/3 (V<cc) then the
output goes high V3 Vcc and the discharge transistor is turned off (ward,
2004).

2.4.3 ASTABLE MODE

The astable multivibrator generates a square wave, the period of which is

determined by the circuit external to IC555. The stable multi vibrator
does not require any external trigger to change the state of the output.

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Hence the name free running oscillator. The time during which the output
is either highest or lower is determined by the two resistors and capacitor
which are externally connected to the 555 timer. The figure 2.1 show 555
connected as an astable multivibrator. Initially when the output is high
capacitor charges toward Vcc through RA and RB (Jung and Walter,
1983).

The circuit diagram of 555 Timer in Astable mode shows in figure 2.1

DIAGRAM

Figure 2.1 Circuit Diagram of 555 Timer in Astable mode

2.4.4 MONOSTABLE MODE

Monostable multivibrators often called a one short multivibrator is a

pulse generating circuit in which the duration of this pulse is determined

13
by the RC network connected externally to the 555 timer (Jung and
Walter, 1983) . In astable or standby state. The output of the circuit is
approximately zero or a log-low level. When external trigger pulse is
applied output is forced to go highest (Vcc). The time for which the
output remains high is determined by the external RC network connected
to the timer. At the end of the timing interval, the output stays low until
trigger pulse is again applied, then the cycle repeats. The monstable
circuit has only one stable state output low (Jung and Walter, 1983).

Figure 2.2 in the circuit diagram is the typical diagram of monostable

Multivibrato, while the figure 2.3 circuit diagram of top view.

DIAGRAM

Figure 2.2 is typical monostable Multivibrator

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Figure 2.3 Circuit Diagram of Top View.

2.4.4.1 PEN DESCRIPTION

Pin 1 (Ground terminal): All the voltages are measured with respect to
this terminal.

Pin 2 (Trigger terminal): this pin is an inverting input to a comparator that

is responsible for transition of flip-flop from a set to reset.

Pin 3 (Output terminal): output of the timer is available at this pin.

Pin 4 (Reset terminal ): To disable or reset the timer a negative pulse is

applied to this pin due to which it is referred to reset terminal.

Pin 5 (Control voltage terminal): the function of this is to control the

threshold and trigger levels.

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Pin 6 (Threshold terminal): this is the non-inverting input terminal of
comparator 1, which compared the voltage applied to this terminal with a
reference voltage of +2/3 Vcc.

Pin 7 (Discharged terminal): this pin is connected between this terminal

and ground.

Pin 8 (Supply terminal): A supply voltage of 5+V to +18V is applied to

this terminal with respect to ground.

2.4.5 LED DISPLAY

A light emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LED are

used as an indicator lamps in many device and are increasingly used for
other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronics component in 1962,
early LEDS emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelength with very
high brightness (Narendran and Gu, 2005).

When a light-emitting diode is forward bias (switched on), electron are

able to recombine with hole within the device, are leasing energy in the
forms of photons (Narendran and GU, 2005). This effect is called
electroluminescence and the colour of the light (corresponds to the energy
of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor.
LED are often small in area (less than 1mm2), and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LED present
many advantages over incandescent light source including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller sized, ad

16
faster switching (Narendran and GU, 2005. LEDs) powerful enough for
room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current
and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp source of
comparable output (Narendran and GU, 2005).

Light emitting diodes are used in application as diverse as replacement

for aviation lighting, automotive lighting (Particularly break lamps, turns
signals and indicator) as well in traffic signals (Rockwell and Safford,
1969). LEDS have allowed new text, video displays, and sensor to be
developed, while their hog switching rates are also useful in advance
communication technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote
control units of many commercial products including television, DVD
players and other domestic appliances current bright green LEDs are
based on the wide semiconductor GaN (gallium nitride) and InGaN
(indium nitride). They can be added to existing red and green LEDS to
produce the impression of white light, though white LEDS today rarely
use this principle (Narendran and GU, 2005).

The first blue LED using gallium nitrides were made in 1971 by Jacques
Panvoke at RCA laboratories. These devices had too little light output to
be practical use and research into gallium nitride device slowed. In august
1989, Cree inch. Introduce the first commercially available green LEDs
based on the indirect semiconductor, silicon carbide siC LEDS had very
low efficiency, no More than 0.03%, but did emit in the green portion of
the visible light spectrum (Rockwell and Safford, 1969). In the late

17
1980s, key breakthrough in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping
ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronics’ devices.

Building upon this foundation, in 1993 high brightness green LEDs were
demonstrated. Efficiency ( high energy produced vs. electrical energy
used) reached 10% high brightness green LEDs invented by shuji
Nakamura of Nichia corporation using gallium revolutionized LED
lighting, making high-power light sources practical (Narendran and Gu,
2005). By the late 1990s, green LEDs had become widely available. They
have an active region consisting of one or more InGa quantum well
sandwiched between thicker layer of GaN, called cladding layers. By
varying the relative InN-GaN fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the
light emission can be varying AIN fraction violet to amber. AIGaN
aluminium gallium nitride of varying AIN fraction can be used
manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers for ultra-violet LEDs,
but this device hasn’t yet reached the level of efficiency and technology
maturity of the InGaN-GaN red/green devices. If the active quantum well
layers are GaN instead of alloyed InGaN, the device will emit near-
ultraviolet light with wavelengths around 350-370 nm. Green LEDs
manufactured from the InGaN-GaN systems are far more efficient and
brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems
(Rockwell and safford, 1969).

Tri chromatic red LEDs are in between, having both good luminous
efficacy (>70 1m/w) and fair colour rendering capability.

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Multi-colour LED offer not merely another means to form white light, but
a new mean to form high of different colours. Most perceivable colours
can be formed by. There are several types of multi-colour, these different
colours, includes colour stability, colour rendering capability and
luminous efficacy (Narendran and GU, 2005). Often higher efficiency
will mean lower colour rendering, presented a trade-off between the
luminous efficiency of colour rendering. For example, the chromatic
white LED has the best luminous efficacy (1201/w) but the lowest colour
rendering capacity. Conversely, although tetra chromatic white LEDs had
excellent colour rendering capacity, the red LEDs: di-tri and tetra
chromatic white LEDs. Several key factors that play among the often
mixing different amount of three primaries Colour. This allows precise
dynamic colour control. As more effort is devoted to investigate this
method, multi-colour LEDs should have profound influence on the
fundamental method which is used to produce and control high colour.
However, before these types of LEDs can play a role in the market,
several technical problems need solving. These include that, these types
of LEDs emission power decays exponentially with rising temperature,
resulting in a substantial change in colour stability (Narendran and GU,
2005). Such problems inhibit and may preclude industrial use. Thus,
many new package designs aimed at solving these Problems have been
proposed and their results are now being reproduced by researchers and
scientists. This method involves coating s LEDs of on colour (mostly
green LEDs made of GaN) with phosphor of different colour to form a
white light; the resultant LEDs are called phosphor based white LEDs. A

19
fraction of the blue light undergoes the stoke shift being transformed
from shorter wavelengths to longer depending on the colour of the
original LEDs.

2.5.5.1 Phosphor of different colour can be employed.

If several phosphors layers of distinct colours are applied. The emitted

spectrum is broadened, effectively raising the colour rendering index
(CRI) value of a given LED (mike, 2012).

Phosphors based LEDs have lower efficiency than normal LEDs due to
the heat loss from the stoke shift and also other phosphor-related
degradation issues. However the phosphor method is still the most
popular method of making high intensity green LEDs. The design and
producing of a light source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter
with phosphors conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex RGY
system, and the majority of high intensity green LEDs presently on the
market are manufactured using phosphor light conversion (Narendran and
GU, 2005).

The greatest barrier to high efficiency is the seemingly unavoidable

stokes energy loss. However, much effort is been spent on optimizing
these devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures.
For instance the efficiency can be rise by adapting better package design
or by using more suitable types of phosphor. Philips Lumileds patented
conformal coating process address the issue of varying phosphor
thickness, giving the white LEDs a more homogeneous white light

20
(Bullough, 1999). With development on going, the efficiency of
phosphors based LEDs generally rises with product announcement
(Bullough, 1999).

The phosphors based green LEDs encapsulated GaN green LEDs inside
phosphor coated epoxy. A common yellow phosphor material is cerium
doped yttrium garnet (Ce3+: YAG).

White LEDS can also be made by coating Near-ultraviolet (NUV)

emitting LEDs with a mixture of high efficiency europeium-based red
and green emitting phosphor plus green emitting copper and aluminium
doped zinc sulphide (ZnS: Cu, Al). This is a method analogues to the way
fluorescent lamp works. This method is less efficient than the blue LEDs
with YAG: Ce phosphors, as the stoke shift is larger, more energy is
converted to heat, due to high radioactive

Output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of blue ones, both methods offer
comparable brightness. A concern is that UV light may leak from
malfunctioning light source and cause harm to human eyes and skin
(Bullough, 1999).

2.4.6 THE PHYSICS OF LEDS

The LED consists of a chip of semiconductor material doped with

impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows
easily from p-side or anode to n-side or cathode, but not in the reverse
direction. Charge-carriers electron and holes flow into the junction from
electrode with voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a

21
lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of photon (Bent et al,
2006).

The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its colour depends on the
band gap energy of the material forming the p-n junction. In silicon or
germanium diodes, the electron and holes recombine by a non-radioactive
transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect
band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-
ultraviolet light (bent et al, 2006).

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium
arsenide. Advance in materials science has enabled making devices with
ever-shorter wavelengths emitting light in a variety of colour.

LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached

to the p-type layer deposited on its surfaced. P-types substrate, while less
common, occurs as well. Many commercial LEDs especially GaN/InGaN
also use sapphire substrate (Bent et al, 2006).

Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive
indices. This means that much light will be reflected back into the
material at material/air surface interface. Thus, light extraction in LEDs is
an important aspect of l LED production, subject to much research and
development (Bent et al, 2006).

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2.5 ADVANTAGES OF SIGNAL LAMP FOR SAFE HIGHAY
DRIVING

EFFICIENCY: LEDs emits more light per watt than incandescent light
bulb. Their efficiency is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent
light bulbs or tube.

COLOUR: LEDs can emit light of an intended colour without using any
colour filters as traditional lighting method need. This is more efficient
and can lower initial costs.

SIZE: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2mm2) and are easily
populated onto printed circuit board.

ON/OFF TIME: LEDs lights up very quickly. A typical red indicator led
will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in
communication device can have even faster responses time.

LIFETIME: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report
estimates 35,000 to 50,000 of full life, though time to complete failure
may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to
15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent
light bulb at about 1,000-2,000 hours.

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2.6 DISADVANTAGES OF A SIGNAL LAMP FOR SAFE
HIGHWAY DRIVING

High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen,
on initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technology.
The additional expense partially stems from the relative low lumen output
and the drive circuitry and power circuitry and power supply needed.

Temperature defence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient

temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving a LED package,
eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat sinking is needed [to
maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical
and military uses where device must operate over a wide range of
temperatures, and needs low failure rates.

Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the
threshold and a current below the raying. This can involve series resistor
or current –regulated power supplies (Taniyasu et al, 2006).

With the development of high efficiency and high power LEDs it has
become possible to use LEDs in lighting and where colour ranging is
used. The mechanical robustness and long-time is used in automotive
lighting on cars, motorcycle and on bicycle lights.

LED Street light has employed on poles and in parking garages. In 2007,
the Italian village Toracca was the first place to convert its entire
illuminating system to LEDs (Taniyasu et al., 2006).

24
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIAL AND METHOD

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the research methodology which entails the method
used in obtaining testing and carrying our research work. In this regard
the methodology refers to method and procedure which are followed in
undertaking this construction works i.e. design and construction of signal
lamp for safe highway driving.

3.1 MATERIAL USED

During the construction work, the following materials are used

Breadboard, Veroboard, and connecting wire (jumper),

Soldering iron, voltmeter, resistor, capacitors, phototransistor, plastic

case, transistor, battery, led, and NE555IC (timer resistor).

3.1.1 BREADBOARD

A breadboard is a construction base for prototyping of electronics.

Originally it was literally a bread board, a polished piece of wood used
for slicing bread. In the 1970s the solderless breadboard (AKA plugboar,
a terminal array board) became available and nowadays the term
"breadboard" is commonly used to refer to these. Because the solderless
breadboard does not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to
use for creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit

25
design. For this reason, solderless breadboards are also extremely popular
with students and in technological education.

3.1.2 VERO-BOARD

Is a brand of stripboard, and is the process of re-assembling all

component circuit from then breadboard to permanent connection on a
veroboard one of the two of veroboard is created with copper dots at a
small divided holes in row, so that each component is inserted in the hole
and jumper wire soldering from point to point. Components must be
carefully connected along the row or other plane depending on whether
they are connected in series or parallel.

3.1.3 JUMPER WIRE

These are wires used to connect the component to another where the other
point of the veroboard has no continuity to have a very low resistance
path for current through the circuit.

Soldering Iron: - soldering lead is basically an alloy of thin and lead. The
soldering alloys commonly contain tin and lead in ratio 60/40 or 40/60
respectively. It’s used to make a permanent connection on components
terminals and joints.

3.1.4 RESISTOR

Resistor is a two terminals electron component that produces a voltage

across terminal that proportional to the electric current through it in
accordance with ohms law (WU, 2004).

26
V=IR resistor are element of electrical networks and electric circuit.

3.1.5 CAPACITOR

Capacitor is a passive electron component consisting of a pair of

conductor separation by dielectric, when a voltage potential different exit
between the conductors and electric field is present in the dielectric. The
field store energy and produce a mechanical force between the plates. An
ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant valve, capacitance
which measure in farads (jones, 1991).

3.1.6 LEDs EMITTS

LEDs Emitts the visible ultra violet and infrared wavelength, with very
higher brightness when a light emitting diode is forword biased switches
on electron are able to recombine with hole within the device releasing
energy in form of the photo.

3.1.7 PHOTOTRANSISTOR

Phototransistor is like diode all transistors are light sensitive

phototransistor are designed specifically to take advantage of this fact.
Phototransistor may not have a base lead if they do the base lead allows
you to bias the phototransistor light response. Here we use Darlington
phototransistor (L14F1) as a photosensor to activate the monostable
integrated circuits, IC1 (Ben, 1992).

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3.1.8 BATTERY

Battery cell create a voltage difference between the terminal of each cell
and hence to its combination in battery. When an external circuit is
connected to the battery, then the battery derives electrons thought the
circuit and electrical work is done (Dillow, 2012).

3.1.9 TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch

electronic signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconducting material
with atleast three terminals for connection of external circuits. A voltage
of current applied to one pair of the transistor terminal changes, the
current flowing through another pair of terminal (Patterson and Walter,
1999).

3.2 METHOD

The method covers design advantage of signal lamp for safe highway
driving; this section discusses various stages involved battery power. The
circuit is built around two timer intyergrated circuit, 1Cs NE555 (1C1 and
1C2). 1C1 is designed as a standard monostable, while 1C2 is designed as
an astable. Darlington phototransistor L14F1 (T1) is used as a
photosensor to activate the 29 monostable. The collector of the
phototransistor T1 is connected to trigger pin2 of the integrated circuit
IC1, which is normally keep high by resistor R1. When head light from
an approaching vehicle illuminate the transistor, it conducts to give a
short pulse IC1, and the output of IC1 goes high which are 4 period

28
determined by resistor R2 and capacitor C1. The output of the IC1 is fed
to base of transistor T2 and resistor R3. Transistor T2 conduct to driver
transistor T3 and it collector goes high to take reset pin of the IC2 to high
level. This activated astable IC2, which switch on and off the LED
alternating. The flash of LED gives a beautiful tricolour flashing effect.
12volt DC supply the circuit, can be provided by your vehicle battery,
Figure 3.1 showed the discusses about the circuit of highway alert signal
lamp.

Figure 3.1 Circuit of highway alert signal lamp

3.2.1 DESIGN OF IC1 AS MONOSTABLE

In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a “one-short” pulse

generator. The pulse begins when the 555 timer receives a signal at the
trigger input that falls below a third of the voltage supply. The width of
the output poles is determined by the time constant of an RC network,
which consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor (R). The output pulse ends
when the voltage on the capacitor equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The

29
output pulse width can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the
specific application by adjusting the values of R and C (Jung and Walter,
1983).

The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to
2/3 of the supply voltage, is given by

t = RC ln (3)≈ 1.1 RC 3.2.1.1

Where T is in seconds (time), R is in ohms (resistance) and C is in farads

(capacitance). While using the timer IC in monostable mode, the main
disadvantage is that the time span between any two triggering pulses must
be greater than the RC time constant (Jung and Walter, 1983). Showed in
figure 3.2 a design of IC1 as monostable.

Figure 3.2. Design of IC1 as monostable (Jung and Walter, 1983).

30
3.2.2 DESIGN OF IC2 AS ASTABLE

In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of

rectangular pulses having a specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected
between Vcc and the discharged pin (pin7) and another resistor (R2) is
connected between the discharged pin (pin7), and the trigger (pin2) and
the threshold (pin6) pins that share a common node. Hence the capacitor
is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since
pin7 has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the
cycle, therefore discharging the capacitor (Jung and Walter 1983).

In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the
values of R1, R2 and C:

1
f= 3.2.2.1
¿ ( 2 )∗C∗( R1+2 R 2)[8 ]

The high time from each is given:

High=¿(2) .(R1 + R2 ). C 3.2.2.2

And the low time from each pulse is given:

Low =ln (2 ) . R2 .C 3.2.2.3

Where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value
of the capacitor in farads.

V cc2
The power capacity of R1 must be greater than
R1

31
Particularly with bipolar 555s, low values of R must be avoided so that the
output stays saturated near zero volts during discharge, as assumed by the
above equation. Otherwise the output low time will be greater than
calculated above. The first cycle will take appreciably longer than the
calculated time, as the capacitor must charge from 0V to 2/3 of Vcc from
power-up, but only from 1/3 of Vcc to 2/3 of Vcc on subsequent cycles
(Jung and Walter, 1983).

To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a small diode (that is fast
enough for the application) can be placed in parallel with R 2, with the
cathode on the capacitor side. This by passes R2 during the high part of
the cycle so that the high interval depends approximately only n R1 and
C. the presence of the diode is a voltage drop that slows charging on the
capacitor so that the high time is longer than the expected and often-cited
in (2)* R1C= 0.693 R1C.the low time will be the same as without the
diode as shown above. With a diode, the high time is high= R 1C. ln
(2Vcc-3V diode)

Vcc-3Vdiode

Where V diode is when he diode has current of ½ of Vcc/R 1 which can be

determined from its datasheet or by testing. As an extreme example,
when the Vcc= 5 and V diode= 0.7, high time = 1.00 R1C which is 45%
longer than the “expected” 0.693 R1C.if vdiode = 0 .

The operation of RESET in this mode is not well defined, some

manufacturers part will hold the output state to what it was when RESET

32
is taken low, others will send the output either high or low (Jung and
Walter, 1983).

Showed in Figure 3.3 design of IC2 as stable

Diagram

Figure 3.3 design of IC2 as stable (Jung and Walter, 1983).

3.2.3 DESIGN OF LEDS

This serve as the output of the system (the signal that will alert the
approaching vehicles driver).This output of the astable timer high is
continuous strings of the pulse of 12V. Thus, if the output of the astable
timer is high (12V) the GREEN and RED with yellow LEDs will be on
(Mike, 2012).

33
The current limiting resistors specified for the GREEN, RED and
YELLOW are R8= 100 R9-150 and R10=100. The above mentioned
resistors were used to avoid damaging the LEDs by excessive current.
The figure below showed the LEDs display arrangement (mike, 2012).

DIAGRAM

Figure 3.4 design of LEDS

3.2.4 OVERALL DESIGN

The overall design of signal lamp for safe highway driving showed in
Figure 3.5

34
Figure 3.5 Shown the overall design.

35
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the results from testing of the design. It also
involved the constructed of the signal lamp for safe highway driving.

4.2TYPES OF TEST CONDUCTED

The following tests were carried out during and after the construction of
the model.

i. Insulation Test: In the process of connecting the cables with 9V

battery, this test was carried out to ensure that the circuit has a proper
insulation and the components are properly installed.
ii. Continuity Test: This test was carried out when the 9V battery is
connected to supply to the components in order to determine that there is
full supply of current within the circuit.
iii. Polarity Test: This test was done to determine that the 9V battery was
connected in a current polarity with the battery pad. In all the above test
an 8300 series digital multi-meter was used.

4.3 CONSTRUCTION

The construction of this project was done firstly, by assembling the

component on breadboard and then perfectly transferred to the vero-board
and soldiered. The power source and traffic light circuits were thoroughly

36
arranged on the breadboard. The output of the entire component was
checked to see that they comply with the desired output.

The power unit was measure with a multi-meter to ensure that the
required output of 9V Transistor-Transistor Resistor (TTR) devices was
confirmed to. Also, the waveform output of the 555timer was tested with
an oscilloscope to make sure that the right pulses or clock signals enter
the counter 4017CD so that the desired binary outputs from the counter
are obtained.

The physical component was soldered on a stripe board (Vero board)

using breadboard circuit as reference. The use of integrated circuit
sockets was employed in order to prevent the heat from the 60watt
soldering iron from destroying the integrated circuit, the socket was
soldered to the Vero board the integrated circuit simply was inserted into
their corresponding sockets, during the soldering, care was taken to
prevent leg joints. A dome sponge was to wipe off excess and hence
destroying IC’s that are sensitive, after neatly and care performed on the
complete work to ensure that there was no unwanted joint. The system
was then power with the 9V A.C supply and once again, it was
thoroughly checked to make sure that the lights switched on and off
sequentially and according to the design. After all this was done, a typical
four (4) cross road junction with dual carriage model was then on a
cardboard paper on top of the plywood covered with glass box. The
circuit was then embedded in the model with L.E.Ds protruding and
inserted into the traffic light stand. This was done with intension of

37
adding a touch of realism to the project the, figure 4.1 shown the tested
circuit on vero-board and breadboard, while the table for four junction
traffic light control shown in table 4.2. Below;

Figure 4.2 is a typical bread board during testing flow of power supply
with 9V

38
Table 4.2: Truth table for four (4) junction traffic light control sequence

S/N STAGES PHASES

A B C D I II III IV
R A G R A G R A G R A G
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
3 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
4 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
6 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
7 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
8 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
9 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
10 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
11 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
12 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
13 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
14 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
15 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

39
4.4 DISCUSSION

The highway safety signal lamp on electronic device mounted or

installed in a vehicle use to detect an approaching vehicle on the highway
it automatically emit brilliant tricolour light when it a vehicle
approaching the rear side of vehicle mounted whereby given additional
safety on the highway. The design and construction was shown in figure
4.3.

Figure 4.3 flows of traffic in south possible direction

40
Figure 4.5 shows the overall of signal lamp on a safe highway driving

41
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND THE RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

The successful completion of the design and construction of the traffic

control system has increase my knowledge and understanding of the use
and function of some circuit it also the free traffic flow is achieved.

Highway alert signal lamp has been designed and constructed using photo
sensor, timer integrated circuit ICs, LEDs display and the other electronic
components. The system worked well; and can therefore be used for safe
highway driving. This circuit informs the driver about the approaching
vehicle. It also helps the driver if he wants to stop for something on
highway. It therefore very important to carry out this project work, so as
to give my contribution in reducing the number of accidents occurring of
our highway to minimum level.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

The highway alert signal lamp is use to alert drivers to be extra cautious
when they approach places around with high possibility of accident
occurrence. The following listed recommendations are therefore drawn
out after the design, construction and testify of signal lamp for safe
highway driving has been done.

i. More rigorous investigation be under taken to design new LEDs fixtures

that address the problems of glare and the distribution that this project
was unable to resolve.

42
ii. The federal parastatals involved in the highway safety e.g federal road
safety commission to undertake a certification program to assure that all
future LEDs fixtures perform as specified, and that specification are
developed specifically for high way signalling to appropriately address
the attribute and qualities of LEDs street lighting.
iii. Various higher places of learning in the country such as Collages of
Technologies, Polytechnics and the Universities should give room for
students to research more in the advancement of the mode of signalling
with no night sky pollution issues.
iv. Installation of more efficient signal lamp on the Nigerian highway in the
city as well.

43
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