Online Appendix

In this appendix, we present results from supplementary analyses based on three additional

datasets. As we write in the paper, our main dataset is limited by including a young sample

comprised of twins (in this appendix, we refer to our main dataset as the ‘Twins dataset’).

This means that the Twins dataset is not nationally representative and, furthermore, we are

unable to capture all the variation in socioeconomic position (SEP) that exists in the Danish

population.

We use three additional datasets to address three concerns. First, do respondents

in the Twins dataset resemble similarly aged non-twin Danes and the Danish population with

regard to patterns of cultural participation? This information is relevant for assessing the

external validity of our results. Second, can we reproduce the positive association between

the mean status of cultural activities and SEP gradients in engagement in these activities

reported in Figure 2? This information is relevant for assessing the credibility of our

interpretation of Figure 2 and, by implication, empirical support for H2. Third, is our Twins

dataset comparable to similarly aged cohorts in terms of SEP (of origin)? This information is

relevant for assessing the external validity of our twin data.

Additional Datasets

Danish Longitudinal Survey of Youth – Children (DLSY-C, N = 3,519) samples children of

participants in an ongoing cohort study, the Danish Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Most

participants in the DLSY-C were born in the period 1975-1985, and mean age was 27.1 at the

time of interview in 2010 (i.e. approximately the same age as the participants in the Twins

dataset). Although not representative, the DLSY-C includes a broader swath of the Danish

population than the Twins dataset. In the DLSY-C, respondents reported if, during the last 12

months, they had participated in ten out of the 12 cultural activities we include in the Twins

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dataset: opera, ballet, classical concert, art museum, play, musical, rock/pop concert,

amusement park, movie at the cinema and techno/dance/rap/hip-hop concert. We construct

the same SEP indicators as in the Twins dataset.

Cultural Habits Survey 2004 (CH04, N = 1,830) includes a nationally

representative sample of the adult Danish population interviewed in 2004. In CH04,

respondents reported if, during the last 12 months, they had participated in nine out of the 12

cultural activities we include in the Twins dataset (all except going to an amusement park,

flea market/cattle show and stand-up comedy). We construct the same SEP indicators as in

the Twins dataset.

Cultural Habits Survey 2012 (CH12, N = 3,644) uses the same nationally

representative design as CH04 and almost the same indicators of cultural participation (the

only difference is that CH12 also asked respondents if they attended a stand-up comedy show

in the 12 last months). Unfortunately, CH12 did not collect information on SEP.

Overall Cultural Participation

Table A1 presents summary statistics on cultural participation in the Twins dataset, the

DLSY-C and CH04 and CH12. Although there are minor differences, the table suggests that

respondents in the Twins dataset resemble the similarly aged (non-twin) DLSY-C sample and

the (older) representative samples in CH04 and CH12 in terms of overall patterns of cultural

participation. Consequently, we have no reason to believe that respondents in the Twins

dataset are outliers in terms of cultural participation.

– TABLE A1 HERE –

SEP Gradients and Status

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Figure A1 and A2 reproduce Figure 2 in the main text, but instead use data from the DLSY-C

and CH04 to calculate Odds-Ratios (OR) measuring educational (Figure A1) and income

(Figure A2) gradients in cultural participation (information on mean status comes from the

Twins dataset). We do not include data from CH12 because we do not have information on

SEP in this dataset. Figure A1 reproduces the moderately positive association between mean

status and the educational gradient in participation we observed in Figure 2. Figure A2 plots

the association between status and the income gradient in participation. Here, we do not find

any association between mean status and over-/underrepresentation of high-income groups in

cultural activities. This result suggests that the cultural activities the better educated, but not

the better paid, participate in more often are the ones that tend to have higher perceived

status. Although fascinating, we leave an explanation of this difference for future research.

– FIGURE A1 HERE –

– FIGURE A2 HERE –

External Validity

Families with twins are not representative of the universe of families. For example, the

probability of having twins increases with mother’s age. To assess the extent to which our

Twins dataset resembles the population, we used the register data to calculate the means of

the SEP and control variables in the (non-twin) population born in the same birth cohorts as

the participants in the Twins dataset. Table A2 shows that respondents in the Twins dataset

have somewhat higher SEP than the population (e.g. higher education and parents have

higher education and income). Although these differences are not dramatic, we must keep

them in mind when interpreting the results.

– TABLE A2 HERE –

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Table A1. Cultural Participation in Different Datasets. Means and Standard Deviations
Twin Dataset DLSY-C CH04 CH12
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Opera 0.060 0.238 0.073 0.260 0.067 0.250 0.091 0.288
Ballet 0.113 0.316 0.134 0.341 0.091 0.286 0.064 0.246
Classical concert 0.125 0.331 0.094 0.292 0.123 0.329 0.166 0.372
Art museum 0.475 0.499 0.495 0.500 0.284 0.451 0.385 0.487
Play 0.265 0.441 0.387 0.487 0.223 0.417 0.318 0.466
Musical 0.291 0.454 0.303 0.460 0.189 0.392 0.243 0.429
Rock/pop concert 0.385 0.487 0.701 0.458 0.375 0.484 0.370 0.483
Stand-up comedy show 0.561 0.496 - - - - 0.135 0.341
Amusement park 0.609 0.488 0.753 0.431 - - - -
Movie at the cinema 0.901 0.298 0.893 0.309 0.685 0.464 0.702 0.458
Techno/rap/dance/hip-hop concert 0.205 0.403 0.287 0.452 0.022 0.146 0.093 0.290
Flea market/cattle show 0.488 0.500 - - - - - -
N 2,760 3,519 1,830 3,644
Mean age 25.0 27.1 45.3 49.4
Note: All means refer to the share of the sample that participated in an activity in the last 12 months.

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Table A2. SEP in the Twins Dataset and the Population
Twins Dataset Population
Pct. 95 % CI N Pct. 95 % CI N
Socioeconomic
Position
Upper secondary 68.2 66.4 70.0 2,661 46.7 46.6 46.7 1,438,732
education
Income 50.0 48.1 51.9 2,673 55.6 55.6 55.7 1,459,116
Mother: College 33.5 31.7 35.3 2,658 29.2 29.1 29.2 1,369,494
Father: College 24.3 22.6 25.9 2,595 21.5 21.5 21.6 1,327,604
Family income 50.0 47.9 52.1 2,135 35.1 35.0 35.2 1,033,706

Controls
Sex (woman) 54.0 52.1 55.8 2,675 50.1 50.1 50.2 1,458,758

Mean SD N Mean SD N
Age 25.024 4.682 2,760 27.798 7.483 1,463,561
GPA 7.237 2.065 2,477 6.468 2.327 956,620
Birth weight (kg) 2.777 0.691 2,599 3.460 0.619 1,359,481
Place of residence 1.679 0.878 2,675 1.766 0.893 1,458,758
Note: All means in the Twins data are statistically significantly different from means in the
population (p < 0.05; two-sample T tests).

5
 Figure A1. Mean Status and SEP Gradients in Cultural
Participation, by Education
6.0

5.0

4.0
Odds-ratio (High vs. Low SEP)

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Status

Upper secondary education (DLSY-C) Mother college (DLSY-C) Father college (DLSY-C)
College (CH04)

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 Figure A2. Mean Status and SEP Gradients in Cultural
2.5
Participation, by Income

2.0
Odds-ratio (High vs. Low SEP)

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Status

Parents' income (DLSY-C) Income (CH04)